Geol 40 Lecture Summary 2nd LE

Most of the atoms are empty space Molecular crystals

You cant see atoms in a microscope since light Made up of molecules or groups of atoms
wavelength is very large while atoms are very that are usually covalently bonded
small Molecule-molecule bonding
To measure atoms, we use electromagnetic Van der waals bonding:
spectrum Very weak bonds arise from polarities
Unit: within molecules (arise from polarities
(Angstrong) 1x10-10m w/in molecules)
Gamma rays 1x10-5 (for measuring Dipoles are slightly (+) or (-) charged
atomic size)
X-rays 0.1 10 (for measuring atomic
size)
UV 1x10-3
Visible light 4-8000 ends
Radio 1x1010 ex: Dry ice physical properties
IR 1x105 soft & weak
large coefficient of thermal function
X-rays generated by high velocity electrons (lalaki volume)
crashing into a metal target low melting point
Can only be done in vacuum bec air molecules
interfere Non-molecular crystals
Apply high voltage
Metallic crystals bound by metallic
Heat the cathode which will produce
bonds
electrodes that will hit metal target
sharing of electrons is with everybody
Accelerating electrons dislodge inner most
made up of atoms of low or nearly equal
electrons causing electrons to collapse and
electronegativity means that outer
this produces x-ray
electrons are fluid; no ownership of

electrons
Transition Resulting radiation what happens:
mk k will promote lots of conductivity
L1 k Kd1 bonding is closest packing
L2 k Kd2 outer electronic shells comprise loosely
1 held electrons (valence) shared with
E ** characteristics of target neighboring atoms

metal Closest Packing putting as much atoms as
white radiation interference possible around one another (sphere models)
Coordination number no. of closest atoms
Monochromatic radiation
to one another
Needed in science
starts with a closest packed layer then start
Means that instead of 2 x-rays, find a way to
stacking layer when dimples are occupied
filter it so that only one of them will come
2 types:
out
Hexagonal Closest Packing:
Filters
Repeat pattern: ABABAB
must be one periodic element behind the
Cubic Closes Packing
target material
absorbs unwanted materials Repeat pattern: ABCABC
Physics of wave: Note: in metallic crystals, the valence e - will
Must be in sync to have any meaning share a bonding pair with each of its
neighbors
Why samples need to be powdered?
CN= 12 12 neighbors valence =
In order for x-rays to hit the crystal, you
1/12
need to rotate the crystal in all possible Implications:
(infinite) orientations in order to get the x-
Energy levels of orbitals are closest to
ray diffractions of the target metal
each other
Powder it, assume that it is already in all
Metal bounds are non-directional
possible orientation
(walang finafavor)
Principles of crystal structure (ordered malleability
structure) groups based on bonding Metallic luster (outer energy of outer e -
1. Molecular crystals are of the same energy)
2. Non-molecular crystals When photons hit valence electrons,
a. Metallic w/c have the same level of energy,
b. Covalent this allows the return of some energy
c. Ionic received
High electrical conductivity
Geol 40 Lecture Summary 2nd LE

High density (most are transition 2 important parameters on crystal

metals) bonding/forming
size
charge
Covalent Bonds bonds that form so
that an incompletely filled valence orbital of Goldschmidts Rule (no rattle rule)
one atom overlaps another atom of A cation cannot rattle around its
incomplete orbital coordination unit
Overlaps to satisfy octet rule (achieves Cation must fit around its coordination
inert gas comp.) unit
Sharing: per orbital sharing and per pair Size matters
only Consequence:
Hybridization! forming the orbitals to be R cation
able to bond Radius of Ratio Rule:
Hybrid orbitals redistribution of valence R anion
electrons from a ground state so that more The coordination of anions
electrons are available for bonding about/around the cation depends
Easy hybridities carbon bonds (graphite- on the radii of both cation and
diamond) anion *consideration: size
Graphite:
CN Group
12 Closest packing 1.0
1s2 2sp2 2sp2 2sp2 2sp2 8 Octahedral 0.732-1.0
*sp orbital representing mixing
2 *6 Cubic 0.414-0.732
between *4 Tetrahedral 0.225-0.414
Explanation: weak p bonds, strong 3 Planar triangular 0.155-0.225
sp2 bonds 2 linear 0.0-0.155
Strong sp2 bonds forms one direction *basis: pure and simple geometry
Diamond: *best approximation
*radius ratio rule only explains 60-70% of
crystal structures
1s2 sp3 sp3 sp3 sp3
Paulings Rule
** Graphite can be turned into diamond by Only applies to ionic crystals
putting it into 150km pressure (this happens Rule 1
when there is a violent volcanic eruption A coordination polyhedra of anions is
formation of diamond kimberlites formed around each cations
** Philippine crust oceanic (12-20km) If you make a crystal structure, put
** diamonds only form at continental crust anions first, then cations will just
insert into the void spaces
Rule 2
Electrostaticy Valence principle
Ionic structure will be stable to the
extent that the sum of the strengths
of the electrostatic bonds that reach
an anion from adjacent cations
Ionic Bonds forms when equals the charge on that ion
electronegativity of an atom exceeds that of **Pauling Bond Strength:
the atom by 2.00 (electron transfer) - cation valence divided by its
Charged particles bond each other coordination number
Non-directional ex.: in nature, Na+ is surrounded by
Involves concept of ionic radius 6Cl-

PBS Na : (1/6)+
Bottomline:
R1 + R2 = Bond You must have local charge
Length balance
di dapat lumalapit ang
Electronegativity ability of an atom to highly charged sa highly
attract electrons to each outer shell charged; separate the highly
Dependent on the position in the charged cations as much as
periodic table possible from each other
Fluorine most electronegative when you share corners with
Ionic bonds form when electronegativity of a coordination polyhedral,
one atom exceeds that of another by 2 the charge is stable
Geol 40 Lecture Summary 2nd LE

For a crystal to be stable, 2:7 = Si:O ratio

summation of charges is neutral
Rule 3
The sharing of edges
particularly the sharing of faces by 2
anion polyhedron decreases the
stability of an anionic structure
has the concept of shielding:
stable: corner sharing
unstable: edge sharing
(packing cations); face
sharing
Silicates
most common mineral
most abundant, 90% of earths crust
Bowens Reaction Series
Olivine
Pyroxene
Amphibole
Biotite
K-Feldspar
Silica Tetrahedron building blocks of all
silicates
Polymerization different linking will form
different structures
Polymorphs same composition; different
structure
Silica Chains:
Nesosilicates orthosilicates
Isolated silica tetrahedron
1:4 = Si:O ratio
Olivine solid solution between Mg & Fe
most abundant mineral in upper
mantle
Garnet widespread in metamorphic,
igneous, and upper mantle
Aluminosilicates are polymorphs; tells
us how rocks were formed
Kyanite high pressured
Silimanite high temp
Sorosilicates twin silicates
Shares on apical oxygen
Epidote most important sorosilicate
Metamorphic
Alteration
and Characteristic color: pistachio green
Cyclosilicates forms rings/chains of silica
tetrahedral
basal oxygen is shared (2)
1:3 = Si:O ratio
Beryl
Inosilicates
Single chain linked together into 1-d
chain
1:3 = Si:O ratio
each silica tetrahedral is linked to
two adjacent tetrahedral
Pyroxene
Double chain -2 single chains linked to
form a double chain
4:11 = Si:O ratio
Amphibole
Phyllosilicates
Multiple chains of silica tetrahedra
linked together
Forms a sheet with long range extent
All oxygens are connected
Platy structure; 1-d cleavage
2:5 = Si:O ratio
famous clay minerals
Mica, Talc, Serpentine
Applications:
Kaolinite ceramics
Vermiculate agriculture
Bentonite clean-up, drug intake:
adsorbs poisonous metal from body;
radioactive waste disposal
Tectosilicates
Most abundant (Feldspars)
All four oxygens are interconnected
3-d framework structures
1:2 = Si:O ration
Quartz, K-felds, Plagioclase