Critical assessment/perspective

An overview of the restoration of monuments

and listed buildings in Cyprus from antiquity
until the twenty-first century
Maria Philokyprou 1, Elena Limbouri-Kozakou2
1
Department of Architecture, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, 2University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus

The problem of architectural conservation is almost as old as the history of mankind. Rehabilitation of the
existing building stock raises questions such as: what is important to be preserved? Should the renovation
imitate or deviate from the original design? How important is the preservation of the original use and which
new uses are desirable? In Cyprus, the restoration of old buildings seems to follow the international
prevailing trends, diachronically. The various successive rulers led to the creation of its multicultural
architectural diversity and simultaneously affected the philosophy followed in maintaining monuments. The
industrial revolution and urbanization changed the attitude towards cultural heritage since the relationship
between people and traditional environment was disturbed. Gradually, perceptions began to converge
and the concept of architectural heritage was expanded to include all architectural and environmental
aspects. The recent development of tourism combined with modern globalization resulted in a sharp turn
towards the architecture of the past and the overestimating of its value since it is recognized as an
important part of the islands identity and individuality. This change of attitude leads towards new
discussions regarding the hierarchy of the different values of existing buildings involving matters of
authenticity, rehabilitation, and intervention.
Keywords: Conservation, Restoration, Preservation, Reconstruction, Vernacular architecture, Monuments, Listed buildings, Venice Charter

Introduction investigates whether the issues to be dealt with had

The problem of architectural conservation is almost as
old as the history of mankind. Every era has its own
way of looking towards the past and there are
always direct links between the spirit of an era, as
this is expressed through its architecture, and the way
architectural remains of the past are treated
(Knithakis, 1975). When a building of the past no
longer fulfilled the purposes for which it was originally
designed, the need for its maintenance ceased to be a
necessity (Gazzola, 1972) and its preservation
became extremely questionable (Denslagen, 2009).
From that point onwards, its future depends on the
cultural maturity of the oncoming generations, and
on their perception of the vitality of the conservation
of their cultural heritage.
Taking Cyprus as an example, this paper examines
how the existing buildings were treated at different his-
torical periods and how their preservation was associ-
ated with their suitability for being reused. It also
Correspondence to: Maria Philokyprou, Department of Architecture,
University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia 1678, Cyprus.
Email: mphiloky@ucy.ac.cy
any common characteristics, how the prevailing
approaches on the island were related to the general
trends and strategies followed at an international
level and to the current theories of conservation,
what issues are being faced today, and if answers can
be given in the general context of a new global
theory of conservation. The change of attitude
towards architectural heritage during the last century
due to social and political developments leads
towards new discussions regarding the hierarchy of
different values of existing buildings involving
matters of rehabilitation, authenticity, and relation-
ships between new and old.
A brief history of the restoration of monuments
since the early Christian period until the
independence of Cyprus (1960)
The first evidence of an attitude towards buildings of
previous eras in Cyprus goes back to the early
Christian period (330 CEseventh century CE).
During this period the use value of the building
materials of the monuments prevailed. In this

The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works 2015
Received January 2013; revised paper accepted March 2014
DOI 10.1179/2047058414Y.0000000136 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4 267
Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus
framework, the principal tendency was the destruction
of pagan buildings and the use of their materials for
the erection of new Christian buildings (demolition
of the Greek temple of the goddess Hera and erection
of the monastery of Iera Moni in Paphos with its
stones (Papageorgiou, 2007, pp. 177179)). The
second tendency that appeared to a lesser extent was
the reuse of existing buildings, and more particularly
the transformation of pagan buildings according
to the needs of their new use. An example of this prac-
tice is the Gymnasium of Salamina that was converted
into thermes (baths) during the reconstruction of the
city by Emperor Constantius II (337361) after
severe earthquakes (Karageorghis, 1998, pp. 2427).
During the Byzantine period (seventh century
CE1191), when the new religion was well established,
the works of classical antiquity were still appreciated
mainly for their use value and not for their historical
or aesthetic values. The most common phenomenon
was the renovation of older buildings with additions
and alterations that often came in contrast to the
scale and character of the existing building and fol-
lowed the style of the Byzantine period. The practice
of reusing material from pagan buildings also contin-
ued as a common trend (Karadedos, 2009, p. 24).
During the Frankish period (11911489), which was
a very fruitful era for the architecture of Cyprus, many
masons and craftsmen were brought to the island, in
order to build public buildings on behalf of the first
King of the Lusignian dynasty (Enlart, 1987, p. 33)
thus changing the appearance of the principal cities
of the island. During the Venetian period
(14891571) that followed, new massive defensive
walls with a smaller perimeter than that of the
Frankish were built. Thus, a large number of existing
buildings situated outside the perimeter of the walled
city of Nicosia were demolished (Kyprianos, 1997,
p. 421), without any respect to their architectural and
even their use value, in order to reuse their material
for the erection of new, stronger defensive walls
because of the fear of a possible Ottoman invasion.
Reuse of existing structures was the most common
attitude during the Ottoman period (15711878)
with the transformation of Medieval cathedrals and
Byzantine churches into mosques. The Ottoman auth-
orities prohibited the erection of new religious build-
ings and only allowed the repair of existing ones
after obtaining relevant permission (Theoharides,
1993, p. xxxix). At the same time, the first laws in
relation to antiquities were enforced (1869, 1874,
1878). Article 5 (Annex) of the Ottoman Code
(March 1869) stated that the license to excavate con-
cerns only the objects under the ground. Nobody is
allowed to touch or harm the parts of a monument
above ground level. The offenders will be punished
according to the Law.
268 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4
During the British Colonial period (18781960) the
common practice of using stones extracted from
monuments became a serious threat to the monuments
of Cyprus. Thus, the use value of the building
materials prevailed over all other values of the monu-
ments. This practice annoyed not only the Colonial
Government of the island, but also organizations in
the United Kingdom such as the SPAB the Society
for the Protection of Ancient Buildings. This phenom-
enon forced the colonial government of the island to
take legal measures. Thus, in 1891, the Famagusta
Stones Law was introduced, which made it illegal to
export from the town of Famagusta any dressed, or
rubble stone. In 1899, a draft law titled For the
Better Preservation of Ancient Monuments was pre-
pared, and although it was not adopted, it opened
the way for the first Antiquities Law of 1905.
The first references to the restoration of monuments
of the island were made in Article 11 and 14 of the
Antiquities Law of 1905. Article 14 stated that the
High Commissioner could order any work to be
carried out that he might consider necessary for the
protection and restoration of any ancient monument
while Article 11 allowed the owner or administrator
of any building used or intended to be used for the
purpose of religious worship to alter, enlarge, or recon-
struct the building for more convenient performance
(The Statute Laws of Cyprus, Antiquities 4 of 1905).
In Article 11 priority is given for the use value of the
monuments and more specifically for the needs of
the new users, without any reference to the issues
arising from the rehabilitation of the monuments.
During the British Colonial period, the first restor-
ation works of the monuments of Cyprus took place.
George Jeffery, an architect and curator of monuments
in Cyprus (19031935) is considered to be the forerun-
ner of contemporary restorations in Cyprus. The fact
that so many monuments, especially castles and
churches, have escaped destruction must to a large
degree be credited to his efforts (Report of the
Department of Antiquities Cyprus, 1935). Jeffery, as
a true follower of the anti-restoration movement,
previously expressed by John Ruskin, was denouncing
any sort of restoration. The majority of the restoration
works he carried out during this period can be
regarded as conservative repairs in order to prevent
the monuments from collapse. At the same time,
Jeffery opened the way for the rehabilitation of verna-
cular buildings, underlining the use values of these
structures (Report of the Curator of Ancient
Monuments for the year 1914).
The second great personality of the period was
William Douglas Caroe (18571938), a well-known
ecclesiastical architect in the United Kingdom, who
initially came to Cyprus in 1928 and stayed until his
death in 1938 (Freeman, 1990, p. 36). Caroes
 Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus

contribution to the restorations of the monuments of

Cyprus was mainly through his writings. In one of
his lectures in 1931, he refers to the restauro filologico
which appeared some years earlier in Europe, the ideas
of which were expressed by Camilo Boito. Such refer-
ences were his recommendations that the new work
should express itself as such, but without being ugly
in itself or out of harmony, that the use of new stone
was not to be wholly denied, but should be as little
as possible and only in cases of necessity and that
the new stone should bear a mark like the ancient
masons mark (Caroe, 1931). For the first time in the
history of restoration on the island, the theories of res-
toration that were prevailing in the rest of Europe were
also spreading about the same time into Cyprus. Caroe
also dealt with the use value of the monuments and
was opposed to SPABs attitude to advocate the pres-
ervation of historic buildings simply as monuments
when they had outlived their original purposes. He
argued that the right approach was to consider an
adaptive use, an extension, or an appropriate altera-
tion as the best means of securing their future
(Freeman, 1990, pp. 146147).
The year 1935 was a landmark in the history of the
restoration of the monuments of Cyprus due to the
establishment of the Department of Antiquities and Figure 1 The church of St George of the Latins in
the enactment of the new Antiquities Law which Famagusta. A characteristic monument with no use which
was considered by the British as a dead monument. The
with some amendments is still valid. In the 25 years
treatment for this monument was denial for reconstruction;
since the establishment of the Department of works were mostly consolidation and preservation in the form
Antiquities (1935) until the independence of the of ruins (Source: Department of Antiquities of Cyprus).
island in 1960, the British administrators focused
their attention on the mediaeval monuments of
(Fig. 1) in Famagusta. In cases of living monuments
Cyprus because they saw in them the continuation of
such as the church of St Peter and Paul in
their own western civilization. The use value of the
Famagusta which was converted into a museum, the
monuments was considered to be a main factor in
British proceeded with the reconstruction of the
the discussion of the policies followed in each case.
tracery of the windows (Fig. 2A and B) and used
With regard to use, the British seemed to adopt the
cement for waterproofing its roof. Stylistic restorations
division of these monuments into living and dead
during this period were very limited.
monuments, a terminology first introduced by the
Belgian, Louis Cloquet, at the Madrid Congress of
Architects in 1904 (Karadedos, 2009, p. 96). Restorations of monuments and listed buildings
According to this division, dead monuments were from the independence of the island (1960) until
considered those that have been abandoned and do today
not have any use while living monuments were Restoration in the first 30 years of independence
those that still function. The Congress resolved that (19601990)
only in the case of living monuments was restoration Independence of the island led to some changes
to be allowed. The dead monuments were only to be towards the way government deals with monuments.
carefully preserved (Brown, 1905, p. 48). The British With the takeover of the administration of the
administrators fully adopted this resolution. In the Department of Antiquities by the Cyprus
case of the dead monuments, there was a denial for Government, emphasis was given to the Byzantine
reconstruction of the parts that have been destroyed. monuments of the island so as to promote the historic
Most of the interventions to these monuments were buildings of Cyprus that were closely linked with the
stabilisation in order to prevent the rest of the monu- islands Greek Orthodox religion and civilization. At
ment from collapse. The most characteristic examples the same time there was a need for their reuse.
in this category are the church of St George of the Therefore, attention was initially focused on the
Greeks and the church of St George of the Latins painted churches, acknowledging their uniqueness as

Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4 269

Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus
Figure 2 The church of St Peter and Paul in Famagusta is an
example of a living monument since it was converted into a
museum. The treatment for this monument was
reconstruction with the use of contemporary materials in
order to facilitate the new use. The church is pictured here
before (A) and after (B) restoration showing the
reconstruction of the tracery of the windows (Source:
Department of Antiquities of Cyprus).
well as the artistic value of their wall paintings, taking
corrective measures in order to remove previous inter-
ventions that were altering the character of the monu-
ments (Fig. 3A and B). In the rest of the Byzantine
churches, the use value of the monuments prevailed
and thus there was a tendency for reconstruction that
could be either partial (Panayia Kriniotissa, Vassili)
or complete (Panayia Chrysolakourna, Steni
(Fig. 4AI), Panayia Apsiothiotissa, Syxhari).
Unfortunately, cement mortar was often used in
many restoration works.
The most important restoration works of this period
were reconstruction of the ancient theatres that exca-
vations brought to light, with the aim of using them
again for cultural and other events. The first theatre to
be restored was the ancient theatre of Salamina
(Fig. 5AD), followed by the ancient theatre of
Kourion and Soloi and, by the end of this period, the
restoration of the Roman Odeon of Paphos commenced.
During the 1960s, in order to reuse historic and ver-
nacular buildings, structural reinforcement was often
270 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4
Figure 3 Panayia Chrysokourdaliotissa, Kourdali. The
church before (A) and after (B) the removal of the modern arch
which was placed during the 1950s. The church was finally
restored in its original form (Source: Department of
Antiquities of Cyprus).
achieved with the use of reinforced concrete
(columns, beams), a material that was not compatible
with the original fabric of the buildings and did not
follow the internationally accepted principles for con-
servation. This attitude was partly in accordance with
the Charter of Athens referring to the use of modern
techniques and more specifically to that of reinforced
concrete, with the condition that these interventions
were concealed in order to preserve the aspect and
character of the restored monument.
In Cyprus, the impact of the Charter of Venice was
evident after the 1980s. The Department of Antiquities
proceeded with the classification of constructions of
vernacular architecture as monuments, in accordance
with Article 1 of the Charter, which dictates that
monuments are considered not only examples of
monumental architecture, but also humble buildings
that represent a past way of living. From 1980
onwards, nearly half of the restoration works that
the Department of Antiquities undertook concerned
restoration of buildings of vernacular architecture
(houses, flour mills, wine mills, and others).
Following the international conservation trend that
architectural heritage includes not only individual
 Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus

Figure 4 Panayia Chrysolakourna, Steni. The church before (A, D, G), during (C), and after (B, E, F, H, I) its extensive
reconstruction in 1973. The church was completely restored in a hypothetical form that leads to questions and reconsiderations.
The reconstruction was arbitrary as there was not enough evidence about its original form. In addition, there was no distinction
between the new and the authentic parts of the monument (Source: Department of Antiquities of Cyprus).

Figure 5 The ancient theatre of Salamina before (A, B) and after (C, D) its conservation. Extensive reconstruction of the old
missing parts of the theatre took place so that the monument could acquire a complete functional form (Source: Department of
Antiquities of Cyprus).

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Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus
buildings of exceptional quality and their surround-
ings, but also all areas of towns or villages of historic
or cultural interest, since 1978 the restoration works
of monuments of the recent past of the island were
not limited to single buildings. Within this scope, in
1978 the Department of Antiquities proceeded with
the declaration of the rural settlement of Phikardou
as an ancient monument and an area of special inter-
est, so as to prevent the destruction of the settlement.
Furthermore, historic areas with a traditional charac-
ter within rural settlements have been declared as
areas of special interest in the villages of Pera
Oreinis, Lefkara, and Kakopetria (Fig. 6A and B).
Until 1976, historic and vernacular buildings, settle-
ments, and sites of Cyprus were only protected by the
Antiquities Law. This situation changed with the
establishment of the Town and Country Planning
Law. This law aimed to protect mainly vernacular as
well as modern architecture. Thus, since 1978 a large
number of traditional buildings and a small number
of modern examples (since 2000) have been declared
as listed either by the initiative of the State or after
an application of the owners, and thus are protected
from any demolition or alteration that would change
their original character. Since the establishment of
the Town and Country Planning Law (1978) the
declaration of vernacular architecture as ancient
monuments according to the Antiquities law has
been limited, being mainly used for historic and
archaeological sites. According to the Town and
Country Planning Law, preservation orders are
issued by the Minister of Interior, on the recommen-
dation of the Department of Town Planning and
Housing, where he deems it appropriate to guarantee
the preservation of an individual building or structure,
group of buildings, or sites of special social,
Figure 6 Kakopetria. General views of the traditional settlement before (A) and after (B) its restoration and revival. The
restoration of the settlement was achieved through restoration of the individual dwellings with 50% of the expenses paid by the
owner and the other 50% with the contribution of the state (Source: Department of Antiquities of Cyprus).
272 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4
architectural, and other values. The Conservation
Section of the Department of Town Planning and
Housing controls the works of preservation of all
listed buildings in Cyprus, enforces all the internation-
ally accepted principles and charters for conservation,
and plays a very important role in the protection and
enhancement of all physical and built manifestations
of the heritage of the island. Before the beginning of
any conservation work Ministerial Consent is
required. In 1985, the first plan for financial assistance
for owners of listed buildings was published in the
Cyprus Gazette. This assistance included a financial
subsidy for the owners for restoring their properties,
and tax deductions as well as transfer of development
rights. The plan was revised and amended and since
1987 it constitutes part of the Law of Listed Buildings.
The declaration by the State of a large number of
urban traditional buildings in Nicosia, Limassol,
Larnaca, and Paphos as listed, often without the
consent of the owners (especially in cities), initially
led to the protection of the buildings from any future
demolition and substantial alteration. Unfortunately,
the unwillingness of some owners to maintain these
buildings, and their subsequent abandonment, led to
their deterioration, and in some cases, to their partial
collapse. The discontinuation of the use as well as
the under-functioning of others had negative effects
on the structures. At the same time, valuable evidence,
morphological forms, and architectural elements were
preserved intact due to neglect, therefore leaving aban-
doned buildings as virgin ground for research and
action towards successful restoration and rehabilita-
tion. Today in Cyprus there are a large number of
abandoned or almost abandoned buildings as well as
whole villages, and thus action needs to be taken so
as to avoid the destruction of this heritage. On the
 Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus

Figure 7 (AC) General views of the traditional neighbourhood of the area of Chryssaliniotissa showing a number of new
buildings that had been demolished during previous periods and were completely reconstructed in 1985, following traditional
morphological elements only for the facades, thus having a scenographic approach. Behind these facades, the typology of the
buildings was completely ignored and new materials such as reinforced concrete were used extensively.

other hand, many other rural vernacular buildings
were declared listed after the application by their
owner, who proceeded with their restoration and
reuse. The realization of the legal system in connection
with preservation, and especially the execution of con-
servation orders regarding mainly vernacular build-
ings, seemed to be rather slow in responding to the
new and compelling threats to architectural heritage.
In the first restorations of listed buildings before the
1990s, the main concern was the reuse of traditional
buildings, mainly as vacation houses or for agrotouri-
sism purposes. The tendency towards additions and
alterations was imitation of the old, making the dis-
tinction between the authentic and the restored parts
of the building difficult. Thus, any new extension
copied the authentic elements of the listed building,
excluding any contemporary expression in their
design. In this way, the old cannot be distinguished
from the new, abolishing or reducing to a minimum
the time interval between the two creative moments
(Brandi, 1996, p. 235).
In 1985, the need for rehabilitation of a whole
traditional neighbourhood in the area of
Chryssaliniotissa in the walled city of Nicosia led to
a limited number of reconstructions (Fig. 7AC). A
visitor could no longer recognize the authentic build-
ings in this neighbourhood from the reconstructed
ones. This is a unique and extreme case on the island
and it is not mentioned in the legislation of the listed
buildings.
When Cesare Brandi refers to reconstructions, he
wonders whether it is legitimate to put a copy in
place of an original that has been either moved or
lost (Brandi, 1996, pp. 378379). From both historical
and aesthetical points of view, the substitution of a
copy cannot be justified, unless the substituted work
of art has a merely integrative function and no value
on its own. A copy is a historical and aesthetic
forgery, it can only be justified as a purely didactic
or commemorative object, and cannot be substituted
without causing historical and aesthetic damage to
the original. On the other hand, Wim Denslagen
(2009, p. 220) claims that reconstructions of buildings
(historic or traditional) that have been demolished can
restore ones ties with the past and that reconstructions
may have a useful function in restoring the identity of a
city, a region, or a country, as these reconstructions
nearly always have a social or socio-psychological
function.
Recent trends in restoration in Cyprus (from
1990 until today)
From the 1990s and onwards, there was a different
approach to the restoration of monuments and listed
buildings. Although the desire for reusing the existing
building stock continued to be one of the main conser-
vation aims, the other values of the monuments and
listed buildings also acquired a great significance
which influenced the procedures followed. In the
case of monuments, the tendency towards reconstruc-
tion was eliminated. Reconstructions were restricted to
the destroyed parts of the monuments for which there
was sufficient evidence. The Byzantine and Mediaeval
monuments were now mostly conserved and consoli-
dated in their existing condition, while on the archae-
ological sites anastylosis was the only justified form of
archaeological intervention because it was the only
method that could re-establish the genuine object.
Today, reconstructions in Cyprus are generally
avoided even in the case of traditional listed buildings
and are only permitted in one single case, forming the
states tool to protect listed buildings from deliberate
demolition by their owner. In the case where the
owner demolishes the listed building that he owns on
purpose or, due to lack of maintenance, the building
collapses, the state can compel him to reconstruct the

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Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus

Figure 8 (AC) The Colonial Government Buildings in Limassol reused for university purposes. Small- and large-scale
contemporary additions were erected using mainly iron frame structures with glass in order to achieve a clear distinction
between the old and new work. Using transparent glass, the whole stone structures remain visible behind these additions. hese
structures, with their lightness and simplicity, contrast with the original dense stone buildings and are in harmony with the old
fabric.

listed building using traditional or contemporary
materials.
The previously prevailing attitude regarding the
insertion of additions that imitate the original fabric
of an old building has also recently changed. The
new elements added, especially to traditional buildings
in order to fulfil their new functions, respect their auth-
entic values and fabric, and are distinguished from the
original structure. The visual appearance of any small-
or large-scale interventions is very important, affecting
the aesthetic value of any listed building.
These interventions are clearly identified from, but
at the same time are embodied and incorporated
into, the original fabric in order to maintain the
unity of the existing structure. Reversibility and re-
treatability are essential for any intervention to historic
structures, thus preserving the integrity of the original
text and the possibilities for alternative interpretations
in the future. The ultimate aim is to introduce new
elements that have a contemporary form and structure,
and at the same time respect the existing morphology
without imposing on the old fabric. This principle is
also underlined in the Burra Charter stating that any
change should not falsify the evidence of the history
of the building (e.g. the new work should not nostalgi-
cally create a false impression of age or style).
In order to achieve a clear distinction between the
old and new work, iron frame structures with glass,
or even frameless glass structures, are chosen for the
erection of small entrance rooms and also for connect-
ing corridors in listed buildings. Such examples consti-
tute the additions to the colonial government buildings
in Limassol that were reused for university purposes
(Fig. 8AC).
Despite the extensive use of reinforced concrete in
the past, especially in the case of reusing existing struc-
tures, since 1990 this attitude has changed. Most of the
interventions are approached in a multidisciplinary
way and are preceded by a full analysis of the form
and structure of the historic and vernacular buildings.
Historic and vernacular buildings are mainly con-
served using traditional materials and techniques,
similar to the original ones, underlining the impor-
tance of the continuity of traditional building
systems and craft skills. At the same time, all original
authentic building materials (mainly stone) that are in
good condition are preserved. The need for anti-
seismic reinforcement in order to meet new needs
and regulations, especially for public buildings, in
many cases leads to the investigation of simple sol-
utions that are reversible and compatible with the
authentic structures. Many years ago Brandi rec-
ommended that a treatment was acceptable if it did
not hinder future treatments (Price et al., 1996, p. 207).
In the last two decades, the phenomenon of chan-
ging the use of existing buildings was widespread as
both the government and private owners acknowl-
edged the value of their properties and decided to
proceed with restoration of the buildings in order to
give them a new use so as to secure and prolong
their lives. A large number of public government
buildings of colonial or neoclassical architecture
have been reused recently, mainly as university build-
ings (Technological University of Limassol,
Archaeological Research Unit of the University of
Cyprus), research centers (Cyprus Institute
Paphos), and cultural centers (Old Electrician House,
Famagusta Gate Nicosia). The preservation of the
public use of some administrative buildings, such as
the colonial buildings of Limassol and Nicosia, as
these today function mainly for cultural and university
purposes, led to the conservation of their cultural sig-
nificance (Philokyprou, 2014).
In every case of reuse, complex functional and con-
structional problems are being solved, as now the
buildings are to accommodate new functions. Thus,
it is not a coincidence that almost all conventions
and international charters concerning architectural
heritage give special consideration and emphasis on
new compatible uses that require minimal alteration

274 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4

 Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus

to their fabric, structure, and form, and no major
change in the layout of the buildings.
When changing the use of an old building, it is
important that its cultural significance is preserved.
This is in accordance with the principles of the
ICOMOS Charter on the Built Vernacular Heritage
(1999) stating that vernacular traditional buildings
embrace not only the physical form, fabric, and
spaces, but also the ways in which they were used
and understood and the traditions and the intangible
associations which were attached to them.
The answer to the question of whether the building
will be adapted to the new use or the use adapted to
the building determines the attitude towards the
decision procedure (Theologidou, 2006). If the ulti-
mate aim is the protection of architectural heritage,
the second case will lead to successful results from
the conservation point of view. Thus, investigation
into the proper uses that can be incorporated into a
historic or vernacular building is a prerequisite.
The situation is even more difficult when dealing
with abandoned vernacular or, more often, abandoned
historic buildings. There is often a dilemma: preserve
them in their existing ruinous condition or restore
them partially or completely, so as to become func-
tional again. The division of monuments into dead
and living is not considered appropriate anymore,
because every monument, in any condition, is a
living example of civilization, capable of transmitting
certain messages. Museum conservation and
passive maintenance of existing structures are con-
sidered as the best option only in a few cases mainly
related to archaeological sites of ancient periods of
antiquity.

Figure 9 Panayia tou Sindi, Pentalia. The monastery before (A, F) and after (B, C, D, E) its restoration that received a Europa
Nostra Award. In this case a partial reconstruction of the elements for which there was enough information about their original
form was carried out leaving the largest part of the monument in a ruin condition. This constitutes a new approach of the
conservation of Byzantine monuments implemented since 1998 in Cyprus.

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Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus
Whereas the archaeological excavations of
Prehistoric, Classical, and Roman periods in Cyprus
(Khirokitia, Amathus, etc.) have always been
preserved in ruined condition, as the archaeological
values prevail (with small-scale anastylosis only in
exceptional cases for mainly educational reasons as
well as for preventing individual parts from deterio-
ration), when dealing with abandoned Byzantine mon-
asteries or other historic buildings the approach to be
followed depends on the evaluation and hierarchy of
the different values, and constitutes a multidisciplinary
procedure.
In these cases, when the archaeological and histori-
cal values are considered of a greater importance than
the social and use values as living heritage, and
additionally, when there is no need for their rehabilita-
tion and reuse by the owner, the decision about their
preservation is directed towards conservation in a
ruined condition, revealing their authentic and pictur-
esque elements in order to promote them as symbols
and as sites for visitors and tourists and not as living
places. Such an example is the Monastery of Panayia
tou Sindi in Paphos (Fig. 9AF).
Conclusions
In Cyprus, restoration of old buildings seems to follow
the international prevailing trends diachronically. The
various successive rulers created a multicultural archi-
tectural diversity on the island and at the same time
influenced the philosophy followed in the preservation
of monuments. Based on their own cultures and world-
views, rulers followed their own policy on cultural heri-
tage and on restorations. The independence of the
island in 1960 and the transfer of power from the
British administrators to the government of the new
independent state coincided with the establishment
and the signing at an international level of the first
conventions and declarations of protection of cultural
heritage (Charter of Venice, etc.).
Throughout the past and until today, in many cases
rehabilitation of existing buildings has ensured the
continuity of their life, but at the same time the
change of their original use has caused an interruption
in social and functional continuity. On the other hand,
when buildings and complexes have been reused for
the same function a kind of social continuity has
been ensured.
The industrial revolution and urbanization of the
island that also took place in other European countries
led to a change of attitude towards cultural heritage. In
addition, the major recent development of tourism on
the island combined with globalization in the contem-
porary periods resulted in a sharp turn towards the
architecture of the past and to the overestimating of
its value since this is part of the islands identity and
individuality. At the same time, the relationship
276 Studies in Conservation 2015 VOL. 60 NO. 4
between people and the traditional environment that
was noted during previous periods was discontinued
since the new lifestyle has created new requirements.
A romantic nostalgia of the past replaced the
traditional continuity between the past and the
present, which lasted in various forms from the
origin of civilization until the end of the eighteenth
century.
Whereas in the past a practice of segmented partial
and ongoing maintenance with minor modifications,
with the aim of adapting an existing building to the
needs of its successive owners, was followed without
interrupting the buildings continuity and use, today
this attitude has changed dramatically. Financial
grants require the preparation of plans and licensing
operations and thus an integrated, complete, and
thorough maintenance often results in a complete
transformation of a building which sometimes
acquires a new appearance. The architecture of the
past is thus considered and maintained as something
remote from the present, which is not being experi-
enced in the same daily and practical way as
previously.
In the process of reusing vernacular and historic
buildings with parts missing, and especially those in
a ruinous condition, a main question arises in relation
to the form of the intervention. How is the potential
integrity of historic buildings in a ruinous condition
being achieved? Is architectural morphological conti-
nuity allowed for the sake of their rehabilitation?
Although in the previous decades that was the case,
now this attitude has changed. The completion of
the image of a building of the past today is not being
carried out in a stylistic way. The distinction between
ruins and the new parts of the structures is very
often a prerequisite, especially with regard to impor-
tant buildings. The potential unity that Brandi pro-
claims, expressed also by Philippot, refers to the
restoration and filling of the large missing parts
(vacant areas) of works of the past using a new archi-
tectural style and materials.
While in other countries there are numerous
examples of restoring the integrity of ruined monu-
ments for rehabilitation purposes with the use of con-
temporary materials, in Cyprus a more conservative
approach towards the maintenance of ruins is
observed. Ruins are conserved in their existing con-
dition if there is no need for their reuse or if there is
not enough evidence about their original form, or
parts of a monument are restored, using the same
materials, sometimes with a distinctive indication of
a boundary line between the authentic material and
the new elements added. In other cases, especially
during rehabilitation of simple traditional houses, the
completion is achieved without any distinction
between the old and the new, avoiding any
 Philokyprou and Limbouri-Kozakou
interruption of the authentic character of the historic
area but leading to confusion between the old and new.
The range of interest regarding the architectural
heritage of the island, following the trends of each
period, has been continuously expanding, especially
since the beginning of the last century, and has pro-
gressively embodied all different types of buildings
(industrial, etc.) and has reached up to the threshold
of the present (modern architecture). Rehabilitation
of the existing building stock, whether this concerns
historic buildings or not, raises the question of what
is important to preserve. According to Jukka
Jokilehto (Jokilehto, 2003, p. 104), assessing the sig-
nificance of something usually takes time. In the case
of modern heritage, the distance is still short and jud-
gement is difficult. This is the reason why modern
buildings of the recent past are being demolished,
since the majority does not have any statutory
protection.
In a world that is so drastically changing, and
bearing in mind the fact that many countries are
now in the middle of a major economic crisis, the
turn towards rehabilitation of the existing building
stock in the coming years will be intensified. On the
other hand, restricted state budgets for new construc-
tion projects and the weakness of the private sector
to finance them, is causing a stalemate. This is why
the OMA proclaimed the world needs a new system
mediating between preservation and development.
Another factor that should be considered regarding
the renovation of existing building stock is the energy
factor. Recent research has shown that historic and
vernacular buildings after renovation can be more
energy efficient than new buildings. This can be attrib-
uted to the bioclimatic elements incorporated in their
structures, such as the materials and construction
methods used, orientation and size of openings,
arrangement of rooms, semi-open spaces around a
central yard, etc. One should also take into account
the embodied carbon when demolishing an existing
building and the energy consumption that will be
needed for erection of the new one that will replace
it. Therefore, renovation of the existing building
stock leads towards more sustainable development.
Recognition of the importance of cultural architec-
tural heritage at an international level during the last
few centuries led to the establishment of common
approaches and attitudes towards its conservation.
On the other hand, conservation, because of its cul-
tural nature, has need for recommendations, trends,
and orientations rather than regulations. According
to Giovanni Carbonara (1996, p. 239), the dilemma
between conservation and intervention, historical
Restoration of monuments and listed buildings in Cyprus
and aesthetical approaches in restoration, is nonethe-
less always present in every country and civilization
and cannot be solved by denying one of the issues.
This dilemma can and should be dealt with at any
time by critical actions and choices that, as such, are
possibly subjective, but not necessarily unfounded or
arbitrary.
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