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The local icon: Reuse of buildings in

place marketing
Received (in revised form): 24th March, 2010

Audrey Kirby
is Senior Lecturer in Design at the London College of Communication. Her research has focused on the development of spatial
branding, with studies in the historical development of supermarket architecture. She has also researched the use of eroticism
in retailing in the late-20th century.

Tony Kent
is Reader in Marketing at the London College of Communication, with research interests in experiential marketing.

Abstract This paper assesses the use of listed or signicant buildings by retailers in
creating a sense of place, and specically the opportunities for local places to market
themselves through reuse and regeneration of existing buildings. It addresses the issues
identied in the New Economics Foundations Clone Town Britain Survey that a home
town is a place that retains its individual character and, by comparison with the bland
and undistinctive clone town, is instantly recognisable and distinctive to the people who
live there, as well as to those who visit. Much of the distinctiveness, or lack of it, is
unfortunately caused by retail outlets. Consequently, the focus of this paper is to explore
the causes of undistinctive building design and examine both more recent contextualised
approaches to retail use and reuse of buildings and spaces. The authors draw on
research into the visual role of buildings in creating identity and shared history, as well
commercial and social purposes. Distinctive buildings should engage with the local com-
munity as well as attracting a wider population, and retail sites should combine commu-
nication and design as well as commercial functions. Such buildings often have a size
and scale to support distinctive opportunities for retailers to interact with consumers. The
paper proposes four categories of retail reuse: individual buildings; larger developments;
new build on browneld sites; and the reuse of design concepts in new projects. It con-
cludes with an overview of the implications of distinctive commercial buildings for place
management and the making of better places.

Keywords: retail, design, architecture, regeneration, environment

INTRODUCTION: DEFINING THE research begins, however, by drawing on


PLACE an anthropological approach developed by
Searching for a certain local distinctiveness Auge3 to explain the sense of place and
and integrity, and feeling part of the place placelessness, or in his terms, non-place.
has entered general consciousness through Places have been invested with meaning,
Audrey Kirby and Anthony the media.1 A sense of place is something and have at least three characteristics in
Kent
The School of Creative people feel and know, but also it reects common: they are concerned with identity,
Enterprise, London something people do.2 More specically, as a place of birth which provides an
College of Communication,
London SE1 6SB, UK it has attracted academic attention through identity for individuals; they foster
dierent social, geographical and economic relations; and they possess a history. Places
Tel: +44 (0)20 7514 6967
e-mail:
disciplinary lenses, at a number of levels, are organically social, have an intimacy of
a.kirby@lcc.arts.ac.uk from city to region and nation. This social life, complicities of language, local

80 Journal of Town & City Management Vol. 1, 1 8091 # Henry Stewart Publications 1756-9538 (2010)
The local icon

references and unformulated rules of living relative aspects of location, the spatial
know-how (p. 101) which reect the relationships of outlets to their customers,
slowness of local life. By contrast, Auge competitors and other elements of their
denes non-places as an aspect of environment which have a spatial imprint.8
supermodernity, which itself stems The spatial dimensions of retail locations
simultaneously from the three gures of have a social context, as the locale in
excess: overabundance of events, spatial which people socialise and interact with
overabundance and the individualisation of each other.9 They are complex, socially
references (p. 109). Where modernity constructed arenas of consumption of retail
interweaves old and new and everything is goods as well as places of leisure and
combined, supermodernity makes the old entertainment, an environment for the
into a spectacle, and the non-places of interplay between retailer and consumer
supermodernity are not integrated with directed by social and economic factors.
anything, but rather observe distinct, These factors are recognised in
unconnected individualities. In short, places government policy and its concern with the
are dened by residence, crossroads, vitality and viability of centres. In the UK,
monuments (where people share and Planning Policy Guidance (PPG6) from
commemorate) travellers and language; 1993 and subsequently from PPS6 (2005)
non-places are associated with transit, recognises the diversity of uses throughout
interchanges, housing estates (as peripheral a centre, including tourism, culture and
zones outside the centre of anything) leisure and inter alia, well-designed public
passengers and communication (p. 108). spaces and buildings which are attractive,
The historical and social denition of accessible and durable, and which
place is constructed through relative contribute to the health, vitality and
perceptions and responses to environmental economic potential of a town centre.10
inuences: the place is put together by Local authorities are directed to plan for
dierent groups and times, dierent growth or change through better use of
perceptions, depending on age, income and existing land and buildings, including
social group.4 Urban experiences still depend redevelopment where appropriate.11
on local lifeworlds, rich with memories and Consequently, the policy objectives provide
imagination, in which unique local histories a framework for the assessment and
are part of global trends and restore a sense of potential reuse of buildings
place to urban life.5 Their variety and
meaning have been contrasted with to promote high quality and inclusive design
placelesss labyrinth of endless similarities . . . protect and enhance the architectural and
historic heritage of centres, provide a sense of
(p. 141).6 The New Economics Foundation
place and a focus for the community and for
Clone Town Britain Survey, for all its
civic activity and ensure that town centres
methodological faults, observes that a home provide an attractive, accessible and safe
town is a place that retains its individual environment for businesses, shoppers and
character and is instantly recognisable and residents.12
distinctive to the people who live there, as
well as to those who visit.7 The highest design standards should be
A town or city centre is an active place applied not only to centres, but also to all
in the traditional concept of provincial browneld developments, compatible with
towns and villages and, in general, this is the economic limitations of the individual
how it still appears today. In this sense, site.13 The inuence of planning guidance
Auge shares a common ground with continues to focus retail development
geographers, and their concern with the through a sequential planning process on

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Kirby and Kent

existing locations at the expense of that the design process should not just
greeneld sites. By 2005, the diculty in consider what we experience and see with
acquiring suitable sites was driving British our eyes, we should be thinking about the
retailers to design stores in conjunction with whole human response to place, including
mixed housing projects and other its culture, memory and history.17 As early
community facilities, in order to gain as 1978, the Architects Journal, discussing
planning permission for sites that would the expansion of supermarket development,
otherwise not be available: for example, for reported that supermarkets in old towns
supermarket use. have a nasty habit of standing out like sore
Where conservation models are thumbs (p. 245).18 It cites the diculties of
appropriate, policy is directed towards designing supermarket buildings in existing
living communities, which must be town centres and suggests that the greatest
allowed to change over time, rather than problems are the sheer bulk of the
become open-air museums. It is important developments and the need to present an
that all new developments should be enticing image to the passer by which so
sympathetic to the special architectural and often leads to brash modern buildings.19
aesthetic qualities of the area, particularly in Instead, to distinguish places, centres need
terms of scale, design, materials and space to avoid making everywhere like
between buildings.14 The special character everywhere else, and rather than more like
of these areas, however, does not come itself.20
from the quality of their buildings alone:
the historic layout of roads, paths and PLACE MARKETING
boundaries; characteristic building and Place marketing has evolved from product
paving materials; a particular mix of marketing theory, but also from the
building uses; public and private spaces . . . concept of the entrepreneurial city: the
make up the familiar local scene.15 Local marketing of places has been one of the
authorities in the UK have the power to dening features of entrepreneurial
designate as conservation areas any area of governance which captures a sense of
special architectural or historic interest management, risk taking, promotion,
whose character or appearance is worth inventiveness and prot motivation.21 The
protecting or enhancing. This specialness is purpose of a place marketing strategy is to
judged against local and regional criteria, promote an area or the entire city for
rather than national importance as is the certain activities and, in some cases, to sell
case with listed buildings.16 In many, parts of the city for living, consuming and
especially urban, areas, rebuilding may have productive activities.22 In essence, a
taken place many times over the same sites, marketing-led approach asks strategic
resulting in overlays of building forms and questions about the competitive promotion
styles, which are often contained within an and selling of the place, to deliver the area
ancient framework. The richness of an area convincingly to targeted customers, engage
today may reect the build-up of successive them in repeat usage and create longer-
historic periods. term loyalty.
Sensitivity to buildings and their One strategy for creating competitive
geographical and historical contexts nds advantage is design led: an approach based
support from the architectural community. on place character23 and the visual
The Commission for Architecture in the dimension is further supported by a focus
Built Environment endorses a typically on image formulation and communication
holistic approach to the contribution of the as a crucial role within the city marketing
built environment to places, and suggest mix. Kavaratzis24 argues that the object of

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The local icon

city marketing is not the city per se but its vitality of shopping centres, providing
image, to make the distinction between the places for people to meet and enjoy
external reality of the city and its internally themselves. These examples demonstrate a
conceived, mental counterpart. concern for a variety of shops, services and
The management of positive image local markets. They have less to say about
elements has contributed to the the opportunities arising from larger and
conceptualisation of the place as brand25 in usually more distinctive buildings which
which the built environment contributes to increasingly attract multiple retailer
its ambience and inuences the services interest.
experienced by the consumer.26 Historic
centres can draw on the heritage of their RETAIL DESIGN AND THE PATH
built environment. In other places, TO UNIFORMITY
however, iconic or agship buildings and The contribution of retailers to the visual
sites have formed signicant, high-prole decline of places can be attributed to a
developments that play an inuential and number of causes. During periods of
catalytic role in urban regeneration.27 austerity in the 1920s and 1930s,
They can be used as a marketing tool for developments in housing, transport and
an entire area of a city, as large advertising telephone communication enabled UK-
hoardings, the signal for others to invest or based multiple retailers such as Boots and
spend. They may be a piece in a larger Woolworths to expand their businesses
marketing approach to advertise the city, substantially. The main shopping streets in
create demand for inward investment, oer the UK came to be dominated by chains of
the surrounding area as one of the potential shops. The variety in appearance of
locations within the city and its hinterland. shopping areas was reduced, and a
Place branding may use a landmark commonality of style asserted, through the
building to distinguish a locations entry combining of ownership, and the conscious
point;28 the Guggenheim Museum in imagery of the expanding retail companies.
Bilbao, and Sydney Opera House are well- Modernity in architectural design led to
dened examples of this function. Flagship simpler outlines and minimised motifs. The
projects may also embrace the larger spaces feeling for the pure cube, with facades of
of creative (cultural) quarters, and glass supported by minimal structures
regeneration areas.29 Branding of cities is allowed more light and air to pass into the
very much oriented towards reworking, interior of new buildings32 but, combined
repackaging and re-presentation of the with the use of mass construction
historical and existing cultural qualities techniques, created ever more standardised
alongside a design programme which approaches to store design.
provides objective cues as to how the city Shortages of products and materials
should be narrated, by both internal and combined with the modest expectations of
external audiences. consumers in the 1940s and early 1950s
Local consumers, however, expect the constrained the design of both retail
town centre to serve a variety of functions interiors and exteriors. In this period, the
and to facilitate a variety of purposes and arrival of self-service stores held
social interactions.30 Warnaby and Davies31 fundamental implications for the design of
describe the customer buying his or her stores. The disposition of space changed,
own individual bundle of benets from the design and layout had to facilitate
the town centre, of which retailing remains customers in their search for goods, and
a strong element. Restaurants, cafes and sales checkouts had to be positioned near
pubs make a valuable contribution to the the exits. Inspiration could be found, too,

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from more idealised sources; commenting destructive power of 20th-century wars has
on the changing attitude to the design of led to the wholesale regeneration of cities.
shops in the 1950s, Westwood and Central and historical areas could be
Westwood33 suggested that the South Bank returned to their former appearance. More
Exhibition (Festival of Britain) provided simply, their materials could be salvaged or
one such inuence on retail designers. consciously used from the demolition of
As new consumer markets emerged from damaged and redundant buildings.35
the mid-1950s onwards, designers Secondly, the reuse of buildings has a social
responded with retail store identities function. The process of reconstruction can
armed through window displays, as be understood as a palimpsest, in which
typied by Dolciss post-war double new meanings overlie old ones, and
window frontages. Nevertheless, a marking the surface of the place inevitably
distinction was maintained between the involves the erasure of one set of social
external window display and interior relations by another. It can also be political,
layout. Within the store, design was so that the rebuilt site constructs its
concerned with functionality, a role that signication within the web of a pre-
extended well into the 1960s, and its existing civic order, and the debris of the
purpose to create sales-driven destroyed, real or remembered aects new
environments. Another development in the production and its consumption, and the
1960s saw retailers increasingly explore process of regeneration becomes a revision
brand communication, initially through a of spatial politics.36 Commercial interests
visual medium, bringing with it provide a nal element, in which reuse
implications for standardisation and changes transactional relationships between
consistency. stakeholders and customers, and provides
By the 1980s, the design remit became an economical alternative to new build.37
bolder: store as design came to relate The following analysis of reuse denes
consumer behavioural needs to four dierent categories (see Table 1). The
functionality and retail branding. The rst two are strictly concerned with reuse
concentration of food sales into a smaller of existing buildings, but in dierent
number of multiple retailers, the contexts, the rst referring to the reuse of
transformation of the retail shopping an existing building as a stand-alone
environment, and the polarisation of project. The second refers to a number of
multiples and independents played an buildings within a larger regeneration
important role in creating more uniformly project; these buildings are usually less
visual places.34 distinctive as individual buildings, but
create a more powerful presence as a
THE REUSE OF BUILDINGS whole. The third and fourth categories
The reuse of buildings and the ways in move away from the reuse of a building or
which they inspire new thinking nd buildings. The third category denes reuse
support from many sources. From a of browneld sites with new building, on
practical perspective reuse concerns the which there is, nevertheless, often an
recycling of building materials: rubble, pre- attempt to contextualise the design of the
cut stone, marble and decorative elements building and its surrounding spaces. The
are conveniently to hand. Historically, this fourth category concerns the reuse of
process has led to the construction of new architectural features in the design of new
buildings but, where appropriate, the use of buildings on greeneld sites, which have no
walls and parts of facades too. This practice specic previous built usage or context.
is not restricted to the pre-modern era. The This category is a design conceptualisation

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which often consciously draws on the past. build to rehabilitation of old buildings,
Buildings which do not incorporate any of from barns to country cottages. Reuse of
these features are new store designs on both buildings can also be explained by an
browneld and greeneld sites, and are increasing interest in vernacular
generally modernist (or postmodernist) architecture. By the 1980s, government
structures without reference to the physical bodies and local authorities recognised the
location, broader context or architectural advantages of oering prime sites for
features of an earlier period. Such buildings retailing in return for the restoration of
are typied by prefabrication, and the use listed or signicant buildings. Competition
of predominantly metal and glass materials between retailers for sites on which to
to highly standardised specications. develop new stores resulted in the reuse of
many listed or signicant buildings for
Reuse of individual buildings supermarket use. Local authorities
The rst category denes the reuse of responsible for the restoration of important
existing individual buildings as stand-alone buildings facilitated retailers acquisition of
projects. For retailers, the demand for prime sites for development which included
larger stores in the mid-1950s prompted the the restoration and use of buildings that
seeking out and conversion of existing high could not be demolished.41
street premises for supermarket use. One approach to the problems of
Cinema buildings and sites were ideal for developing a listed site was either to build
this purpose. Tesco converted a cinema in behind existing facades or create facades
Malden in 1956. Morrisons, following their that closely echoed the design of adjacent
cinema conversion in Bradford, converted a buildings, with particular attention to detail
bowling alley into a self-service and use of appropriate materials.
supermarket in the mid-1960s.38 The Subsequently dened as facadism,42 this
Building Industries journal reported in technique was used in central locations by
August 1961 the conversion to supermarket Waitrose, notably in Monmouth and in
use of a cinema in Shawlands Cross, Marlborough, where the store, designed by
Glasgow. The former Elephant cinema was a team of nine in-house architects, was
converted into ve shops, the largest of behind a listed facade in a conservation
which, a Stirling Supermarket, occupied area. The new-build store in Stevenage
9,000 square feet. The provision of parking presented a similar arcade design onto the
space was of major importance at a time high street. Sainsburys specically
when rapidly increased car ownership was identied its architects remit as styling the
causing unacceptable congestion in town facade, and ruled out any engagement with
and city centres. the store interior design. Such facadism,
In the 1960s, but especially the 1970s, an where the front of an old building is used
anti-utopian, conservationist outlook had to mask an entirely new construction, has
begun to take hold under the inuence of been the subject of cultural and aesthetic
world economic recession.39 The criticism, since the passer by doesnt know
conservation of old buildings was led by whether to be insulted by the crude lie or
City Challenge, English Heritage and, in delighted by the surreal kitsch.43
some cities, the Buildings Preservation Increasingly, supermarkets adopted more
Trusts. From the developers perspective, creative approaches to the development of
architecture came to be valued, to put challenging sites. In 1982, Sainsburys
something back, and create something restored the disused Green Park railway
good for cities.40 In the UK, these trends station in Bath. The station building
became apparent in the shift from new became the main pedestrian entrance to

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their new store, which was located to the signicant local landmark, was restored and
rear of the listed train shed and was linked included in the store frontage as the
to the supermarket by an orange tinted entrance to the new store. In 1991,
curved roof which echoed the vaulted roof Morrisons converted a large listed building
of the station. The covered platform and formally occupied as army barracks, at
track space were subsequently used for a Hillsborough, Sheeld, incorporating
weekly market and to host cultural events. much of the interior as well as the facade of
The project illustrates the issues and the original building.
compromises to be made in the Smaller stores could also be located in
development, between retailer, local signicant or listed buildings, as retailers
council, community, media and design sought to extend their locations with new
professions. In 1986, the Architects Journal 44 formats in town centres. Tesco undertook
described the restoration as a bitter-sweet extensive restoration work on a listed
victory, because it was the result of a former Victorian Provincial Bank building
planning trade-o which allowed in Belfast to house their rst Northern
Sainsburys to build a 50,000 square foot Island Metro store. The building retained
superstore with parking for 500 cars on its original features faithfully restored with
railway land behind the station. Building Gothic dome and gargoyles.47
Design, however, reported, Bath must
think itself very lucky that somebody was Urban regeneration
willing to rescue Green Park Station at a In the UK, the need for urban regeneration
cost of over 1.5 million.45 was publicly recognised for the rst time in
Among the more problematic sites for 197248 and, by the 1980s, urban
re-development were former factories and regeneration had given rise to the proactive
warehouses, signicant for their size, development of large-scale agship
visibility and local social history. The projects, as well as post hoc labelling of
restoration of the listed Art Deco Hoover earlier projects. In time, regeneration
Building in West London by Tesco created projects came to be polarised between
a scheme which restored the main building planned, signature schemes and
fronting the A40 road for oce use. incremental developments.49 Londons
Echoing Sainsburys development of Bath Covent Garden was an early example of
Green Park, the supermarket was built the latter approach, where urban redesign
apart from the listed structure, but designed and planning came to focus on enhancing
with Art Deco detail which echoed the the design qualities of a place, bringing
original 1930s style by Wallis Gilbert and together architecture, open spaces, land use,
Partners.46 Other notable developments of street layout and environmental quality.
listed buildings included Tescos restoration The later development of central
and adaptation of a former textile building Manchester reected a similar incremental
in Baldock, Hertfordshire, and Sainsburys approach.
conversion of a mill in Streatham. Retail developments have been
There is evidence of two other types of increasingly perceived as a regeneration
distinctive, and often listed, buildings initiative to re-brand the town, create
which oered commercial locational quality public space, diversify the leisure
advantages being reused. Sainsburys oer and help sustain other town centre
conversion of St Georges church in initiatives. One approach has been to create
Wolverhampton, completed in 1988, was a visual integrity for the place, in terms of
located on land occupied by a derelict and architecture and planning, but also from its
deconsecrated church. The church itself, a relationship to the surrounding area.50

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Consistency of architectural design is prime sites during this period. Sainsburys


evident in the market repositioning of decision in the mid-1980s to produce a
Londons Regent Street with international series of landmark stores resulted, by the
agship brands to compete with nearby end of the next decade, in a portfolio of
Oxford Street and Bond Street. Regent buildings by high-prole architects. Several
Street has a visually striking appearance of these stores received design awards and
from the regularity and quality of the gained Sainsburys a reputation for
streets architecture. A policy of stipulating architectural innovation. This was in part
Portland stone for Regent Street facades due to the appointment of the Financial
was introduced in the 1920s, which Times architectural critic, who advised and
contributes to its visual harmony. Classical encouraged the directors to be adventurous
Beaux-Arts style frontages are apparent in in their architectural projects. Many of the
various buildings and create an agreeable, stores were developments on browneld or
undemanding style. The pillars and edge of town sites. Their stores in York
columns of the facades are monumental, and Canterbury, both completed in 1984
their features combining to create a sense of were both constructed on derelict land. The
permanence. The expectation is one of a architecture was designed to echo the spire
high-quality environment which appeals to of the mediaeval cathedral and involved the
the visitors sense of an ideal, well-ordered use of exposed structural beams and masts
shopping street and an appropriate context as decorative features, and was said to
for the Crown Estates marketing strategy. resemble the exoskeleton of an insect.52
Their most ambitious project was an
Browneld sites: Reuse of former environmental experiment at Greenwich,
industrial locations where landscaped earth shelters the
As many dierent types of regeneration concrete side walls. Water at a constant
project emerged, so retailers competed for 10C abstracted from a borehole will be
prime sites in inner city and edge of town used to absorb heat produced by
areas. This practice can be seen to have refrigeration units, making them work
become established during the late 1980s and more eciently.53 By contrast, the design
early 1990s. Sainsburys reported that over of the Sainsburys store at Camden was the
half their stores built during this period have result of a previously listed building having
been on what they describe as derelict urban to be replaced by a distinctive new design
sites and contribute visually distinctive at the planning authoritys insistence.
buildings to a newly re-established sense of
place. Their store in Swansea, completed in Reuse of concepts
1985, was sited on derelict land. They By the 1980s, the number and size of
recorded that the site is on the edge of a supermarket developments had increased
regenerated area designated by the city dramatically in both size and number.54
council as the Maritime Quarter. The stores Competition for town centre and edge of
design reects the shapes and forms town sites became acute; demand increased,
associated with the waterfront. A riverside and sites available for development in these
walk has been created and bollards salvaged areas dwindled. Combined with growing
from the old dockside are featured in the public disquiet at the decline of high street
layout of the car park.51 retailing, this placed local planning
Sainsburys expertise in managing the authorities in a dominant position and able
problems associated with derelict inner-city to demand architectural designs and site
and industrial areas, particularly landscaping that would appease public
contaminated land, gained them many opposition.

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Planning requirements and a sense of the technology as part of a High-Tec aesthetic.


locality led to the reuse of design ideas to This concept can be traced back to the
create distinctive out of town buildings. exposed structures of 19th-century
The architectural design of supermarkets engineering, seen in bridges train sheds and,
generally termed the Essex Barn or in this context, market halls, whose cast
cottage style was widely used by large iron beams and joints were displayed as
retail groups in the 1980s and has since part of a powerful design strategy. In 1995,
become viewed as a traditional Asda launched their Market Hall Concept
supermarket building. This design style stores, designed by Aukett Associates.
originally conceived in 1977 by Alcock for Morrison describes glass atria and green-
Asda was based on rural English farm tinted glass frontages, streamlined glazing
buildings and was designed to blend in patterns, bu brickwork and shallow
with the Essex landscape. The structures are architect roofs with north lights.55 These
generally roofed with slate or pantiles, and were said to be inspired by the
faced with red brick, or other vernacular characteristics of traditional markets, the
materials. The designs include such features key element being use of natural light. The
as dormers, weather vanes and the retail format was to be accommodated in a
ubiquitous clock tower. Such superstores variety of building frameworks. Much of
provided a bigger stage on which to sell the design work for these stores, including
more products and services, but also to the signage, was done by Rodney Fitch.56
recreate a past. In-store bakeries, butchers
and greengrocers barrows to add more DISCUSSION
personalisation to their service and create The assessment of retailers engagement in
more enticing environments. regeneration, the reuse of buildings and
A further signicant recycled design their impact on place marketing is an
concept appeared in the late-20th-century under-explored area. The development of
practice of leaving exposed, structural edge of town, post-industrial sites in the
features of buildings, such as service ducts late 1970s, particularly in the north of
and steel girders, in order to display England, and the relaxation of planning

Table 1: Dimensions of retail re-use

Re-use of a specic Urban regeneration Re-use of browneld sites Re-use of concepts in


building (re-use of multiple the store design
buildings)

Usage Retailer re-uses Retailers as part of Retail development Retail architect


single unit a larger mixed-use of a previously used site develops contextual
development area and/or historical
themes
Location Centre and edge of Edge of centre or Edge or out of centre Generally edge/out of
centre out of centre centre, out of centre
Appearance Building structure/ Buildings structures/ New building New building
facade maintained facades maintained retaining or re-creating
local features/historical
references associated
with the place
Examples 1950s60s cinemas Covent Garden Sainsbury, Swansea Essex Barn design
1980spresent: Tesco, Ludlow
station, church,
factories,
warehouses, barracks

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laws in the 1980s in turn led to emphasised. Tesco Metro, Sainsburys Local
opportunities for completely new and the smaller discount chains in various
structures. With pressures to control the ways respond to the shifting opportunities
cost of development, the big box design provided by location. There was a
drawn from French, US and earlier British subsequent reassessment of buildings along
models prevailed on greeneld sites. similar lines in suburban neighbourhoods
Returning to Auges sense of place, and housing estates. Retailers involvement
however, these buildings are largely found in regeneration in these larger-scale projects
in, and possibly dene, non-places, as is more commercial and opportunistic than
peripheral, non-historical and transitory. in their stand-alone stores, as they have less
Changes in public mood and planning ownership and fewer responsibilities for the
requirements, however, led to the adoption development. Conformity to planning,
of a vernacular style, the Essex Barn. At landlord or developer guidelines and
this point there is some recognition of the regulations provide a coherent visual sense
need to contextualise the retail design and of place, to create and sustain personal
create some sense of a shared identity and identity, but also facilitate social interaction.
history, even if this has been re-created, and Reuse adds to the old and results in richness,
it is notable that by the early 2000s the style complexity and depth.58 With reference to
has come to be seen as traditional in the design principles of form following
popular mind. The development of new function, Brand suggests that a reused
projects on browneld sites (see Table 1) building becomes more interesting once it
has been an attempt to further contextualise has left its original function behind.59
the new development and provide a sense The reuse of individual buildings further
of the past using specic themes drawn sharpens the focus for place marketing and,
from its previous use. This attention to specically, branding. In many cases, as
visual detail, evidenced at Canterbury and demonstrated by Wolverhampton and
Swansea, reinforces the image of the place Streatham, the restored buildings are
through specic connections with the past. visually distinctive landmarks, but also local
Since the real past has been obliterated and references for its inhabitants. They are
will be known largely to the local conceivably even monuments to the work
population, its value largely lies in internal or achievements of previous generations.
marketing to this audience. The Here the reused part of the store does not
communication function of large and house the selling area, but provides spaces
distinctive buildings is evident in the for interaction, a dierent type of
experience of the architect Richard crossroads for shared complicities of
MacCormac (who later designed the award language.60 The quality of the conversion,
winning agship store for Tesco in however, is important not only for its
Ludlow, Shropshire), who was asked to distinctive visual eect, but also because
design a store for Sainsburys as eectively great designs are typied by their
. . . a giant advertising poster.57 simplicity, emotional engagement and their
Urban regeneration projects starting in ability to combine the new with the
the 1970s saw large-scale developments in familiar. As Liedtka and Mintzberg argue,
which retail reuse of buildings was a they connect to the past with a reassuring
prominent feature. A further shift in public familiarity while surprising users with their
and political sentiment from out of town inventiveness.61 For marketers, this means
development in the 1990s required retailers that the local community can enjoy the
to reassess urban locations. The social and familiarity and continuity with the place
economic vitality of town centres were through the building as part of everyday

# Henry Stewart Publications 1756-9538 (2010) Vol. 1, 1 8091 Journal of Town & City Management 89
Kirby and Kent

shopping or leisure, and visitors can enjoy a Britain; the survey results on the bland state of the
nation, available at http://www.neweconomics.org/
memorable experience from the surprises gen/12345news_clonetownbritainresults.aspxt (accessed
created by a shop in a church or 7th May, 2008).
warehouse. The character of the place and 8. Murray, ref. 4 above.
9. Clarke, I., Bennison, D. and Pal, J. (1997) Towards a
its mentally conceived representation nds contemporary perspective of retail location,
expression in these buildings. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management,
Retailers in the 21st century are Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 5969.
10. Planning Policy Statement 6 (2005) Positive planning
economically and socially signicant.
for town centres: a plan-led approach, Section 2.22:
Therefore, it is wholly appropriate that 1112, available at http://www.communities.gov.uk/
they are partnered with buildings which planningandbuilding/planning/planningpolicyguidance/
were equally signicant in the past. In the planningpolicystatements/planningpolicystatements/
pps6 (accessed 10th November, 2008).
past, the adaptation of buildings for retail 11. Directgov.UK (2008) Planning permission, available at
use was, on the part of the retailers, almost http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/HomeAndCommunity/
solely in order to acquire important sites. Planning/PlanningPermission/DG_10026179 (accessed
10th November, 2008).
The implications of reuse, however, have 12. Ibid.
become more signicant in the light of 13. English Partnerships (2008) National Browneld
present issues in environmental awareness. Strategy, available at http://www.englishpartnerships.
Reuse and regeneration of ideas has not co.uk/browneldstrategy.htm (accessed 10th November,
2008).
been without its critics. Pawley62 decried 14. Directgov.UK, ref. 11 above.
what he saw as a national obsession with 15. Quote by M. Freeman in CABE, Creating successful
conservation and heritage and their masterplans: A guide for clients, p. 5, available at
http://www.cabe.org.uk/AssetLibrary/2278.pdf
associated costs. There is a danger too that (accessed 10th November, 2008).
the more conservation is practised, the less 16. English Heritage, What is a conservation area?,
locally distinctive identity is likely to available at http://www.english-heritage.org.uk/server/
show/conWebDoc.2440 (accessed 10th November,
become, as similar methodologies will lead 2008).
to the same predictable outcomes. 17. Freeman, ref. 15 above.
Nevertheless, while these developments 18. Architects Journal, 9th August, 1978, p. 245.
19. Moor, L. (2007) The Rise of Brands, Berg, Oxford.
may not clarify or create order, they
20. Quote by L. Sparks in CABE, Creating successful
provide an exploration of possibilities and masterplans: A guide for clients, p. 8, available at
add new experiences and meanings to http://www.cabe.org.uk/AssetLibrary/2278.pdf
places and to life; in all, a means to make (accessed 10th November, 2008).
21. Moor, ref. 19 above.
places better. 22. Lowe, M. and Wrigley, N. (1996) Retailing,
consumption and capital, Longman, Harlow.
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# Henry Stewart Publications 1756-9538 (2010) Vol. 1, 1 8091 Journal of Town & City Management 91
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