1.

Per-unit Quantities

System quantities can be expressed as

i) Dimensional quantities : actual quantities - volts, ohms, watts, vars etc.
ii) Percentage quantities
iii) Per-unit quantities

The per-unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity to its
base expressed as a decimal. That is, a per-unit quantity = (Actual quantity) / (Base
quantity).

Assume, Base voltage in kV = Base kV/ Ph

Base current = (Base kVA / Ph) / (Base voltage kV/Ph)
Base impedance = (Base voltage kV/Ph x 1000) / (Base current in Amps)
= [(Base voltage kV/Ph )2 x 1000] / [Base kVA / Ph]
= [(Base voltage kV/Ph )2 ] / [Base MVA / Ph]
Per-unit impedance = (Actual impedance) / (Base impedance)

The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in per-unit.

Base Quantities in terms of Terminal Quantities (3 ph Quantities)

Base MVA = Base kVA3ph

Base Voltage in kV=Base kVL
Single phase Base Voltage= kV/Ph
Base current (Amp) = [Base kVA3ph ] / [ 3 x Base voltage kVL]
Base impedance () = [(Base voltage kVLx1000/ 3 ) / [Base current]

=

(Base voltage kVL x1000/ 3 ) 3Base voltage kVL
Base kVA 3ph
= [(Base voltage kVL)2] / [Base MVA3ph ]

Advantages of the per-unit method

a) Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in
percent or per unit on the base of the nameplate rating.

b) The per unit impedances of machines of the same type and widely different
rating usually lie within a narrow range although the ohmic values differ
materially for machines of different ratings. For this reason when the
impedance is not known definitely, it is generally possible to select from
tabulated average values a per unit impedance which will be reasonably
correct. Experience in working with per unit values brings familiarity with the
proper values of per unit impedance for different types of apparatus.

c) When impedance in ohms is specified in an equivalent circuit, each impedance

must be referred to the same circuit by multiplying it by the square of the ratio
of the rated voltages of the two sides of the transformer connecting the
reference circuit and the circuit containing the impedance. The per unit
impedance, once expressed on the proper base, is the same referred to either
side of any transformer.

1
 d) The way in which transformers are connected in three-phase circuits does not
affect the per unit impedances of the equivalent circuit although the
transformer connection does determine the relation between the voltage bases
on the two sides of the transformer.

Changing the Base of Per-unit Quantities

ZP.U. = (Zactual) / (Base impedance) = (Zactual x Base MVA) / (Base kV)2

Referring ZP.U. to new bases

Let A = Given
B = New
Z = Actual impedance

The above equation can be written as

ZP.U.(A) = [Z x MVA(A)] / [kV(A)]2
ZP.U.(B) = [Z x MVA(B)] / [kV(B)]2
From above equations, it can be written as
[kV ( A)]2 MVA(B )
Z P.U . (B ) Z P.U . ( A)
[kV (B )]2 MVA( A)
The final form of the above equation is
basekVgiven basekVAnew
2

Per unitZ new per unitZ given

basekVA
basekVnew given

Example 1 : The reactance of a generator designated X is given as 0.25 per unit

based on the generators nameplate rating of 18kV, 500 MVA. The base for
calculations is 20 kV, 100 MVA. Find X on the new base.

Solution:
[kV ( A)]2 MVA( B)
Z P.U . ( B) Z P.U . ( A)
[kV ( B)]2 MVA( A)
18 2 100
Z P.U . ( B) 0.25( )( ) 0.0405
20 2 500

2. Symbolic Representation of Power system Components

Since a balanced three-phase system is always solved as a single-phase or per-phase

equivalent circuit composed of one of the three lines and neutral return, it is seldom
necessary to show more than one phase and the neutral return when drawing a
diagram of the circuit. Often the diagram is simplified further by omitting the
completed circuit through the neutral and by indicating the component parts by
standard symbols rather than by their equivalent circuits. Circuit parameters are not
shown, and a transmission line is represented by a single line between its two ends.
Such a simplified diagram of an electric system is called a single-line or one-line

2
diagram. It indicates by a single line and standard symbols how the transmission
lines and associated apparatus of an electric system are connected together. The
purpose of the one-line diagram is to supply in concise form the significant
information about the system.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) have published a set of standard symbols for electrical
diagrams. Figure 1 shows a few symbols which are commonly used.

Figure 1 : Apparatus symbols

2.1 Single-line (or One-line) and Reactance diagram of Power System

Figure 2 is the single-line diagram of a simple power system.

Figure 2 : Single-line diagram of an electrical power system

In order to calculate the performance of a system under load conditions or upon the
occurrence of a fault, the one-line diagram is used to draw the single-phase or per-
phase equivalent circuit of the system. Figure 3 combines the equivalent circuits for
the various components shown in figure 2 to form the per-phase impedance diagram
of the system.

3
For a load study :
The lagging loads A and B are represented by resistance and inductive reactance
in series.
The impedance diagram does not include the current limiting impedances because
no current flows in the ground under balanced conditions.
Shunt admittance of a transformer is usually omitted as the shunt current is
usually insignificant compared with the full-load current.

Figure 3 : Per-phase impedance diagram

For fault calculation :

Resistance is often omitted since the inductive reactance of a system is much
larger than its resistance.
Loads which do not involve rotating machinery have little effect on the total line
current during a fault and are usually omitted.
Synchronous motor loads are always included in making fault calculations since
their generated emfs contribute to the short-circuit current.

If we decide to simplify our calculation of fault current by omitting all static loads, all
resistances, the shunt admittance of each transformer, and the capacitance of the
transmission line, the impedance diagram reduces to the per-phase reactance diagram
of figure 4. These simplifications apply to fault calculations only.

Figure 4 : Per-phase reactance diagram