Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18

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Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Technical Paper

Solid-state recycling of aluminium alloy swarf into c-channel by hot

extrusion
Ryoichi Chiba , Morihiro Yoshimura 1
Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Asahikawa National College of Technology, 2-2-1-6 Shunkodai, Asahikawa, Hokkaido 071-8142, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, we have investigated the possibility of the solid-state recycling of aluminium alloy machin-
Received 3 October 2013 ing swarf into c-channels using hot extrusion. Side milling swarf and lathe turning swarf generated from
Received in revised form 1 October 2014 a cast AlSi alloy ingot were cold compacted into columnar billets and successfully prole-extruded into
Accepted 15 October 2014
equilateral c-channels at 600 K, under extrusion ratios of 10 and 18. The c-channels obtained at an extru-
sion ratio of 18 showed straight extrusion without warping, except in the front-end region. In case of
Keywords:
the material recycled from the milling swarf at an extrusion ratio of 10, the optical microscopic study
Aluminium alloy
indicates the presence of coarse residual voids and cracks existing in regions where sufcient plastic
C-channel
Extrusion
strain was not introduced. In contrast, the material recycled from the same swarf at an extrusion ratio
Machining swarf of 18 did not contain any coarse voids, rather had a density comparable to that of the original ingot.
Mechanical property This could be attributed to the large strain of over 4.3 that was introduced in the sample recycled at the
Solid-state recycling extrusion ratio of 18, as predicted by nite element analysis. Uniaxial tensile tests showed that the dense
recycled material had a higher ductility than the original ingot, with a reduction of around 30% in the
ultimate tensile strength. The material recycled from the turning swarf exhibited insufcient bonding
among the individual pieces of the swarf, as compared to that recycled from the milling swarf under the
same conditions, thereby resulting in inferior mechanical properties.
2014 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Currently, most aluminium scrap, including machining swarf,
i.e., small chips, is remelted in furnaces and recycled into ingots or
die-casting products. However, the conventional recycling method
is associated with the following disadvantages: (1) the metal yield
rate is very low, i.e., approximately 55% [1]. (2) Unavoidable reduc-
tion in the purity of recycled ingots at the remelting stage results
in the degradation of their mechanical properties. (3) The remelt-
ing process requires signicantly large amount of energy, which
is unfavourable in terms of energy conservation. These limitations
drive the development of alternative technologies for the recycling
of aluminium scrap.
Recently, solid-state recycling, which involves direct recycling
of metal scrap into bulk material by using severe plastic
deformation (SPD), has emerged as a potential alternative to
the conventional remelting and recycling techniques [2]. The
Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 166 55 8003; fax: +81 166 55 8003.
E-mail address: chiba@asahikawa-nct.ac.jp (R. Chiba).
1
Present address: Engineering Division, Oji Materia Co., Ltd., 20-6 Tokuda, Nay-
oro, Hokkaido 096-8555, Japan.
solid-state recycling method not only reduces the energy con-
sumption but also improves the recycling efciency dramatically
(up to more than 95% for aluminium [1]). In addition, the solid-state
recycling method offers the advantage of microstructural control
during the recycling process, which allows the metal scrap to be
recycled into materials with excellent mechanical properties. Thus
far, several solid-state recycling processes have been intensively
studied since 1980s, especially to recycle the machining swarf
discharged from factory machine tools.
A great majority of studies on this topic have focussed on
recycling machining swarf into cylindrical bars [312] or rectan-
gular bars [1315], using hot/warm forward extrusion. In addition,
recycling processes based on other SPD methods such as cyclic
extrusion compression (CEC) [16], equal channel angular pressing
(ECAP) [1719], high-pressure torsion (HPT) [20] or compressive
torsion [21], and combined use of forward extrusion and ECAP
[22,23] have also been reported. Recently, another study [24] aimed
at producing a composite material including nano-particles from
machining chips via hot extrusion, and a new method was pro-
posed to produce clad plates from iron chips by using hot rolling
[25]. Almost all of the abovementioned methods require pre-
compaction of the machining swarf, the technical details of which
have been reported elsewhere [26]. A brief review of the relevant

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2014.10.002
1526-6125/ 2014 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18

Table 1
Chemical composition of the AC4CH aluminium alloy used in this study [27].

Element Cu Si Mg Zn Fe Mn Ti Sb Al

Mass% 0.01 6.9 0.37 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.13 0.001 Bal.

literature published before 2010 can be found in our previous paper

[27].
Extruded sections are elongated metal products that have a
complex conguration of the cross section, represented by angles
and channels. Their cross-sectional shapes are non-axisymmetric
and more complex than those of simple-shaped bars, e.g., cylindri-
cal bars and rectangular bars. Extruded sections are in high demand
in the industry, similar to the simple-shaped bars and metal plates.
In recent years, the demand for extruded sections of aluminium
alloy has been signicantly increasing with the growing needs of
applications demanding reduction in weight. Therefore, it is highly
necessary to develop methodologies for recycling metal scrap into
extruded sections. This is expected to increase the opportunities of
using recycled materials, thereby leading to the promotion of use
of recycled resources. However, to the best of the authors knowl-
edge, there are no attempts reported so far on the direct solid-state
recycling of machining swarf into extruded sections.
Extrusion to form complex conguration of the cross sec-
tion is different in several ways from extrusion into simple
cylindrical/rectangular bars. First, if the complex conguration
is asymmetric, the extrudate may exhibit warping. Second, the
streamlines of the plastic ow are likely to change steeply and
may bifurcate. Third, because the slit width of dies can be loca-
tion dependent, there exist portions that undergo deformation for
a local extrusion ratio considerably larger than the global extrusion
ratio. Fourth, complex conguration generally has many corners
and the contact area (friction area) of die land is very large com- Fig. 1. Appearance of the machining swarf obtained by (a) side milling (reproduced
pared to the case of simple conguration for the same extrusion from Fig. 1a in [27]) and (b) lathe turning.

ratio. In other words, a wide area undergoes signicant shear defor-

mation. Of course, the performance of the solid-state recycling is
affected by the above factors.
The present study investigates the possibility of recycling alu-
minium alloy machining swarf into c-channels using hot extrusion.
Two types of machining swarfs of different shapes were cold-
compacted into the shape of a billet, and subsequently respective
billets were made into equilateral c-channels through hot pro-
le extrusion process at different extrusion ratios. The surface
appearance, density, microstructure, and mechanical properties of
different specimens obtained under different recycling conditions
were compared. Finally, we have discussed the feasibility of adopt-
ing cold-compaction followed by hot extrusion, for the solid-state
recycling of aluminium alloy machining swarf into c-channels.
2. Experimental procedure
obtained by lathe turning is found to be curled, short swarf of length
530 mm, width 1.5 mm, and thickness 0.5 mm.
The machining swarf was ultrasonically degreased with acetone
for 10 min. The cleaned machining swarf was then placed in a cylin-
drical container and compacted at a pressure of 303 MPa [27,28]
under room temperature to form billets of diameter 20.5 mm and
height approximately 25 mm. The compacts were unloaded imme-
diately after the loading pressure reached 303 MPa. A universal
testing machine (Autograph AG-X 250 kN, Shimadzu) was used
for the compaction as well as for the subsequent extrusion pro-
cess, described in the following section. As a pre-processing step,
the compacts (billets) were annealed at 300 C for 1 h, before the
extrusion process. This was performed to prevent cracks in the
extrudates, which were observed in the hot extrusion of the as-
compacted billets.

2.1. Machining swarf production and cold-compaction

Two types of machining swarfs with different shapes were pro-
duced by side milling and turning operations of a commercial
AC4CH aluminium alloy ingot with cutting oil. The chemical com-
position of the aluminium alloy used in this study is summarized
in Table 1. In case of side milling, the cutting conditions, namely,
cutting rate, feed rate, and cut depth, adopted during the machin-
ing operations were 46 m/min, 0.1 m/min, and 1 mm, respectively,
while those for turning were 67 m/min, 0.1 mm/rev, and 0.5 mm,
respectively. Fig. 1 shows the appearance of the machining swarf.
As can be seen from the gure, the machining swarf obtained by side
milling is needle-shaped and spirally twisted of length 2530 mm
and width 1 mm [27]. On the other hand, the machining swarf
2.2. Hot extrusion
In the present study, the extrusion was performed by the for-
ward extrusion method. The dies used in this study have a C-shaped
orice at the centre (Fig. 2), so that a symmetry axis passes centrally
in the dies. The dimensions x and y were kept as the same, in order to
maintain the ratio between the height and width of the c-channel
products as 1:1. In addition, the corner radius of 0.5 mm was set
at all the eight corners. An approach region with a die angle of 45
was also set to get a smooth transition from the end of the container
to the inlet of the dies. Two types of dies with different extrusion
ratios R = 10 and 18 were prepared, which have an identical die land
length of 3 mm.
 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18
t Grip section
R 0.5
A A
O
y
E
t
x tensile strength (UTS), and uniform elongation. Because the small
x = y = 9.1, t = 1.3 and E = 4.55 for R = 10
B
x = y = 7.0, t = 1.0 and E = 3.5 for R = 18
(a)
AOA Die angle
A O B t 45 reported in this study are an average of at least three tensile tests.
1 (Approach)
3 (Die land)
30
Back relief angle
(b)
Fig. 2. Dimensions (in mm) of orice on (a) die face and (b) cross sections along the
thickness direction.
The annealed compact was placed in a cylindrical container, and
then extruded into c-channels at 600 K using the universal test-
ing machine. The temperature during the extrusion process was
controlled by using a mantle heater (Tokyo Garasu Kikai Co. Ltd.)
installed around the container and a desktop temperature adjuster
(TC-1N, AS-ONE). Also, a MoS2 -based lubricant was applied over
the inner surface of the container, and the taper and land surfaces
of the dies at every extrusion, in order to prevent the increase in the
extrusion load as a result of friction. The ram speed was maintained
at 5 mm/min, resulting in an extrusion velocity of 1.5 mm/s. The
compacts made of the milling swarf were extruded at R = 10 and
18, while those made of the turning swarf were extruded only at
R = 18.
2.3. Testing of mechanical properties and microscopic observation
Tensile specimens were cut out from the steady deformation
region of the extrudates in the form of c-channels. Specically, the
extrudates were cut into side parts and a back part (Fig. 3), and
each part was subjected to uniaxial tension parallel to the extrusion
direction (ED), in order to evaluate the 0.2% proof stress, ultimate
Fig. 3. Cutting of c-channel material for tensile specimens.
3
> 40 mm 30 mm
Tab
1 mm
Gauge section
Fig. 4. Edge-view sketch of tabbed tensile specimens.
width of the cut parts made it difcult to machine a reduced gauge
section, the cut parts were tabbed prior to the testing to avoid
unwanted failure in the grip sections, as shown in Fig. 4. That is, 1-
mm-thick AA1100 aluminium alloy tabs were bonded onto both the
sides with Araldite. The longitudinal strain was measured using a
strain gauge adhered to the centre of the gauge section surface. The
tensile tests were conducted at room temperature at a crosshead
speed of 5 mm/min on the universal testing machine. All the results
Additionally, Vickers hardness test was performed at an applied
load of 9.8 N and a holding time of 15 s using a micro-hardness
tester (model-MVK, Akashi).
The microstructure of the recycled materials was observed by
using optical microscopy. Prior to the observation, the surfaces of
the specimens were polished with emery paper and buffed with
an alumina suspension. Subsequently, the specimens were etched
using 0.5 ml of 40% hydrouoric acid and 100 ml of distilled water.
2.4. Finite element analysis of extrusion process
Numerical analyses of the extrusion processes were performed
using a commercial nite element code DEFORM-3DTM , in order
to investigate the extrusion-induced strain distribution in the
transverse section (i.e., the plane perpendicular to the ED) of the
extruded c-channels. Considering the symmetry of the deforma-
tion, a half of the billet was meshed with 32,000 linear tetrahedral
elements. In particular, the mesh in the die inlet was maintained
ne in order to resolve the large shearing of the material that
takes place in this region. An isotropic rigid perfectly plastic model
obeying von Mises yield criterion was used for the billet (i.e., the
billet was assumed to be void-free and the density of billet was
taken as the theoretical density of aluminium [15]), whereas the
tools were dened to be rigid bodies. The experimental ow stress
data obtained from the uniaxial compression tests of the annealed
AC4CH ingot at an initial strain rate of 0.014 s1 at 600 K were used
as the deformation resistance properties in the constitutive model.
The experimental stressstrain curve is presented in Fig. 5, which
shows the same level of ow stress as Al12Si eutectic alloy [29].
The friction between the billet and tools was considered to obey
the Coulomb rule, with an assumed constant friction coefcient of
0.2.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructure of machining swarf and billet density
The microstructures of the original AC4CH ingot and milling
swarf are shown in Fig. 6. The microstructure of the original ingot
reveals needle-like eutectic Si phases in coarse primary Al phases.
Moreover, it could be observed that the Si phases were broken into
short needle-like particles of average length 15 m as a result of
the cutting work.
As described above, two types of machining swarfs were pressed
to form billets of diameter 20.5 mm. The density of the billets made
of milling swarf and turning swarf was found to be 2.397 g/cm3 and
2.386 g/cm3 , respectively, which correspond to relative densities of
4 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18
Fig. 5. Experimental and approximated stressstrain curves of annealed AC4CH
ingot.
0.891 and 0.887, respectively. This indicates that the billets contain
many voids. Furthermore, the macroscopic inspection of the sur-
faces of both the billets revealed that the size of an individual void
was larger in case of billet derived from the turning swarf.
Fig. 6. Optical micrographs of (a) original AC4CH ingot (reproduced from Fig. 9a in
[27]) and (b) machining swarf obtained by side milling.
Fig. 7. Appearances of the extrudates, as seen from (a) lateral view and (b), (c) bird
view.
3.2. External appearance of the recycled materials
Fig. 7 shows the external appearance of the specimens obtained
through the hot extrusion processes of the billets made of the
milling swarf (Fig. 1a). For comparison, specimens extruded with-
out lubrication are also shown in the gure. The surfaces of the
specimens extruded with lubricant were found to be shiny and
smooth for both R = 10 and 18, while those extruded without lubri-
cant were not shiny and smooth because of the considerable friction
against the dies. In some specimens extruded at R = 10, saw blade-
like tears were observed at the tip of the side parts, as shown in
Fig. 7a. The specimens extruded at R = 18 exhibited warping in the
region less than about 30 mm away from the front end due to the
end effect, but showed straight extrusion in the other region. In
 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18
Fig. 8. Optical micrographs of specimens extruded from milling-swarf billets at (a), (b) R = 10; (c) R = 18; and (d), (e) extruded from a turning-swarf billet at R = 18.
contrast, the specimen extruded at R = 10 with lubrication exhib-
ited warping throughout the length of the specimen. The surfaces
of the specimens recycled from the turning swarf (Fig. 1b) had the
same characteristics as those of the recycled specimens obtained
from the milling swarf. Note that the authors considered only the
specimens that were extruded with lubrication as a target for the
following discussion.
3.3. Macro- and micro-structures of the recycled materials
Fig. 8 shows the optical micrographs of the transverse section of
the recycled specimens (extrudates). As can be seen from the opti-
cal images shown in Fig. 8a and b, the material recycled from the
milling swarf by hot extrusion at R = 10 exhibited relatively large
voids and cracks. This indicates that the bonding among the indi-
vidual pieces of swarf is insufcient. On the other hand, the material
recycled from the same swarf by extrusion at R = 18 had no observ-
able cracks located at the bonded interfaces of the swarf. Therefore,
the corresponding optical image revealed a highly dense surface,
although minute (<5 m) voids were slightly observed. Further-
more, the optical image of the material recycled from the turning
swarf by extrusion at R = 18 (Fig. 8d and e) revealed a number of
voids and long cracks along the swarf interfaces in the corner parts
and adjacent to the surfaces. The cracks may be attributed to the
inability of the turning swarf billets to accommodate large shear
5
strain induced by extrusion. That is, the milling swarf, which is thin-
ner than the turning swarf, has a higher deformability and can gain
entry into tiny spaces to readily form a continuum body without
voids. On the other hand, the individual voids originally included
in the turning swarf billets are larger than those in the milling
swarf billets, despite their comparable densities. Therefore, even
an extrusion at R = 18 is not sufcient to collapse the large voids.
Hence, the severe shear deformation of the material, including the
residual voids near the surfaces, causes obvious cracks along the
swarf interfaces (Fig. 8d and e).
Fig. 9 shows the microstructure of the extruded specimens at
the centre of the transverse section of the back part (see Fig. 3). As
evidenced from the gure, no boundaries between the chips were
found in the materials recycled from the milling swarf, whereas the
boundaries were clearly observed in the material recycled from
the turning swarf. It can also be seen that the eutectic Si phases
were rened, when compared with those in the original ingot and
machining swarf. There was no large difference in the size of Si
phases between the materials recycled at different extrusion ratios
(R = 10 and 18) or between the materials recycled from the dif-
ferently shaped swarfs; the Si phases/particles of every recycled
material ranged from 1 to 10 m in size. However, comparing
Fig. 9a and b, it appears that the Si particles are more isolated in
the materials recycled at R = 18, when compared with the material
recycled at R = 10.
6 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18
Fig. 9. Microstructure of the specimens extruded from milling-swarf billets at (a)
R = 10 and (b) R = 18 (c) extruded from a turning-swarf billet at R = 18.
Table 2
Relative density of the materials recycled from milling swarf.
Billet Extrudates
R = 10 R = 18
Relative density 0.891 0.970 0.998
Fig. 10. Mechanical properties of each separated part of the recycled material in the
form of c-channel.
3.4. Relative density
With reference to the density of the AC4CH ingot, the relative
densities of the materials recycled from the milling swarf were
measured using the Archimedes method. The corresponding results
shown in Table 2 imply that the specimen extruded at R = 10 still
has considerable voids. This corresponds to the fact that the resid-
ual voids and cracks were observed in the specimen, as shown in
Fig. 8a and b. The density of the material recycled at R = 18 was
nearly identical to that of the original ingot.
3.5. Mechanical properties at room temperature
Fig. 10 shows the tensile test results (0.2% proof stress, UTS,
and uniform elongation) of the separated parts of the respective
extruded specimens. The tensile test results indicate greater vari-
ability in the uniform elongation than in the proof stress and UTS,
similar to the case of solid-state recycled magnesium alloy [6].
Furthermore, major differences in the strength level and ductil-
ity between the side part and back part could be observed in all
the obtained c-channels. Both the strength level and ductility were
found to be higher in the side part. This could be attributed to the
difference in the strain introduced during extrusion processes, as
described in the forthcoming section. The 0.2% proof stress, UTS,
and fracture strain of the AC4CH ingot were 133.5 MPa, 191.1 MPa,
and 0.030, respectively (details not shown in Fig. 10) [27]. Thus,
all the recycled materials exhibited a decrease in the mechanical
strengths. However, the material recycled from the milling swarf
by extrusion at R = 18 showed an increase in the ductility. The
observed improvement in ductility is due to the Si-phase rene-
ment, sufcient void reduction, and probably the partial dynamic
recrystallization. Since the aluminium alloy extruded sections gen-
erally undergo secondary processing, such as bending, to form
actual structural parts, their ductility is a very important factor from
the application perspective [30]. The material recycled by extrusion
at R = 10 had lower ductility. Some of the side parts cut out from
 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18 7

Table 3
Vickers hardness of the materials recycled from milling swarf.

Extrusion ratio Side part Back part

R = 10 44.7 HV(1.0) 43.9 HV(1.0)

R = 18 49.4 HV(1.0) 49.6 HV(1.0)

this recycled material fractured with little plastic deformation. This

indicates that the bonding among the individual pieces of swarf
is imperfect (Fig. 8a and b). However, decrease in the mechanical
strength of recycled materials is not a critical disadvantage, as sev-
eral applications (such as window frames) do not demand the full
strength and ductility of as-cast aluminium, allowing solid-state
recycled materials to be used instead [2].
Next, the effect of the shape of machining swarf on the mechani-
cal properties of the recycled materials is discussed. As can be seen
from Fig. 10, both the mechanical strength and uniform elonga-
tion of the specimen recycled from the turning swarf are inferior
to that from the milling swarf. This is the synergetic effect of resid-
ual chip boundaries (shown in Fig. 9c) and a number of voids and
cracks (Fig. 8d and e). The milling swarf and turning swarf differ
markedly in the ratio of surface area to volume, i.e., contamination
level of oxides. However, their effects on the mechanical proper-
ties of the recycled materials are minor, as the differences in the
contamination of oxides have negligible effects on the mechanical
strength of recycled aluminium materials at a wide range of tem-
perature and on the ductility at room temperature [31]. As stated
earlier, the main reason underlying the observed poor mechanical
properties is the presence of large voids originally included in the
turning swarf billets, which were not sufciently collapsed during
the extrusion process. One way to improve the bonding between
the chips and reduce the residual voids and cracks in the specimen
recycled from the turning swarf is to increase the extrusion tem-
perature and decrease the extrusion rate. Gronostajski et al. [32]
states that a high extrusion temperature makes the plastic ow of
the material possible into pores and voids, and that a relatively low
extrusion rate gives the time necessary for the diffusional transport
of matter.
Vickers hardness was measured at two different points on the
transverse section of the specimens recycled from the milling swarf.
The measurement locations are the centre of the transverse section
of each separated part. The measured results are summarized in
Table 3. The effect of measurement location on the hardness was
very small, irrespective of the extrusion ratio. On the other hand,
considering the effect of extrusion ratio, the material recycled by
extrusion at R = 18 is found to be harder in both the parts. This result
corresponds to the trend observed in the mechanical strength of the
specimens (Fig. 10).
3.6. Numerical prediction of introduced strain
Fig. 11 shows the distribution of equivalent strain in the c-
channels extruded at R = 10 and 18, as predicted through the nite
element analyses. For each extrudate, the contour plot is displayed
in the transverse section of the steady deformation region. It can
be observed that both the c-channels have strain non-uniformly
distributed in the cross section and a large strain is introduced at
corners. Moreover, in each extrusion case, the overall strain level
is higher in the side parts than in the back part. This would lead to
higher strength and ductility of the side parts in the tensile tests. A
comparison of the extrudates obtained by extrusion at R = 10 and
18 presents a difference of 0.5 in the minimum value of equivalent
strain. This difference improved the bonding state among individ-
ual pieces of machining swarf in the material recycled at R = 18,
resulting in higher mechanical strength and elongation. Note that
because the minimum equivalent (plastic) strain is given by ln R for
Fig. 11. Spatial distribution of equivalent strain in specimens extruded at R = 10 and
18. (For interpretation of the references to color in this gure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.)
extrusion into simple cylindrical bars, those strain values are cal-
culated to be 2.3 for R = 10 and 2.9 for R = 18, which are lower than
the minimum values in Fig. 11 by about 1.5. As can be seen from
Figs. 10 and 11, the mechanical properties of the recycled materials
are positively correlated with the introduced strain.
4. Conclusions
Recycled materials in the form of equilateral c-channel were
obtained from the milling and turning swarf of AlSi alloy (AC4CH)
by cold-compaction followed by hot extrusion at 600 K at two dif-
ferent extrusion ratios of R = 10 and 18. The following conclusions
can be drawn on the basis of the systematic investigation of their
microstructure and mechanical properties at room temperature:
(1) The materials recycled from the milling swarf via hot extru-
sion process at two different extrusion ratios had lower proof
stress and ultimate tensile strength than those of the original
ingot. However, the material recycled at an extrusion ratio of
18 exhibited an increase in the ductility because of the ne
dispersion of Si particles with sufcient void reduction.
(2) The mechanical strength and uniform elongation of the recycled
materials were both positively correlated with the plastic strain
introduced into the c-channels during the extrusion. Thus, in
terms of the mechanical properties, the side parts of the chan-
nels tend to be superior to the back parts.
(3) The material recycled from the turning swarf had many voids
and cracks, and also chip boundaries, which resulted in infe-
rior mechanical strength and ductility. In contrast, these defects
were not included in the material recycled from the milling
swarf under the same condition. This suggests that the type of
machining swarf signicantly affects the mechanical properties
of the solid-state recycled materials.
(4) The hot prole extrusion of the aluminium alloy machining
swarf for an extrusion ratio of 18 or more, corresponding to an
introduced equivalent strain of at least 4.3, have good potential
8 R. Chiba, M. Yoshimura / Journal of Manufacturing Processes 17 (2015) 18
to produce c-channels of recycled materials with comparable
density and superior ductility to the original ingot. They could
be potentially used in certain branches of industry, for instance,
in applications such as the non-load-bearing components that
do not demand the full strength of as-cast aluminium.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Mr. Toshiyuki Suzuki and Mr.
Toshiyuki Akimoto for preparing the extrusion dies.
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