Chapter 10: Potentials and Fields

10.1 The Potential Formulation

Scalar and Vector Potentials
10.1.1 Scalar and Vector Potentials
In the electrodynamics,
In the electrostatics and magnetostatics, 1 B
(i) E = (iii) E =
1 0 t
(i) E = (iii) E = 0
0 E
(ii) B = 0 (iV) B = 0 J + 0 0
(ii) B = 0 (iV) B = 0 J t
How do we express the fields in terms of scalar and vector
the electric field and magnetic field can be expressed using potentials?
potential: 1
E = V 2V = B remains divergence, so we can still write, B = A
0
Putting this into Faradays law (iii) yields,
B = A ( A) = 0 J
A A
E = ( A) = ( ) (E + )=0
( A) = ( A) 2 A = 0 J 2 A = 0 J t t t
A
If A = 0. E+ = V
t
1 2

Scalar and Vector Potentials Example 10.1

B = A A Find the charge and current distributions that would give rise
E = V
t to the potentials.
k
40c (ct | x |) z for |x|<ct
2
1 1
(i) E = 2V ( A) = V = 0, A =
0 t 0 0 for |x|>ct
E V 2A Where k is a constant, and c is the speed of light.
(iV) B = 0 J + 0 0 ( A) = 0 J 0 0( ) 0 0 2
t t t
Solution: = 0 ( A)
t
We can further yields. 1 2A 1
J = 2 A 0 0 2 + ( A )
1 0 t 0
2V + ( A) =
t 0 A Ay Az
2 A V A = x + + =0

2
x y z
A 0 0 2 A + 0 0 = 0 J
t t 2 2 2 k =0
2 A = ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) Az z = 0 z
These two equations contain all the information in Maxwells x y z 4c J=0
equations. A
2
k k
3
0 0 2 = 0 0 0 c 2 z = 0 z 4
t 4c 4c
 Example 10.1 (ii) 10.1.2 Gauge Transformations
Since the volume charge density and current density are We have succeeded in reducing six components (E and B)
both zero, where are the electric and magnetic fields from? down to four (V and A). However, V and A are not uniquely
= 0 and J = 0 determined.
We are free to impose extra conditions on V and A, as long
They might originate from surface charge or surface current. as nothing happens to E and B.
k
E= ( A) = 0 (ct | x |)z Suppose we have two sets of potential (V, A) and (V, A),
t 2
0 k k which correspond to the same electric and magnetic fields.
B = A = (ct | x |) 2 y = 0 (ct | x |)y
4c x 2c A = A + and V = V +
B = A = A = 0 =
A A
E = V = V +
t t t
K = n (H + H ) ( + ) = k (t )
There is a surface current K in the yz plane. t
1 0 k ( + ) = 0
How do we know? = n cty =5ktz t 6
0 c

Gauge Transformations 10.1.3 Coulomb Gauge and Lorentz Gauge

There are many famous gauges in the literature. We will
= = A = A +
show the two most popular ones.

= + k (t ) =
V = V t
1
t t 2V + ( A) =
t 0
2 A
2
V
Conclusion: For any scalar function , we can with impunity A 0 0 2 A + 0 0 = 0 J
add to A, provided we simultaneously subtract /t to V. t t
The Coulomb Gauge: A = 0
Such changes in V and A do not affect E and B, and are
1
called gauge transformation. 2V = (Poisson's equation)
0
We have the freedom to choose V and A provided E and B 1 (r, t )
do not affect --- gauge freedom.
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d (setting V =0 at infinity)

V instantaneously reflects all changes in . Really?

A
7
E = V unlike electrostatic case. 8
t
 The Coulomb Gauge The Lorentz Gauge
Advantage: the scalar potential is particularly simple to 1
2V + ( A) =
calculate; 1 t 0
2V = (Poisson's equation) 2 A V

2
0
A 0 0 2 A + 0 0 = 0 J
1 (r, t ) t t
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d (setting V =0 at infinity)
V
The Lorentz Gauge: A + 0 0 =0
t
2V 1
Disadvantage: the vector potential is very difficult to 2V 0 0 2 =
calculate. t 0
2A V A
2
2 A = 0 J + ( 0 0 2 + ( 0 0 )) 2 A 0 0 2 = 0 J
t t t

2 ,2 V =
1

2 0 0 ,2
The coulomb gauge is suitable for the static case. t 2 0
9 ,2 : the d'Alembertian ,2 A = 0 J 10

The Lorentz Gauge 10.2 Continuous Distributions

Advantage: It treat V and A on an equal footing and is
10.2.1 Retarded Potentials
particularly nice in the context of special relativity. It can be 2V 1
regarded as four-dimensional versions of Poissons equation. 2V 0 0 = 1
t 2
0 static case 2V =
0
V and A satisfy the inhomogeneous wave equations, with a A
2
2 A 0 0 2 = 0 J 2 A = 0 J
source term on the right. t
1
,2 V =
0 Four copies of Poisson's equation
,2 A = 0 J 1 (r)
V (r ) =
4 0 r
d

Disadvantage: J (r)
A(r ) = 0 d
4 r
We will use the Lorentz gauge exclusively.
11 12
 Retarded Potentials
Retarded Potentials
Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition
In the nonstatic case, it is not the status of the source right Show that the retarded scalar potentials satisfy the Lorentz
now that matters, but rather its condition at some earlier time gauge condition.
tr when the message left. 1 (r, tr ) 2V 1
V (r, t ) = =
2
r d V
tr t (called the retarded time) 4 0 r
0 0
t 2
0
c
Sol: 1 (r, tr ) 1 r ( ) (r )

Retarded potentials: V = d = d
1 (r, tr ) 4 0 r 4 0 r2
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d Argument: The light we see now
left each star at the retarded time f g f f g
J (r, tr ) corresponding to that starts Using quotient rule: =
A(r, t ) = 0 d distance from the earth. g g2
4 r
1
= (r, tr ) = tr =  r r = r
This heuristic argument sounds reasonable, but is it tr c
correct? Yes, we will prove it soon. 1  r r
13
V = [
4 0 cr r 2
+ ]d
14

Retarded Potentials Retarded Potentials

Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition (ii) Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge Condition (iii)
1  r r 1  (r, t )
V = 2V =
4 0 [ +
cr r 2
]d 2V =
1 1
[ 2  + 4 3 (r )]d = 2 d
4 0 c c 4 0 0
 r r
1 r r
[ +] = (  ) + ( 2 )
2  1 2 2 2V 2V
cr r c
1 r
r
r
r
r r 4 0 d = 4 0 tr2 d =
tr2 4 0
d =
tr2
= 2
t
= [  +  ] + [ 2 + 2 ]
c r r r r
 1   1 2V (r, t )
 =  (r, tr ) = tr =  r = r and = r 2V =
tr c c c c 2 t 2 0
r 1 r 2V 1 1 V2
(r, t )
= 2 and 2 = 4 3 (r ) 2V 0 0 2 = 2V 2 2 =
r r r t 0 c t 0
 r r 1   1 
[ + 2 ] = [ + 2 ] + [ 2 + 4 3 (r )]
cr r c cr r r c
1
= 2  + 4 (r )
3 15 16
c
 Retarded Potentials Satisfy the Lorentz Gauge
The Principle of Causality
Condition
Show that the retarded vector potentials satisfy the Lorentz This proof applies equally well to the advanced potentials.
gauge condition. Advanced potentials:
0 J (r, tr ) 2A (r, ta ) 2V 1
2V 0 0 =
4 r
A(r, t ) = d 2
A = 0 J 1
0 0
t 2 V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d t 2
0
J (r, ta ) A
2

Sol: A(r, t ) = 0 d 2 A 0 0 2 = 0 J
4 r t
J (r, tr ) r ( J ) J (r ) r- r
= tr t r- r
r r2 c ta t +
c
A g ( A) A (g )
Using quotient rule: = The advanced potentials violate the most sacred tenet in
g g2 all physics: the principle of causality.
See Prob. 10.8 No direct physical significance.
17 18

Example 10.2 0 I 0 ( ct ) s
2 2
1
0 for t 0 A ( s, t ) = ( z ) dz
An infinite straight wire carries the current I (t ) = 4 ( ct ) s
2 2
s2 + z2
I0 for t > 0 How?
I s2
2
( ct )
Find the resulting electric and magnetic fields. = ( 0 0 z ) ln( s 2 + z 2 + z )
2 0

Sol: The wire is electrically neutral, so the retarded scalar I ct + (ct ) s 2

2

potential is zero. = ( 0 0 z ) ln( )

2 s
0 J (r, tr ) 0 I (tr )
4 r 4 r
A(r, t ) = A( s, t ) = d = z dz
A 0 I 0 c
For t<s/c, the news has not yet reached P, and the E= = z
potential is zero. t 2 (ct ) 2 s 2
For t>s/c, only the segment z (ct ) 2 s 2 contributes. Az I ct
B = A = = 0 0
s 2 s (ct ) 2 s 2

19 20
 Retarded Fields? 10.2.2 Jefimenkos Equations
Can we express the electric field and magnetic field using the Retarded potentials:
concept of the retarded potentials? No. 1 (r, tr ) J (r, tr )
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d and A(r, t ) = 0
4 r
d
Retarded potentials: Retarded fields: (wrong)
1  r r
1 (r, tr ) 1

(r, tr )
rd
V = [ cr + r ]d
V (r, t ) = d E(r, t ) 4 0 2

4 0 r 4 0 r2 A
E = V
J (r, tr ) 1 J (r, tr ) r t A 0 J (r, tr ) t J
A(r, t ) = 0
4 r
d B(r, t )
4 0 r2
d
t
= (
tr 4 r
d ) r = 0
t 4 r d
1  r r 0 J
How to correct this problem? E= [
4 0 cr r 2
+ ]d
4 r
d

Jefimenkos equations. 1 r  r J
4 0 r 2 cr c 2 r
= [ + ]d

21 The time-dependent generalization of Coulombs law. 22

Jefimenkos Equations (ii)

10.3 Point Charges
10.3.1 Lienard-Wiechert Potentials
Retarded potentials:
1 (r, tr ) J (r, tr ) What are the retarded potentials of a moving point charge q?
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d and A(r, t ) = 0
4 r
d
Consider a point charge q that is moving on a specified
0 J (r, tr ) 1 1 trajectory
W(t ) position of q at time t.
B = A =
4
r
d = 0 [ J J ]d
4 r r
r r- w (tr )
1 1
J = J r and ( ) = 2 The retarded time is: tr t
c r r c
W(tr ) the retarded position of the charge.
0 J 1  The time-dependent generalization
B=
4 r
[ 2 + J ] rd
cr of the Biot-Savart law. The separation vector r is the vector from the retarded
position to the field point r

These two equations are of limited utility, but they provide r = r W(tr )
a satisfying sense of closure to the theory.
23 24
 Communication Total Charge
Is it possible that more than one point on the trajectory are 1 (r, tr ) 1 1
in communication with r at any particular time t? V (r, t ) =
4 0 r w(t ) d = 4
r 0 r w (tr )  

(r, tr )d
No, one and only one will contribute. q

Suppose there are two such points, with retarded time t1 and The retardation obliges us to evaluate at different times for
t2: different parts of the configuration.
r1 = c(t t1 ) and r2 = c(t t2 ) r1 r2 = c(t1 t2 )

This means the average velocity of the particle in the The source in motion lead to a distorted picture of the total
direction of r would have to be c. violate special relativity. charge.
q No matter how small the
Only one retarded point contributes to the potentials at any
(r, t )d = 1 r v / c
r
charge is.
given moment.
To be proved.
25 26

Total Charge: a Geometrical Effect Total Charge: a Geometrical Effect (ii)

A train coming towards you looks a little longer than it really In general, if the trains velocity makes an angle with your
is, because the light you receive from the caboose left earlier line of sight, the extra distance light from the caboose must
than the light you receive simultaneously from the engine. cover is L cos .

L cos L L L
L L L L = L =
= L = c v 1 v cos / c
c v 1 v / c
This effect does not distort the dimensions perpendicular to
L
L = Approaching train appears longer. the motion.
1 v / c
The apparent volume of the train is
L =
L = A train going away from you looks shorter. related to the actual volume by . 1 r v / c
1+ v / c 27 28
 Lienard-Wiechert Potentials Example 10.3
It follows that Find the potentials of a point charge moving with constant
velocity. Assume the particle passes through the origin at time
1 (r, tr ) 1 q
V (r, t ) =
4 0 r
d =
4 0 (r r v / c)
, t =0.
Sol: The trajectory is: W(t ) = vt

0 (r, tr )v(tr ) v(tr ) First compute the retarded time: r W(tr ) = r vtr = c(t tr )
A(r, t ) =
4 r 4 r
d = 0 (r, tr )d
r 2 2r vtr + v 2tr2 = c 2 (t 2 2ttr + tr2 )
qv v
= 0 = 2 V (r, t ) (c 2 v 2 )tr2 + 2(r v c 2t )tr + (c 2t 2 r 2 ) = 0
4 (r r v / c) c

(c 2t r v) (r v c 2t ) 2 (c 2 v 2 )(c 2t 2 r 2 ) Which sign

where (r, tr ) = q (r r, tr ) tr = is correct?
(c 2 v 2 )

The famous Lienard-Wiechert potentials for a moving point Consider v =0 tr = t t 2 (t 2 r 2 / c 2 ) = t r / c

charge. 29 We want the negative sign 30

Cont: (c 2t r v) (r v c 2t ) 2 (c 2 v 2 )(c 2t 2 r 2 )
tr = 10.3.2 The Fields of a Moving Point Charge
(c 2 v 2 )
r vtr
Using the Lienard-Wiechert potentials we can calculate the
r = c(t tr ), and r = fields of a moving point charge.
c(t tr )
v r vtr v r v2 1 q v
r r v / c = c(t tr ) 1- = tr V (r, t ) = and A(r, t ) = 2 V (r, t )
c (t t ) 4 0 (r r v / c)
c c(t tr )
r
c c c
1
= (c 2t r v) (c 2 v 2 )tr A
Find: E = V and B = A
c t
1
= (r v c 2t ) 2 (c 2 v 2 )(c 2t 2 r 2 )  (t )
The separation vector: r = r r = r W(tr ) and v = W
c r

1 qc The retarded time tr: r W(tr ) = c(t tr )

V (r, t ) =
4 0 (r v c 2t ) 2 (c 2 v 2 )(c 2t 2 r 2 )
0 qcv tr is a function of r and t.
A(r, t ) =
4 (r v c 2t ) 2 (c 2 v 2 )(c 2t 2 r 2 ) 31 32

#2 ( v )r = ( v )r ( v ) W(tr ) = (vx + vy + vz ) W(tr )
Gradient of the Scalar Potential x y z
1 qc dW tr dW tr dW tr
V = (r r v / c ) = v (v x + vy + vz )
4 0 (r r v / c) 2 dtr x dtr y dtr z
= v(1 ( v tr ))
r = c(t tr ) = ctr vz v y v v v y vx
#3 r ( v ) = r ( )x + ( x z )y + ( )z
y z z x x y
(r v) = rN
v + N
v r + r ( v) + v ( r ) v v y v v v y vx
 
 

#1 #2
#3 #4 = r ( z )x + ( x z )y + ( )z
y z z x x y

#1 (r ) v = (rx + ry + rz ) v = r ( a tr )
x y z
( z Wz ) ( y Wy ) ( x Wx )
dv tr dv tr dv tr #4 v ( r ) = v ( )x + (
= (rx + ry + rz ) y z z
dtr x dtr y dtr z
( z Wz ) ( y Wy ) ( x Wx )
= a(r tr )
x
)y + (
x

y
)z

acceleration 33
= v ( v t r ) 34

(r v) = rN
v + N
v r + r ( v) + v ( r )
 
 
V =
1 qc
(rc r v) v (c 2 v 2 + r a)r
4 0 (rc r v)3
#1 #2
#3 #4

= a(r tr ) + v(1 ( v tr )) r ( a tr ) + v ( v tr )
= v + (r a v 2 )tr Similar calculations
r 1 1 1 (rc r v)( v + ra / c)
tr = = r = (r r )1/ 2 = (r r ) A 1 qc
c c c 2c(r r )1/ 2 = r 2 2
1 t 4 0 (rc r v)3 + (c v + r a) v
= [r ( r ) + (r )r ] c
2c(r r )1/ 2
r ( r ) = A q r
where E = V = (c 2 v 2 )u + r (u a)
(r )r = (r )(r W(tr )) = r v(r tr ) t 4 0 (r u)3
1
tr = [r ( v tr ) + r v(r tr )] where u cr v
2c(r r )1/ 2
1 r
= 2 [ r (r v)tr )] tr =
2cr cr r v
35 36
 Curl of the Vector Potential Generalized Coulomb Field
1 1
A = 2
(Vv) = 2 (V ( v) v V )
c c
=
1 q r
r (c 2 v 2 ) v + (r a) v (r u)a
q r
c 4 0 (r u) 3
E= ( c 2
v 2
)u + r (u a )
4 0 (r u)3  
 

1 q r 1 velocity field acceleration field
= r (c 2 v 2 )u + r (u a) = r E radiation field
c 4 0 (r u) 3
c

where r v = r u.
v = 0 and a = 0
q r q 1
The magnetic field of a point charge is always E= (c3 )r = r
1
B = r E 4 0 (cr ) 3
4 0 r 2
perpendicular to the electric field, and to the
c
vector from the retarded point.

37 38

Example 10.4 Fields of a Moving Point Charge

Calculate the electric and magnetic fields of a point charge
moving with constant velocity.
Solution: q 1- v 2 / c 2
R
E= ,
q r 4 0 (1 v sin / c ) R 2
2 2 2 3/ 2
E= (c 2 v 2 )u, since a = 0.
4 0 (r u) 3
where R r vt
u = cr v
ru = cr rv = c(r vtr ) c(t tr ) v = c(r vt );
r u = cr r v = Rc 1 v 2 sin 2 / c 2 (Prob. 10.14)
where is the angle between R and v. 1 1
B = (r E) = 2 ( v E)
c c
q 1- v 2 / c 2 R
E= , where R r vt
4 0 (1 v 2 sin 2 / c 2 )3/ 2 R 2 39 40
Homework of Chap.10

Prob. 4, 9, 12, 13, 23, 24

41