CHAPTER: INTRODUCTION

1.1 History of the Camel in the Somali Community

As advocated by Bulliet (1975), camels were present in Africa during pre-Roman times. They
first entered Africa through southern Arabia and the Horn of Africa. Bulliet supports his
contention with a number of facts. First, Somali camel husbandry is very similar in its focus on
milk production to the southern Arabia management type and in marked contrast to Saharan
patterns of utilization that concentrate on using the animal as a beast of burden. Secondly, Bulliet
contends that it is unlikely that camel husbandry could have spread into Somalia from the north,
i.e., via the Sudan, since differences in climatic regime would have interfered with the camels
reproduction.

By contrast, the climate in Somalia (including northeastern Kenya) and southern Arabia is very
similar, especially in regard to the monsoonal rainfall scheme, which is a determining factor in
the camels breeding season. Thirdly, there are technological parallels between camel saddles in
Somalia and the island of Socotra, which Bulliet presumes to be a staging point in the spread of
the camel from Arabia to Somalia. This last presumption is supported by Socotran rock drawings
of camels that are tentatively dated to the 10th century B.C. (Khler-Rollefson, 1993).

Altogether, Bulliets scenario, which draws on such a wide variety of arguments, is credible and
appealing. The presence of a colony of domesticated dromedaries of southern Arabian origin
in the Horn of Africa during the 1st and possibly as early as the 2nd millennium B.C. could also
account for occasional pre-Ptolemaic incursions into areas further north, such as Sudan and
Nubia. It is possible that a population of domesticated dromedaries existed in a circumscribed
area in the Horn of Africa much earlier than 1st century B.C., and that occasionally camels or at
least knowledge of and familiarity with them, filtered into the African countries further to the
north. Such an interpretation would accommodate two of the different viewpoints on the
circumstances of the camels introduction into Africa. However, the third hypothesis of local
domestication of the African dromedary cannot be totally discounted. While it is certain that the
African dromedary is taxonomically not distinct from its Arabian cousin, this does not preclude
independent domestication in Africa. There is, however, at present no evidence available to

1
support this theory, although this might be due to our current lack of knowledge of Africas more
distant past. In the same line, it could be added that even Bulliets well-developed conclusions
are only hypothetical, resting on probabilities not yet corroborated by archaeological evidence.

Verification of an early date for the introduction of the camel into Africa via Somalia will require
systematic surveys and excavations to document the movement of an Arabian population into the
Horn of Africa as well as the recovery of camel bones or pertinent artefacts from correlated
stratified deposits (Khler-Rollefson, 1993).

1.2 The Socio-economic Importance of the Camel

Camels play an important role in the local economy of the Somali community. There is little
agricultural land in most of northern Kenya and therefore most of the area is devoted to an
extensive form of nomadic pastoralism. Camels are essential to the subsistence of the Somali
pastoralists. In the Somali context, the monetary importance of camels depends on the way they
are used in the pastoral system. There is growing tendency towards monetarization of the
traditional subsistence economy of pastoralists.

Highly attractive prices and strong incentives are causing more and more pastoralists to enter the
market. The importance of the camel for the Somalis, however, arises primarily from its
provision of milk and meat within the subsistence economy, and its use as a beast of burden for
transporting milk to the market, water from wells, and household belongings when the families
move to new areas.

Besides its economic importance, the camel has a social and cultural importance for the Somalis.
Of the domestic livestock they raise, camels are the most highly valued. Somalis have eloquently
described the practical uses of the camel in their vast oral literature (Abokor, 1986). Apart from
their value in terms of milk and meat, and as transport animals, camels are prized according to
their role in traditional social relations, e.g., the payment of bride wealth and compensation of
injured parties in tribal feuds. In the case of tribal feuds, camels are the only means of payment
of blood money to the lineage of the deceased (Hussein, 1993).

2
Somali pastoralists see camels as a banking system or security against drought, disease, and the
other natural calamities that affect smaller stock more seriously. Their lineage members
commonly provide households that lose their livestock due to drought with camels. Camels also
act as a linking factor between different lineage groups and promote group solidarity. Even
though a man inherits camels at birth from his father and camels are individually owned, they are
at the same time the collective property of a particular patrilineage.

1.3 Camel Management

Proper husbandry and sound management techniques are the reasons for the success of Somali
camel pastoralists in an environment characterized by erratic rainfall and frequent droughts.
Observations and discussions with camel herders revealed that selection and breeding are the
most important husbandry techniques in camel management. These and other management
practices are discussed below.

1.4 Breeding Management

Breeding management consists of selection and/or culling of breeding female and male animals,
and controlled breeding. Regarding the selection of breeding females, all females were used fro
breeding. This can be explained by the fact that, in general, there is hardly any possibility to
select among females in larger livestock species. This is particularly so due to high calf
mortality, long gestation periods, and the need to build stock size. Culling of breeding females
also plays only a minor role among pastoral camel herders. While culling might be desirable
from a performance-oriented point, the pastoralists attitude seems rational and may be justified
when considering the slow herd growth in camels. Elmi (1989) and Adan (1995) reported that
breeding management usually focused on bull selection and pastoralists selected their breeding
bulls according to specific criteria. The herders interviewed widely agreed on the perceived
proper criteria. Consideration was given to the bulls dam (milk production, fitness), bulls sire
(fitness) and bulls performance ranking (body confirmation, fitness, docility, disease, drought
tolerance).

Once a bull was selected, he usually served as long as possible. Some herders have reported
periods of up to 18 years. Such long active breeding is also common in Somalia (Elmi, 1989).

3
The present study revealed that sires were kept in the herd for an average of between 4.5 and 7
years.

Breeding control is an aspect considered important by the herders. More than half of the
respondents indicated that they kept two bulls. However, only the desired bull was usually
grazed together with breeding females. All the unwanted males were either kept separately from
the herd or castrated. Where the household herd was split, the breeding bull was usually kept in
the nomadic herd. Under such circumstances, it is possible that for the females kept in the
homebased herd, this practice may retard the onset of reproductive function during late lactation
due to the absence of male stimuli. In the production system studied, 69% of the offspring
indicated that they allowed the bull to serve his own female offspring when the latter reached
puberty.

Furthermore, most of the breeding bulls (70%) were selected from within the herd. Only a few
bulls were borrowed (17%) from outside. Thus, limited new genetic material is introduced into
the camel population. It is highly possible, therefore, that the local breeding management
practices contribute to a substantial inbreeding depression in the herds.

In selecting breeding stock, herders pay great attention to two main factors in a camelits
appearance and behaviour, and the pedigree of young males. These young males are given
special treatment, care and unrestricted suckling of their dams. By the time they reach the age of
56 years, as young potential sires, they are allowed limited breeding; only after their offspring
have been proven will they be used intensively. The progeny of these males are judged by
Somali standardsmilk production, colour, size and other parameters (Wilson, 1984).

An outstanding male camel with a breeding lifetime of 1520 years, can serve 150200 female
camels during a successful breeding season. Such males, besides ordinary grazing, receive
supplements such as ghee, sesame oil and bran. During non-rutting seasons, they are usually kept
separate from the females and given special treatment and exercise. Such breeding sires are not
used for transport, unless other means of transport is not available. Breeding males used at the
same time for transport purposes are called baarfuran, from the Somali words baar meaning
the hair on the top of the hump, and furanmeaning opened or withered away; while those

4
breeding males that have never been used for transport, and therefore have their hair covering on
the hump intact, are called baarqab.

The breeding of camels coincides with the rainy seasons. This seasonality ties in with the browse
situation and accordingly the physical situation of the animal. The gu and deyr rainy seasons are
the periods when there is a variety of green vegetation and temperatures are relatively mild,
therefore body metabolism is high. Most of the female camels breed during the gu and the
remaining during the deyr. However, if there is abundant browse, water and other favourable
conditions, camel breeding could occur all the year round.

The gestation period of camels is about 13 months. This means that camels which mated in the
gu season will calve during the next gu season, and those which mated during the deyr season
will calve the next deyr season. Normally camels reach sexual maturity at the age of 45 years,
depending on the breed and the forage situation; Somali camel herders rarely let them breed
before they reach full physical maturity at 56 years of age. A female camel accordingly has her
first calf at 67 years of age. Thus, under normal conditions, a female camel that gives birth
every other year will have between 8 and 10 calves in her breeding life of around 2530 years.

Somali camel herders can detect pregnancy in camels as early as 710 days after successful
mating. Specific symptoms of camels' pregnancy recognized by herders are lifting and coiling
upwards of the tail and curving of the neck when approached by a male camel, nervousness,
lifting upwards of the head and pointing of the ears. A number of other more scientific methods
for the determination of camel pregnancy have been developed. These include the determination
of the pH and the specific gravity of the cervical mucus (Elmi, 1989).

Camel calving is difficult, and may occur at any time of the day. Therefore, as soon as the signs
of imminent delivery are seen, herders take a careful watch. The Somali culture forbids women,
especially those in menstruation, to approach a camel in labour for fear that either the calf will
die or the camel will contract udder infection or retain the placenta. If a woman approaches a
camel during labor or immediately after delivery, she is compelled to let the newborn calf smell
her sweat or clothing as a kind of vaccination against any misfortune.

5
1.5 Calf Management

Calf management is considered important by herders and is given considerable attention. This
was revealed by the fact that 96% of the calving was attended to so as to intervene in case of
problems such dystocia. The respondents (68%) also indicated first suckling as taking place
between one and three hours post calving. In addition, herders consider sufficient milk supply,
provision of water during the dry season, provision of good pasture and tick control as important
calf care measures. However, in agreement with the observation of Schwartz (1992) and Farah
(1995), the majority of the respondents (75%) did not allow their calves to access initial
colostrum, but instead milked it out.

This arises from a belief that colostrum will result in ill-health to newborn calves. The herders
consider high amounts of colostrum ingested by the calf to cause digestive problem. According
to Yagil (1994), the above mentioned belief is probably due to the normal powerful laxative
effect of colostrum. It is highly possible that the high calf mortality usually reported could be
attributed to this practice of denying the calfs access to colostrum, among other possible causes.
Contrary to the existing belief, colostrum is very rich in immunoglobulins and imparts passive
immunity to the otherwise unprotected newborn calves (Yagil, 1994). Furthermore, colostrums
laxative properties initialise the normal activity of the elementary canal.

Weaning of calves is at the age of 818 months, depending on the browse situation, the milk
production of the dam, the growth of the calf and the ultimate use of the calf (future breeding,
sale or slaughter). Several different systems of weaning are practised by the Somali camel
herders, of which the most prominent are: tying the dams teats with a softened bark (maraq);
making a small incision in the skin of the calfs nose-tip and inserting Acacia thorns that will
prick the dam whenever the calf tries to suckle; and making a small incision at the top of the
calfs tongue and inserting a piece of wood that will hurt the calf when it tries to suckle. After
complete weaning, the selection of future sires is made, and the rejected males at this age are
castrated, sold or slaughtered. The objectives of castration are to prevent unwanted breeding,
fattening for sale and to facilitate handling and training of future burden camels. Castration is
done during the cooler but drier parts of the rainy season when there is abundant browse, the
general condition of the animal is excellent and the presence of flies minimal. The most common

6
method of castration is the opening of the scrotum and either breaking the epidedimus or pulling
out of the testes. The wound is then treated with traditional medicinal plants.

1.6 Herd and Range Resource Management

The aspects of management practices whose results are presented and selected for detailed
discussion reflect those that were, or have the likelihood of being, critical for successful
production. Some of the specific Somali camel herding and range management practices are
rotational browsing, herd splitting, salt supplementation and watering.

1.7 Rotational Use of Browse

The Somali camel herders divide their grazing habitat into four micro-categories based on plant
cover and soil type:
-Harqaan/gabiibthick bush, clay soil
-Adable/dhoobeythick bush, black soil (agricultural)
-Dooyopen bush, red soil with good water conservation
- Bayopen bush, mixed grey and red soil

For Somali camel pastoralists, the rainy season plays the decisive role in their management
decisions. They have developed an elaborate subdivision of the seasons, related to the rotational
use of the browsing areas (Table 2). This system of migration is in harmony with the harsh
environmental conditions and unreliable rainfall.

Table 1: Migration cycle of camel herds

Season Climate Period Area of stay
GU Cool rainy April July inland scatered
Hagai Warm dry July October Home
wells
DEYR HOT rainy October inland home December
wells
Jalal HOT rainy October Inland Home April river

7
 wells zone herds
plitting

As already pointed out, the success of pastoralism stems from well-adapted principles and
strategies designed to overcome the harsh and variable conditions dominant in arid areas (Oba
and Lusigi, 1987). The intimate knowledge of the environment common to many of the
pastoralists allows a great flexibility in decisionmaking and enhanced ability to utilize all
resources available (Farah et al., 1996). The present study reveals that the Somali camel herders
of Moyale District adopt herd splitting as a risk spreading strategy. They split their herds into
home-based herds (usually lactating) and nomadic herds (mostly dry). Home-based herds were
kept close to settlements with possible deficiency in forage supply, whereas nomadic herds
utilized better distant pastures. Lusigi (1981) reported that overgrazing around settlements and
under-utilisation of remote grazing areas constituted signs of mismanagement of grazing
resources. Herd splitting aims at reducing competition for forage and water resources between
herds, thereby optimising pasture utilisation. The strategy appears to be a desirable and realistic
attempt to utilise range resources more evenly while maintaining the productivity of the animals.
The strategy also guarantees continued provision of milk for settled families. When surplus milk
is available, it is sold in settlements to provide cash income for other family needs. Thus, the
strategy responds to both the needs of the camel and those of the family. The management of the
herd this way ensures a sustainable flow of benefits from the camels to the households while
coping with production constraints.
1.9 Salt Supplementation

Camels have a high salt requirement than other livestock (Wilson, 1994). In general, ruminants
in tropical regions do not receive mineral supplements other than ordinary common salt (sodium
chloride), but depend on pastures for their mineral needs (Mcdowell et al., 1995). The
observation of Macdowell (1995) that such animals consume a considerable amount of earth was
confirmed by the present study. However, the mineral contents in soils are highly variable. The
importance of salt for camels is common knowledge among camel herders. In the study area,
camels depend on salt plants (halophytes), salty soils (kuro) and sometimes commercial salt

8
supplements for their mineral needs. Most herders (70%) claim to follow a regular deficiency
preventive routine. Camels kept in the home-based herd were more frequently supplemented
with purchased salt. This was attributed to the fact that they had limited access to distant grazing
areas with salt plants. Salt deficiency symptoms revealed by the herders included chewing
bones, eating soils from anthills, reduced milk yield, reduced water intake, and increased
straying in search of salty plants.

Periodic salt supplementation was reportedly done once or twice a year in Somalia (Elmi, 1989)
and six to seven times in Kenya (Ayuko, 1985). Mineral deficiency can cause a high
susceptibility to skin disease (Dioli and Stimmelmayr, 1992; Bornstein, 1995) and consequently
affect production. In addition, there are risks of loss or predation when animals stray or break out
of night enclosures in search of salty plants. Camels manifesting bone chewing (pica), an
indication of poor mineral nutrition, was reported by 98% of the respondents. Further, 81% of
the respondents claimed to have seen their calves born with bent or weak legs, which recovered
later in life. A possible reason for the calf-hood defects is the insufficient concentration of
calcium and phosphorus in the bone matrices (rickets) in calves from deficient dams. This
suggests that mineral deficiency is widespread, posing constraints to the performance of camels.

1.10 Watering

The watering interval for the camels was generally in agreement with that of Evans et al. (1995)
who reported an interval of between 7 10 days among the Somalis. It was also close to the
range of 814 days given by Cossins and Upton (1987) for the Borana tribesmen. In Somalia, the
watering interval for camels is 14 21 days, decreasing to 67 days during severe dry seasons
(Elmi, 1989). The overall picture in the current study is that the home-based herds were more
frequently watered than the nomadic herds (after 6 and 10 days respectively) This may be
explained by differences in forage availability, the water content in the forage, and distance to
water sources. The nomadic herds are less frequently watered because they feed in areas with
good and relatively plentiful forage, usually far from watering points. Watering intervals are
particularly important in lactating camels. This is because water deprivation has been reported to
influence milk yield and milk quality. For example, in an experimental study in northern Kenya,
Simpkin (1983) reported that dehydration affected daily milk yield, with yields being

9
significantly higher on the day after watering than the day before watering. Grenot (1992) also
reported that a dehydrated camel was found to produce milk with higher water content and lower
fat content when compared with the milk of fully watered camels.

Lack of water is generally a limiting factor to pasture utilisation in pastoral areas. In these areas,
the challenge associated with water scarcity is compounded by high ambient temperatures and
high solar radiation, in addition to poor nutrition. Additionally, watering interval determines the
foraging radius around water sources. Thus, watering management is closely related to grazing
management. Upton (1986) reported that inappropriate distribution of water points for livestock
could limit rangeland use, leading to partial overgrazing and partial under-utilisation of the
rangeland. Long watering intervals reported in the present study are part of grazing management.
They take into account the available forage quality and distribution of water points. The herders,
therefore, seem to compensate for low water intake through forage by reducing watering
intervals during the dry seasons. The distance to the nearest watering point and the labour
required to water herds may also constitute major constraints to watering frequency in camels.
Better utilisation of rangelands could, thus, be achieved by improving water supply and
distribution, security, and predator control.

1.11 Camel Productivity and Reproductive Performance

Milk and Meat Production

Most of the husbandry and management practices of the Somali camel herders are geared
towards the improvement of milk production and the continuous supply of milk for the familys
needs throughout the seasons. Milk production of Somali camels is 56kg. This production
depends on the breed of the camel, its age, the lactation period, the season of the year and the
availability of browse and water. Somali camels give higher milk yields at the end of the gu and
deyr seasons. This coincides with the end of the rainy season, when plants have matured and
there is an abundance of many types of vegetation.

Under exceptionally favourable conditions, Somali camels can potentially produce more than 15
litres of milk a day during the peak of their lactation. Camels are usually milked twice a day
morning and evening; however, if the need arises they can be milked every 23 hours.

10
Milking of camels is very easy compared to cows, is done with the fingers and is performed by
one man. If the camel is very productive, it takes at least two men to milk it. Traditionally only
men were allowed to milk camels, but nowadays, due to shortage of labour, women do also milk
them. Meat is another important source of food from camels. In general, Somali camel herders
never slaughter a camel for meat unless compelled by circumstances. Herders will slaughter a
camel, especially a male calf, for meat during periods of drought when there is huge competition
for milk between suckling calves and the members of the family. Other occasions when camels
may be slaughtered are during very important religious ceremonies and weddings, or when
camels are either crippled by predators or seriously injured.

1.12 Production of Calves

The age at first calving and calving interval in the present study were 57.412.8 (n=296) and
27.49.3 (n=528) months respectively. Mean calving for the breeding females in the sample was
2.92 calves, with a range of 110 (n=416). The overall calf survival from birth to weaning (12
months) was 72% (n=1,204). The abortion rate as calculated from progeny history for the herds
of the respondents was 11.9%. Fifty-six per cent of the respondents kept breeding bulls born in
their herd.

The age at first calving (57.412.8 months) reported in this study is close to 58 months estimated
by Field and Simpkin (1985) in rationally managed camel herds in Kenya, and the 58.8 months
reported by Wilson (1995) from a study in Niger. However, it is higher than the average of
54.22.8 months for many ranch herds in Kenya, as reported by Wilson (1995). This is as
expected because of the better management of ranch herds. In this study, there was a wide
variation in age at first calving from 28 months to as much as 108 months. Wilson (1989) also
reported such wide variations in a retrospective study from Niger in which the age at first calving
reportedly varied from 24 months to 132 months.

The implication of the wide variation in age at first calving presents a wide scope for
improvement. Forage quality and quantity have been suggested (Grenot, 1992) to assume a
central role in determining reproductive success in ungulates. According to Wilson (1984),
sexual maturity in camels may be correlated not only with absolute age and condition but also

11
with other factors affecting the onset of breeding season such as nutrition and climate. In the
current study, no supplementary feeding was provided and camels were raised on available
natural pastures. Consequently, improving growth significantly by improving feeding is not
feasible. Thus, it appears that little can be done to improve on the late age at first calving, which
is mainly attributed to slow growth. However, Yagil (1994) states that it is possible to shorten the
pre-pubertal period by hormone treatment as a result of which the females give birth at the age of
3 years.
1.13 Objectives

1.14 General Objective

1) To establish the prevalence of camel Trypanosomiasis in Galkaio district.

1.15 Specific Objectives

1) To investigate the prevalence estimates of camel Trypanosomiasis.

2) To documents and identify the possible vectors involved in the transmission of the disease in
the SHEKH district.

3) To assess the economic impacts of camel Trypanosomiasis on pastoralists in Galkaiodistrict.

4) To identify control strategies of camel Trypanosomiasis in SHEKH district

12
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW ON CAMEL TRYPANOSOMOSIS
2.1. Causative agent of camel Trypanosomiasis
Trypanosoma evansi, the main causative agent of camel Trypanosomiasis is a blood borne
parasite and a single cellular organism of the genus Trypanosoma (Taylor et al, 2008).
Trypanosoma evansi is a species belonging to the family Trypanosomatidae, Genus
Trypanosoma; and is the causative agent of camel trypanosomosis. It is hypothesized that
Trypanosoma evansi originated from Trypanosoma Brucei by adaptation to a non-cyclical mode
of transmission and loss of ability to undergo growth and differentiation in the fly vector
(LUCKINS, 1998). Camels that came into contact with tsetse flies acquired infections, and when
such camels moved to non-tsetse areas, transmission was spread by other haematophagous flies.
Additional species of trypanosomes, e.g. Trypanosomacongolense, Trypanosomabrucei and
Trypanosomavivax have also been isolated from camels in Sudan, but their role in camel
trypanosomosis is insignificant (MAHMOUD and GRAY, 1980; ELAMIN et al., 1999).
Moreover, parasitologists believe that T. evansi must have been brought to North Africa by
camels, because equids die more quickly than camels when they contract the disease, and the
Sahara routes are long and slow (Hoare 1972: 583-6).

2.2 Etiology
Trypanosoma evansi is a species belonging to the subgenus Trypanozoon and is the causative
agent of camel trypanosomosis. It is hypothesized that Trypanosoma evansi originated from
Trypanosoma brucei by adaptation to a non cyclical mode of transmission and loss of ability to
undergo growth and differentiation in the fly vector (LUCKINS, 1998). Camels that came into
contact with tsetse flies acquired infections, and when such camels moved to non-tsetse areas,
transmission was spread by other haematophagous flies. Other species of trypanosomes, e.g.
Trypanosoma congolense, Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma vivax have also been isolated
from camels in Sudan, but their role in camel trypanosomosis is insignificant (MAHMOUD and
GRAY, 1980; ELAMIN et al., 1999

13
2.3 Vector of the disease
Trypanosoma evansi lacks the genes necessary for mitochondrial development (GIBSON et al.,
1983; BORST et al., 1987; SONGA et al., 1990) and is therefore unable to undergo growth and
differentiation in the insect vector. Nevertheless, this has not precluded transmission by insects.
It is speculated that the widespread occurrence of Trypanosoma evansi is largely due to its being
spread mechanically by the bites of haematophagous flies, e.g. Tabanus (Dirie MF, Wall banks
KR, Aden AA, Bornstein S, Ibrahim D, 1989).

2.4 Transmission
Trypanosoma evansi may have multiple origins, geographical locations, hosts, and clinical
features. In addition, it has multiple and complex means of transmission, which vary in terms of
relative significance depending on the hosts and the geographical area. Foil LD, (Adams WV,
1987). Trypanosoma evansi lacks the genes necessary for mitochondrial development (GIBSON
et al., 1983; BORST et al., 1987; SONGA et al., 1990) and is therefore unable to undergo growth
and differentiation in the insect vector.

Indeed, Trypanosoma evansiwhich is transmitted mechanically and is not dependent on the

presence of tsetse flies.

T. evansi is transmitted in several ways, via biting insects, sucking insects, and vampire bats;
transmission can also be vertical, horizontal, iatrogenic, and per-oral, with various
epidemiological significances, depending on the season, the location, and host species
(McManus JM, Issel, 1987). Similarly, leeches may transmit trypanosomes, and their potential
for transmission of T. evansi should be explored, especially for buffalo leech (Hirudinaria
manillensis) in Asia. Genus Tabanus, are considered the primary vectors of surra (Nieshulz,
reviewed by Krinsky 1979). It is considering that the widespread occurrence of Trypanosoma
evansi is largely due to its being spread mechanically by the bites of haematophagous flies, e.g.
Tabanus& Stomoxys (LOSOS, 1980). One Tabanus fly can infect three animals successively
(Dieleman, 1986). The method of transmission of surra by biting flies is direct, i.e., it occurs
when flies take a meal on a surra-infected animal, with trypanosomes in the peripheral blood,
and immediately afterwards feed on a healthy animal and when dislodged from a host they seek
the nearby accessible host to continue feeding, a behavior which renders them proficient
mechanical vectors of diseases. Mechanical transmission is a nonspecific process, which can take

14
place when a biting insect initiates a blood meal on an infected host, starts to feed on infected
blood, is interrupted (by defensive movements of the host, e.g.), flies off from the infected host,
and lands on another animal to begin its blood meal again (Desquesnes M, Biteau-Coroller
F,2009).

When the insect first attempts to feed on blood, its mouthparts can contain a small amount of
blood via capillary strength, estimated at 112nl in tabanids and 0.03nl in Stomoxys (Krinsky
WL, 1976). The residual blood may be partially inoculated into another animal during the early
stage of the next attempt to bite, when the insect inoculates a small amount of saliva (necessary
for its anticoagulant properties) prior to sucking the blood of the second host (Ferenc SA,
Raymond HL1988)

2.5 Clinical manifestations

Trypanosoma evansi can infect a variety of hosts and causes a species-specific pathology. The
following descriptions are taken from the accounts of MAHMOUD and GRAY (1980) and
LUCKINS (1998). In camels the disease is manifested by elevation of body temperature which is
directly associated with parasitaemia. Infected animals show progressive anaemia, marked
depression, dullness, loss of condition, and often rapid death. Anaemia was observed to be a
major clinical finding in camel trypanosomosis in Morocco (RAMI et al., 2003). Milder cases
develop recurrent episodes of fever. Some camels develop oedema in their dependent parts of the
body, urticaria plaques and petechial haemorrhages in serous membranes. Death finally ensues if
untreated. However, some may harbour trypanosomes for 2-3 years thus constituting reservoirs
of infection to susceptible camels and hosts. Other well documented field reports are death
(TUNTASUVAN et al., 1997); abortion (LOHR et al., 1986); weight loss, reduced draught
power (LUCKINS, 1998) and nervous signs like circling movement and trembling, unusual
aggressiveness, running aimlessly and sudden collapse in severely stressed and over worked
animals (MANUEL, 1998). At post mortem, necrotic foci in the liver and spleen as well as
generalised lymphoid tissue hyperplaisia are common in camels suffering from surra
(ROTTCHER et al., 1987).

15
2.6 Pathology and pathogenesis
Anaemia is a major component of the pathology of surra and of African trypanosomosis
generally. Anaemia in Trypanosomaevansi infections of camels is reportedly macrocytic and
hypochromic (JATKAR and PUROHIT, 1971). In the early phases of infection the anaemia is
haemolytic and haemophagocytic. The mechanism(s) responsible for this increased
erythrophagocytic activity are not fully understood. Several have been proposed, viz, immune
complexes, expanded mononuclear phagocytic system per se, haemolytic factor produced by the
trypanosome, fever and disseminated intravascular coagulation (Food Agricultural Organization,
1979). In the late stages, anaemia continues to be a major factor, with probably additional causes.
However, irrespective of the cause of anaemia the primary abnormality of function are the
anoxic conditions created by the persistent anaemia. Following this are signs of dysfunction
which appear in the various organs. An increase in cardiac output due to increases in stroke
volume and heart rate and a decrease in circulation time are obvious manifestations. The central
nervous system is reported to be most susceptible to anoxia with consequent development of
cerebral anoxia. The marked depression observed in camel trypanosomosis is a mental state and
is a manifestation of F. N. C. Enwezor and A. K. B. Sackey: Camel trypanosomosis - a review
444 Vet. arhiv 75 (5), 439-452, 2005 depression of cerebral cortical function in various degrees.
Other nervous signs reported, such as circling movement, incoordination and dullness, appear to
be the results of brain tissue disturbance or damage by the parasites. Evidence of
Trypanosomaevansi being found in the cerebrospinal fluid has been presented (ROTTCHER et
al., 1987).

2.7 Diagnosis
There are no pathognomonic signs of surra and so laboratory diagnosis has to be carried out to
confirm infection. Traditionally, this involves parasitological and serological diagnosis.
Parasitological diagnosis is mainly carried out by the direct microscopic examination of blood or
buffy coats and/or sub-inoculation of camel blood into rodents such as mice or rats. However,
the test has a poor sensitivity, often less than 50% (MONZON, 1990; NANTULYA et al., 1989;
NANTULYA, 1990; LUCKINS, 1992; YADVENDRA et al., 1998). The implication of this is
that in most situations Trypanosomaevansi is under-diagnosed and the level of infection is

16
greater than frequently reported. On the other hand, serological techniques, e.g.
immunfluorescent antibody test (IFAT), enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and the
Card Agglutination Test for Trypanosomosis (CATT), although sensitive, cannot distinguish
current from cured infections (LUCKINS, 1988). Recent tests, e.g. latex agglutination test (LAT)
or Surratex based on trypanosomeantigen detection in blood or serum, are more reliable and have
shown a high correlation with patent or sub-patent disease in camels (OLAHO-MUKANI et al.,
1996). A comparative sensitivity test for T. evansi in camels in Kenya revealed 68.8% sensitivity
for CATT / T. evansi and 58.8% for SURATEX, although the two techniques showed no
significant difference (NGAIRA et al., 2003). Similarly, at prevalence values between 10 and
100%, CATT / T. evansi, as well as SURATEX, had infinitely high positive predictive values,
whereas SURATES had a lower NPV than CATT / T. evansi and the two techniques were more
sensitive than parasitological methods in revealing the true extent of trypanosomosis in camel
herds (NGAIRA et al., 2003). Similarly, ATARHOUCH et al. (2003) diagnosed a prevalence of
14.1% via CATT and 18.2% via ab-ELISA in provinces located in the South and East of the
Atlas mountain chain in Morocco. Also, DELAFASSE and DOUTOUIN (2004) using Buffy
coat Technique (BCT) and CATT revealed a prevalence rate of T. evansi of 5.3 and 30.5%,
respectively, in Chad. However, non-validation, standardization, application and deployment are
factors militating against their use in the field.

2.8 Treatment, prevention and control

Treatment with trypanocidal drugs is the usual method of control of Trypanosomaevansi and
quinapyramine has been used in camels, and only recently melarsomine (cymelarsen) (Rhone
Merieux, France) was introduced for the treatment of surra in camels because of the problem of
drug resistance (LUCKINS, 1998; BOURDICHON, 1998). Treatment of T. evansi infected
camels in Morocco with melarsomine (Cymelarsan (R). Rhonemerieux) reduced the sero
prevalence level from 58 to 19% within a year (RAMI et al., 2003) Resistance up to 500 ng/ml
has been found in camels against quinapyraminesulphate (BOURDICHON, 1998). Cymelarsen
is also effective against T. evansi infections in cattle and horses (RAYNAUD et al., 1989) and
animals with surra are commonly treated at different stages of the disease. However, relapses in
camels after treatment have been reported (OTSYULA et al., 1992). Another drug, Trypan,
which is a formulation containing diminazene-di-aceturate

17
(diamidinophenyltriazenediaceturatetetrahydrate), phenazone and procaine hydrochloride is
effective against T. evansi infections, as well as infections with Trypanosoma Congolese,
Trypanosomavivax, and Trypanosomabrucei. The drug is also effective against
Babesiabigemina, Babesiacanis or other Babesia and Theileriaannulata (BOURDICHON, 1998).
It has a synergistic and an additive effect in comparison with other trypanocidal drugs and is
reported to have a painless, antipyretic and long-lasting effect. It has also been adjudged as being
the most effective trypanocidal drug to date (BOURDICHON, 1998). With regard to prevention,
it has been confirmed that a single injection of 15 ml of Trypan affords an animal protection
against a new re-infestation over a period of three months (BOURDICHON, 1998). Trypan can
be used for curative and preventive treatment. On the whole, control of surra requires treatment
of infected animals with effective drugs and reducing blood sucking flies by regular insecticide
treatment.

18
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS

3.1 Study Area.

Sheikh district is the second largest district of Sahil region; it is located between Berber and
Burao District. Sheikh has many historical and famous places including, sheikh secondary school
which is now called SOS and sheikh Technical Veterinary School. The population of the district
is around 32,000 as mentioned in the last registration in (2009), and most of them are pastoralist:
rearing mostly Camel, Sheep, and Goats. This district located on the mountains of Golis, (1450
m above the sea level). The Average rainfall of the district is, about 523mm per year, and there
are two rain seasons: April-may (long rain fall) and September October (short rain fall) .The
highest temperature range is between 24c0 to 36c0 and the lowest is between 5.5c0 to 12c0, and
the average of humidity is around 40%. Due to this conductive environment and plenty of water
the district has high population of flies which disturb animals particularly camel. Some of these
biting flies are vectors of trypanosome evansi.

Fig (1) Map of Somali land Fig (2) map of sahil Region/sheikh District

19
This study was performed on camels living in six villages of southern part of sheikh district
namely:

1) Dubur.

2) Suuqsade.

3) hundusa

4) Galooley.

5) Kalashar

6) Sheikh

The villages were purposely selected, because of their known tradition in camel raring. The study
was conducted in the period Between 25 June to 16 July 2009.

3.2 Study design

A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out from 14th April 2015 up to 15th May
2015. The study on camel trypanosomiasis was done on range districts. Additional information
on camel trypanosomiasis was collected using a structured questionnaire, and laboratory analysis
of the samples and field observation.

3.3 Sample size

According to Thrusfield, (1995), the sample size was determined by using a 95% CI, 5%
precision and an expected prevalence of 58% n= Z2 x pexp(1-pexp)
d2
Where n = required sample sizes
Z = confidence level at 95% (standard value of 1.96)
pexp = estimated prevalence of camel disease (58%)
d = margin of error at 5% (standard value of 0.05)

20
Therefore, (1.96)2*0.58(1-0.58)/ (0.05)2 = 339.24 which was approximated to 339 camels
however due to some little provided time, some technical constraints and financial shortages,
only 219 camels were sampled.

3.4 Study animals

The study population consisted of camels of six villages residing in sheikh district and managed
under pastoral production systems. Specific study sites were selected purposively where camels
congregate for watering and browsing purposes. A total of 219 camels of different ages and both
sexes were used in this study. All study animals were randomly selected from the population at
grazing and watering points

3.5 Sample collection

3.6 Whole blood collection
About 2 ml of whole blood samples were collected by puncturing the jugular vein. Each sample
was taken twice so that incase one get spoiled the other sample will be a reserve. The blood was
transferred into 5 ml ethylene tetra-acetic acid (EDTA) coated vacutener tubes, and transported
immediately to the Galkaio Veterinary clinic laboratory for processing. Number of samples from
each village is presented in the table below.

Table 1: Number of camels sampled from each village

Villages Number of samples
Hundusa 60
Suqsade 35
Dabur 24
Kalashar 45
Galolay 55
Sheikh 0
Total 219
shows the number of samples collected from each of the six selected villages of sheikh district.

21
3.6. Laboratory blood examination
using CATT/T.evansi kit The kit was composed of CATT antigen (2.5 ml/vial) freeze dried
sustention of purified, fixed and stained trypanosomes of VAT RoT at 1.2 and preservative of
sodium azide (0.1%); CATT buffer (30 ml /vial), phosphate buffer saline (ph 7.2) and
preservative of sodium azide (0.1%); positive control (0.5 Ml/vial) freeze dried goat antiserum
and preservative of sodium azide (0.1%); and negative control (0.5 ml/vial) freeze dried solution
of bovine albumin and preservative of sodium azide (0.1%). The test was performed on a plastic
card of 0.25 l size. The plasma was mixed with one drop (45 l) of the reconstituted antigen.
When antibodies are present in the test sample, trypanosomes agglutinate with a 5 min rotation at
70 rpm (Magnus et al., 1978) and any agglutination was considered as positive.

Fig 1: The three steps of the CATT/T.evansi test The figure above shows the CATT/T.
evansi test. The Blue granular agglutinations indicate a positive reaction while no agglutinations
indicate negative

22
3.7 Questionnaire
Questionnaire was designed to collect information about the disease, its clinical signs, Presence
of vectors that transmit the disease, socioeconomic impacts and the control measures. Twenty
(20) camel herders from the different villages were selected for the questionnaires based on their
camel diseases experiences.

3.8 Field observation

Observation was done for the environment to record for the presence of vectors of the T. evansi.

3.9 Data Analysis

Raw data was recorded in excel and later imported in to SPSS package (v17) for analysis. The
results were put in a form of graphs, tables and pie charts.

23
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

A cross sectional epidemiological study was carried out from 14th May up to 25th June 2015 in
Sheikh District of Somaliland. The study aimed at establishing the prevalence of camel
Trypanosomiasis and to identify the possible vectors involved in the transmission of the disease
in the Sheikh district

Demographic characteristics of the population all the respondents (livestock owners) were
male. A total of 25 camel herders participated in the study. All the camel owners were small
holder pastoralists and mostly they did not have any formal education. Most of the pastoralists
had camel, sheep and goats. Out of the 25 responders, only 7 individuals had formal education
up to secondary level, and the rest did not have any formal education.

4.1 Prevalence of camel trypanosomiasis in sheikh district

Out of the 219 serum samples twentysevenwere positive to CATT/T. evansiagglutination Test
for Trypanosomosis therefore the prevalence of Trypanosomiasis in sheikh district was estimated

Table 2: Prevalence of camel Trypanosomiasis by village

Village Number sample Positive

Hundusa 61 3
Suqsade 35 1
Dabur 23 0
Galolay 55 1
Kalashar 45 2
Sheikh 0 0
Total 219 7

The above table shows the number of camel sampled and the number of positives in every
village in Sheikh District. Hundusa village had the highest positives followed by Kalasher while
Suqsade and Galolay had the same number of positives.
24
Figure 1 Prevalence in terms of sex of Camels

28%

famel
male

72%

Figure 2: Prevalence of Trypanosomiasis in terms of male and females

The above percentage pie chart shows the prevalence of Trypanosomiasis of male and females.
The chart shows a higher prevalence in females compared to males

4.3 Types camel Trypanosomiasis vectors

Out of the 25 camel herders which were administered with the questionnaires, 20 of them knew
the disease and the presence and its vectors while the other five people did not know about the
disease and the vectors. According to the study, the recorded vectors with decreased order of
abundance were Muusehurde (tabanus), Dhuug (Pangoniaspp) andXamas(Pangoniaspp

25
Table 3: Types of vectors and the seasons they are present
Village Vector presence Type of vectors Seasons available

Vector
Type of vector Time of vector presence
presence
Dubur Present Dhuug, Duqsifaras Rainy seasons.
Rainy seasons
Dhuug, Duqsifaras
Galooley Present Except Xams which is present all
xamas.
year round
Rainy seasons
Dhuug, duqsifaras
Kalashar Present Except Xams which is present all
xamas.
year round
Hundusa Present Xamas All year round
Suuqsade Present Xams All year round
Sheikh NO
The above table shows the types of vectors and the seasons they are available in sheikh
district

4.4 Economic impacts of camel Trypanosomiasis for pastoralists in sheikh district

Camel Trypanosomiasis is locally called Dhukaan and the 20 participants who provided the
information about camel Trypanosomiasis unanimously believe that Trypanosomiasis has
economic impacts on camel herders. Reduction of fertility, draft power, milk and meat and death
in some rare cases were the main economic impacts that the farmers meet as a result of camel
Trypanosomiasis.

26
4.5 Control strategies of camel trypanosomiasis on pastoralists

Control of trypanosomiasis relies on the use of drugs both to treat and to prevent the disease and
reducing the contact of biting flies and the camel. Suramin and Quinopyramines were the most
two drugs used by the pastoralists for the treatment of camel trypanosomiasis. During the rainy
Fig 2: These chart shown different types of population flies which predispose to outbreak
Tyrpanosoma.
The community were asked questions was nomadic postralim and musty was

45%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20% 15%
15% 10%
10%
5%
0%
Duqsi faras,dhuug Xammas Dhuug, Xammmas
and duqsi faras

ignore so it difficult to know scientific terminology of types of flies.

Fig3: How many times did you relate animal health post during the year to ensure
Tyrpanosoma vector diseases in your camel?

60%
45%
40%

20% 10% 25%

20%
0%

Only one i saw

doctor Some times
Un regulally
Never
27
This chart shown as relations between communities reared camel and animal health post centers

Fig 4: How much number is dies with Tyrapanosoma disease in your herd per year?

45%
50%
40%
30%
30%
20%
15%
10%
10%
0%
1-2
4-8
Above 10
less than have

Shows the number of camels dies with T. evansi per year

28
CHAPTER 5: DISSCUSION

This season when the population of the vectors of camel trypanosomiasis is high, pastoralists
controlled the vector by grazing the camel in the night when the vectors are not active. Camel
pastoralists however did not tell any traditional treatment of camel Trypanosomiasis

This study shows the present of camel Trypanosomiasis in Sheikh district. The overall
prevalence camel Trypanosoma infection obtained in sheikh district was (3.2%). This prevalence
(3.2) is close with the prevalence found by Abduwali (2013) who recorded 2.6%, however the
prevalence of the study is lower than the study conducted by Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture
& Environment, (September 2009)in sheikh district recorded prevalence of 9.4%. The possible
explanation for the lower prevalence rate of this study could be due to the difference of the
sensitivity of the test methods, the sample size and duration of the study.
The study shows higher prevalence in females (72%) than their male counterparts (28). In this
regard, this study is in agreement with the reports from Sudan (Yagoub et al., 1990; Agab et al.,
1997) and Nigeria (Ajogi and Adamu, 1998) who found a higher prevalence rate in female
camels than males. However the results of this study disagree with the result found by Pathak
and Khanna (1993) who recorded higher infection rate in males than females. This could be
attributed for the fact that the number of the female population sampled which were more than
the males and heavy stress during pregnancy and lactation period which could decrease the
resistance of female camel and might have caused females to be more susceptible to
Trypanosomiasis infection.

The study shows that there is variation of positivity between villages and Hundusa village has
the highest prevalence of all the villages. This may be due to the fact Hundusa village had large
number of camel population and it is very close towards the border of Ethiopia which is known
to have the disease, hence the movement of animals from the borders and the possibility of
contracting the disease from Ethiopia.
According to the study, the recorded vectors with decreased order of abundance were
Muusehurde (tabanus), Dhuug (Pangoniaspp) andXamas (Pangoniaspp). A study carried out by

29
ENWEZOR and SACKEY (2005) had shown that tabanus was the most important biting flies for
the transmission of camel Trypanosomiasis.

The study found out that camel herders are economically affected by camel trypanosomaisis
study is in agreement due to abortion, loss of milk, poor production and reduction of the draft
power. This study is in agreement with the study found by Salah et al., (2015) who found out that
camel herders in Somaliland incur economic losses due to camel trypanosomiasis.
Camel herders used Suramin and Quinapyramines as prophylaxis and treatment of camel
trypanosomiasis. Since camel owners administer these drugs for their animals, it is possible that
they misused the drugs leading to resistance of the drug by the disease. However this study is in
agreement with study carried out by Lahr (1986) who found out that Suramin and
Quinapyramine were effective for the treatment of camel trypanosomiasis.

30
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1: Conclusion
Camel trypanosomosis is a disease of major economic importance in many countries in Africa,
Asia and South America. The devastating epidemics caused by the disease several years back is
not frequently seen nowadays, but they do still occur. Although camel trypanosomosis has been
recognized as the most important single cause of economic losses in camel rearing areas, yet
there have been no planned campaigns to control T. evansi using modern methods of fly control
or chemotherapy (LUCKINS, 1998). In most cases, control is limited to treating those animals
that are considered to be infected on the basis of unreliable clinical signs. Therefore, a number of
research issues need to be considered:

The study has shown that camel trypanosomiasis and its vectors are present in the area. It might
be a bit lower in challenge compared to the northern part of the District. The continuous
deterioration of the environment is playing a role in helping the spread of the disease. The
disease is inflicting huge economic loss of the Somali camel herders since whenever camel get
sick children will not find milk to drink the day after. Also Camel herders are suffering from lack
of proper drugs to treat their camels whenever they get sick. And most of circulating sporadically
available drugs is fake therefore

6.2: Recommendations
Farther study should be extended to all over S/land
Identification of the principal vector species responsible for transmission in different
ecological situations e.g. Oogo and Guban
Establishing policy for vector control in the management of this disease.
Government should control the importation and use of veterinary drugs
Since the study was conducted for a short time in the rainy season, farther studieson the
prevalence of camel Trypanosomosis should be carried out to know more about the
disease and its impact and the differences in seasons.
Since veterinary infrastructures are poor relationship; a relationship should be established
between the camel herders and veterinary institution personnel to improve the treatment
and control of the disease and its vectors.

31
 Veterinary authority should introduce a feasible and environmentally friendly method of
Trypanosomiasis vectors control.
If possible camel herders should keep away their animals from biting flies infested area.
Identification of the principal vector species responsible for transmission and to
establishing policy for vector control in the management of this disease is paramount.

32
REFERENCES
Abokor, A.A.: Classification and role of pastoral poetry. In: A. Hjort (Ed.): The Multi-purpose
Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in Somalia. EPOS, Uppsala University,
Sweden(1993).

Adan, M.S.: Indigenous camel management of the Gare tribe of Somali people in northern
Kenya. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range
Management Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range Management Division, Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya, 5.13-5.15 (1995).

Ayuko, L.J.: Camel pastoralism: The Kenyan scene. In: S.E. Migot-Atholla (Ed.) Significance
and Prospects of Camel Pastoralism in Kenya. Institute of Development Studies, University of
Nairobi, IDS Occasional Paper No.45, 42-60 (1995).

Bornstein, S.: Skin diseases of camels. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and D.J. Atkins (Eds.):
Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range
Management Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing,
RepublicofKenya,7.7-7.14(1995).

Brown, G.: Factors to consider in the development of ASAL areas. In: Range Management
Handbook of Kenya, Vol. 1 Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and
Marketing/GTZ,Nairobi,47-55(1994).

Bulliet, R.: The Camel and the Wheel. Havard University Press, Cambridge (1975).

Clarfield, G., Ferri, A. Sandford, R. and Wanjaya, J.: CIDA Evaluation of the Canadian Hunger
Foundation and FARM-Africas Pastoralist Development Project. Final Report (1995).

33
Cossins, N.J. and Upton, M.: The Borana pastoral system of southern Ethiopia. Agricultural
Systems,25:199-218(1987).

Darkoh, M.B.K.: Towards an adaptive and community-based approach to the management of

natural resources in the drylands of sub-saharan Africa. In: A. Hjort (Ed.): Approaching Nature
from Local Communities Security Perceived and Achieved. EPOS, Research Programme on
Environmental Policy and Society; Institute of Tema Research, Linkoping University, Sweden
(1996).

Dioli, M. and Stimmelmayr R.: Important camel diseases. In: H.J. Schwartz and M. Dioli (Eds.):
The Onehumped Camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to Disease, Health Care and
Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, FR Germany (1992).

Elmi, A.A.: Camel husbandry and management by Ceeldheer pastoralists in central Somalia.
Pastoral Development Network, Paper 27d, ODI, London (1989).

Evans, J.O., Simpkin S.P. and Atkins D.J. (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management
Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range Management Division, Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya (1995).

Evans, J.O. and Powys, J.G.: Camel husbandry in Kenya: Increasing the productivity of ranchl
and. In: W.R. Cockrill (Ed.): The Camelid. An All-purpose Animal. Vol.1. Proceedings of the
Khartoum Workshop on Camels. Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, Uppsala (1984).

Farah, K.O.: Management and Development of the Arid Communal Rangelands in North-Eastern
Kenya: A Critical Analysis of the Past and the Present. The African Pastoral Forum, Working
Paper Series No.7, June, 1996. PINEP, University of Nairobi, Nairobi (1996).

34
Farah, Z.: Camel milk. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in
Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range Management Division,
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya, 2.15-2.18
(1995).

Field, C.R.: The camel and its place in Pastoral life: A desert dairy. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin
and D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya,
Volume III, 8, Range Management Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development
and Marketing, Republic of Kenya (1995).

Field, C.R. and Simpkin, S.P.: The Importance of Camels to Subsistence Pastoralists in Kenya.
IPAL Tech. Report E-7. Unesco, Nairobi, Kenya (1985).

Field, C.R.: Pastoralism in Kenya. In: S.P. Simpkin (Ed.): Camel Production. A series of lectures
given by FARM-Africa at the University of Nairobi, Kenya (1993).

GoK: Government of Kenya. Moyale District Development Plan 19972001. Office of the Vice-
President and Ministry of Planning and National Development. Republic of Kenya, Nairobi
(1997).

Grenot, C.J.: Ecophysiological characteristics of large herbivorous mammals in arid Africa and
the Middle East. Journal of Arid Environments, 23: 125-155 (1992).
Hussein, M.A.: Traditional practices of camel husbandry and management in Somalia. In: A.
Hjort (Ed.): The Multi-purpose Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in
Somalia. EPOS, Uppsala University, Sweden (1993).

35
Karue, C.N.: The dairy characteristics of the Kenyan camel. Conference
Chameauxetdromedaires, AnimauxLaitiers, Nouakchott, Mauritannie. 24-26 October 1994
(1994).

Kaufmann, B.A., Hulsebusch, C.G., Atkins D.J. and Gall, C.F.: Productivity assessment of
dromedary husbandry in northern Kenya by use of a computerised herd simulation model. In:
Proceedings of Animal Production in Hot Climates, 15-18th January 1995. Muscat, Oman
(1995).

Khler-Rollefson, I.: The introduction of the camel into Africa with special reference to Somalia.
In: A. Hjort (Ed.): The Multi-purpose Camel: Interdisciplinary Studies on Pastoral Production in
Somalia. EPOS, Uppsala University, Sweden (1993).

Lusigi, W.J.: Combating Desertification and Rehabilitating Degraded Production Systems in

Northern Kenya. UNESCO Programme on Man and Biosphere (MAB), IPAL Technical Report
No. A-4, UNESCO, Nairobi, Kenya (1981).
McDowell, L.R., Conrad, J.G. Ellis, A.L. and Loosli, J.K.: Techniques of mineral research for
ruminants. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin, and D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya.
Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Volume III, 8, Range Management Division, Ministry
of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing, Republic of Kenya, 3.8-3.14 (1995).

Njiru, G.K.: Economics of camel production. In: S.P. Simpkin (Ed.): Camel Production. A series
of lectures given by FARM-Africa at Nairobi University (1993). OLeary, M.F.: The Economics
of Pastoralism in Northern Kenya: The Rendille and the Gabbra. UNESCO Programme on Man
and Biosphere (MAB), IPAL Technical Report No.F-3, UNESCO, Nairobi. 268p. (1985).

Oba, G. and Lusigi, W.J.: An overview of drought strategies and land use in African pastoral
systems. Pastoral Development Network paper 23a. Overseas Development Institute, London
(1987).

36
PAN Livestock Services: Panacea Reference Manual. Pan Livestock Services Ltd., Reading,
England (1986). Pratt, D.J. and Gwynne, M.D.: Rangeland Management and Ecology in East
Africa. Hodder and Stoughton, London (1977).

Prior, J. Pastoral Development Planning. Development guidelines No. 9 Oxfarm (UK and
Ireland). 150pp. (1994).

Rottcher, D. and Zweygarth, E.: Tryponosomiasis in the camel. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and
D.J. Atkins (Eds.): Camel Keeping in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. III,
8. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Marketing. Nairobi. 1995. Pp.7:1-7:6
(1995).

Rutagwenda, T.: The control of important camel diseases in IPAL study area. In: Camel Diseases
and Productivity in the Arid Lands of Northern Kenya. IPAL Tech. Report No. E-7, UNESCO,
Nairobi, Kenya (1983).

Schwartz, H.J.: Introduction: The camel (Camelusdromedarius) in eastern Africa. In: H.J.
Schwartz and M. Dioli (Eds.): The One-humped Camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to
Diseases, Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, FR Germany (1992).

Schwartz, H.J. and Walsh, M.G.H.: The productive potential of the camel. In: H.J. Schwartz and
M. Dioli (Eds.): The One-humped Camel in Eastern Africa. A Pictorial Guide to Diseases,
Health Care and Management. Verlag Josef Margraf, FR Germany (1992).

Schwartz, H.J., Dolan, R. and Wilson, A.J.: Camel production in Kenya and its constraints:
Productivity. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 15:169-178 (1983).

37
Schwartz, H.J., Shabani, S. and Walther, D.: Marsabit District Range Management Handbook of
Kenya. Vol. II.I. Ministry of Livestock Development, Nairobi, Kenya (1991).

Shongolo, A.A.: Adaptive Responses of Pastoralists to the Drought of 1991/92 in Northern

Kenya. A Comparative Study of Borana and Gabbra Pastoralists of Moyale. Consultancy report
on Social, Economic, and Cultural Changes caused by the drought. Marsabit Development
Programme/GTZ in cooperation with Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and
Marketing. Moyale, February, 1994 (1994).

Simpkin, S.P.: The Effects of Disease as Constraints to Came Productivity in Northern Kenya.
M.Phil. Thesis, University of London, UK (1985).

Simpkin, S.P.: Camel Production. A series of lectures given by FARM-Africa at the University
of Nairobi, Kenya (1993).

Surtech, Consulting Engineer: Isiolo Meat Factory Project. Feasibility study for Isiolo abattoir.
Final report to GTZ/ Marsabit Development Programme, Marsabit, Kenya (1993).
Swift, J.: Rapid appraisal and cost effective participatory research in dry pastoral areas of west
Africa. Agric. Administ., 8: 485-492 (1981).

Upton, M.: Production policies for pastoralists: The Borana case. Agric. Systems, 20: 17-35
(1986).

Wilson, R.T.: The Camel. Longman Group Ltd. Harlow, Essex, UK (1984).
Wilson, R.T.: Reproductive Performance of the One-humped Camel: The Empirical Base. ILCA
working document, Addis Ababa. Vol. 20, No.4 (1989).

38
Wilson, R.T.: Camel production. In: J.O. Evans, S.P. Simpkin and D.J. Atkins.: Camel Keeping
in Kenya. Range Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. III, 8. Republic of Kenya (1995).
Wilson, R.T. and Bourzat, D.: Past, present and future research on the one-humped camel in
Africa. J. Arid Environments, 14: 1-15 (1988).

Yagil, R.: The camel in todays world: A Handbook of Camel Management. GIFRID/Deutsche
Welthungerhilfe, 74p. (1994).

Abebe G, Jones T, Bold R (1983). Suramin Sensitivity of Stocks of T.evansi Isolated in the
Sudan. Short communication. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 15:151-152. Ahmed A (2008).

Epidemiological studies (parasitological, serological and molecular techniques) of T.evansi

infection in camels in Egypt. Vet. World J. 1(11):325-328.

Alekaw S (2004). Epidemiological investigation of mechanically transmitted trypanosomavivax

of domestic animals in three districts bordering lakeTana, ethiopia. MSc Thesis, FVM, Addis
Abeba University, DebreZeit, Ethiopia.

Al-Rawashdeh O, Sharif LA, Al-Qudah KM, Al-Ani FK (2000). Trypanosomaevansi infection in

camels in Jordan. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays Trop. 20:233. AHA (2005).

Disease Strategy: Surra (Version 3.0). Australian Veterinary Emergency Plan (AUSVETPLAN),
Edition 3, Animal Health Australia, Canberra, ACT. Basaznew B, Ferew K, Mersha C (2012).

Trypanomosis in Camel in Delo-Mena District, Bale Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. Acta. Parasitol.
Glob. 3(1):12. Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA) (2010).

Agricultural sample survey.report on live stock and live stock characteristics, 11(468):39.

Coetzer JA, Thomson GR, Tustin R (1994). Vectors: Tabanidae; African animal
trypanosomiases. Infectious Diseases of Livestock (with special reference to Southern Africa),
Oxford University Press, 67: 167205. Connor RJ (1994). African Animal Trypanosomiasis. In:

39
Coetzer WAJ, Thomson GR, Tustin RC (eds.), Infectious Diseases of Livestock with a Special
Reference to Southern Africa. Oxford University Press, South Africa, pp. 167-212.

Dargantes AP, Reid SA, Copeman DB (2005). Experimental Trypanosomaevansi infection in the
goat. II Pathology. J. Comp. Pathol. 133:267276.

De-Aquino LP, Machado RZ, Alessi AC, Marques LC, castro MB, Malheiros EB (1999).
Clinical parasitological and immunological aspects of experimental infection with
Trypanosomaevansi in dogs. Memrias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, 94:25560.

Demeke G (1998). Prevalence of Camel Trypanosomes and Factors Associated with the Disease
Occurrence in Leben District, Borena Zone, Oromia Region, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis, Addis Ababa
University and Free University of Berlin. Dia ML, Van Meirvenne EM, Magnus AG, Luckins C,

Diop AT, Jacquiet, DP (1997). Evaluation of four diagnosis tests: blood smears, CATT, IFAT
and ELISAAg in a study of the epidemiology of Trypanosomaevansi camel trypanosomosis in
Mauritania. Rev. Elev. Med. Vet. Pays. Trop. 50:29-36.

Elamin EA, El-bashir MO, Saheed EM (1999). Prevalence and infection pattern of
Trypanosomaevansi in camels in mid-eastern Sudan. Trop. Anim. Health. Prod. 30:107-114.

Ellie O, Abakar M, Abubakar L (1999). The role of trypanolysin in the development of

trypanosomes in tsetse. International Scientific Council for Trypanosomiasis Research and
Control. 120:417-421.

El-Sawalhy A, Seed JR (1999). Diagnosis of trypanosomosis in experimental mice and field-

infected camels by detection of antibody to trypanosome tyrosine aminotransferase. J. Parasitol.
40:1245- 1249.

Engstler T, Pfohl C, Herminghaus S (2007). Hydrodynamic flowmediated protein sorting on the

cell surface of trypanosomes, Cell, Vol. 131:505515.

Evans JO, Simpkin SP, Aitkins DJ (1995). Camel keeping in Kenya. Ministry of Agriculture,
Livestock Development and Marketing. Felicia NC, Anthony B (2005). Camel trypanosomosis

40
review. Nigerian Institute for Trypanosomiasis Research (NITR), Department of Veterinary
Surgery and Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University (ABU), Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria Vet. Arh.
75 (5):439-452.

Field JH, Lumb VO, Adunga NG, Jones M, Engstler (2009). Macromolecular trafficking and
immune evasion in African trypanosomes, Inter. Rev. Cell Mol. Bio. 278:167. Field M,

Carrington M (2009). The trypanosome flagellar pocket, Nat. Rev.Microbiol. 7(11):775786.

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2000). A field guide for the
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of African animal trypanosomosis, 2nd edition. FAO, Rome,
Italy. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FAO (2008). World camel
population FAO statistics.

Fung S, Reid A, Inoue Z, Lun S (2007). Immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin from
T.evansi induced protection against T.evansi, T. equiperdum and T. brucei infection in mice,
Para, Immunol, 29(4):191199.

Getachew A (2005). Trypanosomosis in Ethiopia.Review Article, Eth. J. Biol. Sci. 4(1):95.

Getahun, Demeke (1998). Prevalence of camel trypanosomosis and factors associated with the
disease occurrence in Leben district, Oromiya region, Ethiopia, MSc thesis, Addis Ababa
University, Ethiopia and Free University of Berlin, Germany. Gutierrez C, Corbera JA, Doreste

F, Buscher P (2004). Use of the miniature aion exchange centrifugation technique to isolate
Trypanosomaevansi from goats. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1026:149151. Hagos A, Yilkal A, Esayass

T, Alemu T, Fikru R, Feseha GA, Goddeeris B, Claes F (2009). Parasitological and serological
survey on trypanosomis (surra) in camels in dry and wet areas of Bale Zone, Oromyia Region,
Ethiopia. Rev. Md. Vt. 160 (12):569-573.

Hailu D (2000). The Prevalence of Camel Trypanosomosis in the Salt Convey 24. MAHMOUD,
M. M., A. R. GRAY (1980): Trypanosomosis due to Trypanosoma evansi (Steel, 1885) Balbiani,
1888. A review of recent research. Top. Anim. Hlth. Prod. 12, 35-47.

41
Pegram, R.G. & Scott, J.M. 1976. The prevalence and diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in
camels in southern Ethiopia. Trop. Anim. Health Prod., 8: 20-27. 26. Salah AA, Robertson I,
Mohamed A. Estimating the economic impact of Trypanosoma evansi infection on production of
camel herds in Somaliland (2015). Trop Anim Health Production. 27. Zellecke, D., Kassa, B.,

Abebe, S., 1989. Efficacy of RM110: A novaltrypanocide in treatment of Trypanosoma evansi

infection in camels. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 21: 223-226.

42
ANNEXES
SEX MALE POSITIVE NEGATIVE
SAMPLE FEMALE
FORM S.NO VILLAGE

43
Questionnaires

Ms SUHUUR MOHAMOUD ABDILAHI. Is reference centre and she is conducting a

prevalence study for camel Tryponosomiasis in SAXIL district as a partial fulfillment of the
award of degree in livestock Health Sciences (DLH). You are therefore kindly being asked to
participate for this study. The data from this study is confidential and solely for study purposes.

Section a (Demographics)

Interview number.....................Date................................... Village

Gender...................... Age.....

Level of education Marital status........................ Number of children............

Section B(Knowledge about the disease)

1) Have you ever heard about camel Trypanosomiasis? If yes what do you know about
it?
2) What do you think the causative agent is?

3) How do you think the disease is transmitted?

..
4) What is the local name of camel Trypanosomosis?

5) Which types of biting flies are present in the area?

.
6) Which season is the disease mostly occurs in the area? Dry season
Wet season

44
Other, Please specify.

7) Does the disease affect individual animal or herd?

8) Which signs do the infected animals manifest?

9) What are the economic impacts of the disease?

10) How you treat the infected camel?

11) How do you prevent the disease from infecting your camels?

45
46