Wireless Communications

Small Scale Fading

Hamid Bahrami

Electrical & Computer Engineering

Small-Scale Fading
l Describe the rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes,
phases, or multipath delays of a radio signal over
a short period of time or travel distance
l The large-scale path loss effects might be ignored
l Fading is caused by multipath waves
l Rapid changes in signal strength
l Random frequency shift
l Time dispersion (echoes)
Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading

l Multipath propagation
l Multiple signal paths
l Intersymbol interference
l Speed of the mobile
l Doppler shift
l Random frequency modulation
l Speed of surrounding objects
l Surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the MS
l The transmission bandwidth of the signal
l Comparing to the bandwidth of the multipath channel
Doppler Shift
l Named after Chris Doppler, an Australian scientist
l The apparent change in frequency and wavelength of a
due to the moving receiver or the waving transmitter
A mobile moving at a constant velocity v
Along a path between X and Y with the distance d
Signals received from a remote source S
The source is very far away, same !

The difference in path lengths l = d cos = vt cos

2l 2vt
The phase change = = cos

Doppler Shift
l Doppler shift, the apparent change in frequency

1 v
fd = = cos
2 t

l Moving toward the direction of arrival of the wave

the Doppler shift is positive (increasing frequency)
l Moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave
the Doppler shift is negative (decreasing frequency)
Enhance our understanding
l Consider a transmitter which radiates a sinusoidal carrier
frequency of 1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 60 mph,
compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile is
moving (a) directly toward the transmitter, (b) directly
away from the transmitter, (C) in a direction which is
perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the transmitted
signal
Impulse Response Model
l The impulse response model can be used for the
small-scale variations of a mobile radio signal ?!
l So far, we know
l The impulse response is a wideband channel
characterization and contains all information
l The mobile radio channel may be modeled as a linear
filter with a time varying impulse response
l We need the proof
Impulse Response Model
l For a fixed position d, the channel between the Tx and the
Rx can be modeled as a linear time invariant system h(t)
l Due the multipath fading, the channel transfer function
should be a function of the position of the Rx, h(d, t)
The received signal The transmitted signal

y (d , t ) = x(t ) h(d , t ) = x( )h(d , t )d

y(d , t ) = x( )h(d , t )d
t
For a causal system,

d=vt

y (vt , t ) = x( )h(vt , t )d
t

Impulse Response Model
l The mobile channel can be modeled as a linear time
varying channel, changing with time and distance

y(t ) = x( )h(vt , t )d = x(t ) h(vt , t ) = x(t ) h(d , t )

t

Since v is constant over a short time or time interval,

y (t ) = x( )h(t , )d = x(t ) h(t , )

x(t): the transmitted bandpass waveform

y(t): the received waveform
h(t, ): the impulse response of the time varying multipath radio channel
: the channel multipath delay for a fixed value of t
Impulse Response Model
l Discrete model
l Equal time delay segments excess delay bins
l 0: the first arriving signal
l N: the total number of possible multipath components
t
hb (t , )
t2 (t 2 )

t1 (t1 )

1 2 3 4 N 2 N 1 (t o )
delay bin = i + 1 i
Impulse Response Model
l Discrete model (cont.)
l The model may be used to analyze transmitted RF
signals having bandwidths less than 2/
l Excess delay i: the relative delay of the ith multipath
component as compared to the first arriving component
l Maximum excess delay of the channel: N
Impulse Response Model
l Discrete model (cont.)
l If the channel impulse response is assumed to be time
invariant or at least wide sense stationary
N 1
hb ( ) = ai exp[ j i ] ( i )
i =0

l Power delay profile of the channel over a local area

P( ) = k hb (t , )
2
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels

l Review: Power delay profile

l A plot of relative received power as a function of excess delay
with respect to a fixed time delay reference
l Averaging instantaneous power delay profile measurements over
a local-area
N 1
r (t0 ) = ak (t0 )
2 2

k 0
 Time Dispersion Parameter
l The mean excess delay The rms delay spread

ak k P( ) ()
2 2
k k = 2
= k
= k

ak
2
P( ) k ak k
2 2
P( k ) k
2

k k
2 = k
= k

ak
2
P( )
k
k
k

The maximum excess delay

max = X 0
0 : the first arrival
X : the max. delay at which a multipath component is within X dB
Time Dispersion Parameter
Time Dispersion Parameter
l The rms delay spread and mean excess delay are defined
from a single power delay profile, which is averaged over
a local area
l Many measurements are made at many local areas in
order to determine a statistical range of multipath channel
parameters
l In practice, such parameters depend on the choice of
noise threshold used to process P(!) analysis
l Related to bandwidth
Example: RMS Delay Spread
Environment Freq. MHz RMS Delay Spread Notes

Urban 910 1300 ns avg. New York City

Urban 892 10~25 s San Francisco

Suburban 910 200~310 ns Typical case

Suburban 910 1960~2110 ns Extreme case

Indoor 1500 10~50 ns Office building

Indoor 850 270 ns max. Office building

Indoor 1900 70~94 ns avg. Office building

Practice: page 201, ex. 5.4
l Compute the RMS delay spread for the following power delay
profile:
l If BPSK modulation is used, what is the maximum bit rate that can
be sent through the channel without needing an equalizer?

0 dB 0 dB

0 1 us

0.1
Ts
 Coherence Bandwidth
l A defined relation derived from the rms delay spread
l A statistical measure of the range of frequencies over
which the channel can be considered flat
l The range of frequencies over which two frequency
components have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation
1 As the bandwidth over which the frequency
Bc
50 correlation function is above 0.9

1 As the bandwidth over which the frequency

Bc correlation function is above 0.5
5
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
l Describe the time varying nature of the channel in a
small-scale region
l Doppler spread BD
l A measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of
change of mobile radio channel
l As the range of frequencies over [fc-fd, fc+fd] which the received
Doppler spectrum is essentially non-zero
l Slow fading channel: if the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than BD, the effect of Doppler spread are negligible at the
receiver
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
l Coherence time TC
l The time domain dual of Doppler spread
l Characterize the time varying nature of the frequency
dispersiveness of the channel
1
Tc The maximum Doppler shift fm=v/!
fm
9
Tc The time over which the time correlation function is above 0.5
16f m
9 0.423
Tc = = Practical
16f m2 fm
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
l Coherence time is actually a statistical measure of the
time duration over which the channel impulse response is
essentially invariant
l Coherence time is the time duration over which two
received signals have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation
l Two signals arriving with a time separation greater than
TC are affected differently by the channel
l If the reciprocal bandwidth of the baseband signal is
greater than the coherence time of the channel, then the
channel will change during the transmission of the
message, thus causing distortion at the receiver.
Practice: page 202, ex. 5.5
l Calculate the mean excess delay, rms delay spread, and
the max. excess delay (10dB) for the multipath of the
channel. Calculate the coherence bandwidth.

Pr(!)

0 dB

-10 dB

-20 dB

0 1 2 5 !(us)
Types of Small-Scale Fading
l Depending on the relation between the signal
parameters: bandwidth, symbol period
l Depending on the relation of the channel
parameters: delay spread, Doppler spread
l Types
l Time dispersion fading
l Frequency selective fading
l Frequency dispersion fading
l Time selective fading
Multipath Time Delay Spread
l Flat fading
l A constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
l A bandwidth is greater than the BW of the transmitted signal
l Most common type
l The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are preserved at
the receiver, even though the strength of the received signal changes
with time
l Narrowband channels or amplitude varying channels

Bs << Bc
Ts >> , 10
Multipath Time Delay Spread
l Frequency selective fading
l A constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
l A bandwidth is smaller than the BW of the transmitted signal
l More difficult to model
l The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitter
waveform which are faded and delayed
l Wideband Channel or Intersymbol Interference (ISI)

Bs > Bc
Ts < 10
Flat Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Due to Doppler Shift
l Fast fading
l The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the
symbol duration
l Resulting in frequency dispersion signal distortion
l Only dealing with the rate of the change of the channel due to
the motion. It does not imply flat/frequency selective fading
l In practice, fast fading only occurs for very low data rates

Ts > Tc
Bs < BD
Due to Doppler Shift
l Slow fading
l The channel impulse response changes slower than the
transmitted baseband signal
l The channel may be assumed to be static over one or several
reciprocal bandwidth intervals the Doppler spread of the
channel is much less than the bandwidth of the baseband

Ts << Tc
Bs >> BD
Types of Small-scale Fading
Based on mulitpath time delay spread

Flat fading Frequency selective fading

BW of signal < BW of channel BW of signal > BW of channel
Delay spread < Symbol period Delay spread > Symbol period

Based on Doppler spread

Fast fading Slow fading

High Doppler spread Low Doppler spread
Coherent time < Symbol period Coherent time > Symbol period
Channel variation faster than Channel variation slower than
baseband signal variations baseband signal variations
Types of Small-scale Fading
TS Transmitted Symbol Period

Transmitting symbol
Symbol Period of
Flat Slow Fading Flat Fast Fading

!! Frequency Selective Frequency Selective

Slow Fading Fast Fading
TC TS

BS

Transmitted Baseband
Frequency Selective Frequency Selective

Signal Bandwidth
Fast Fading Slow Fading
BC

Flat Fast Fading Flat Slow Fading

Bd BS
Transmitted Baseband Signal Bandwdith
Practice: page 253, 5.30
l For each of the three scenarios below, decide if the
received signal is best described as undergoing fast
fading, frequency selective fading or flat fading.
l A binary modulation has a data rate of 500 kbps, fc=1 GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
l A binary modulation has a data rate of 5 kbps, fc=1GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
l A binary modulation has data rate of 10bps, fc=1GHz and a
typical urban radio channel is used to provide communications to
cars moving on a highway.
Rayleigh Distribution
l To describe the statistical time varying nature of
l The received envelope of a flat fading signal
l The envelope of an individual multipath component
l The envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian
noise signals
l Probability Density Function (PDF)
r r2
2 exp 2 0 r
P ( r ) = 2
0 0>r

!: the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection 2
!2: the time average power of the received signal before envelope detection, variance
Rayleigh Distribution
l Cumulative Density Function (CDF): the probability of the
received signal does not exceed a specified value R

R2
P( R) = Pr (r R ) =
R
P(r )dr = 1 exp 2
0
2
l The mean value and variance of the Rayleigh distribution

rmean = E[r ] = rP(r )dr = = 1.2533
0 2

= E[r ] E [r ] = r 2 P(r )dr
2
r
2 2
= 0.4292 2
0 2
l The median value of r
1 rmedian
= P(r )dr rmedian = 1.177
2 0
Rayleigh Distribution

PDF CDF
Rayleigh Distribution
l Without LOS - there are many objects in the
environment that scatter the radio signal before it
arrives at the receiver
l The urban environment
l Build-up city center
l Small-scale fading effect
Ricean (Rice) Distribution
l The small-scale fading envelope distribution
l When there is a dominant stationary (nonfading) signal
component present (LOS)
l As the dominant signal becomes weaker Rayleigh
r r 2 + A2 Ar
2 exp I 0 2 0 r , A 0
P ( r ) = 2
2

0 o<r

A: the peak amplitude of the dominant signal

I(.): Bessel function of the first kind and zero-order
Ricean Distribution
A2
K=
2 2
A2
K (dB ) = 10 log 2
2

l Ricean factor K the ratio between the deterministic

signal power and the variance of the multipath
l A0, K-! dB, the dominant path decreases
Rayleigh
l K>>1: less severe fading

l K<<1: severe fading

Ricean Distribution
Nakagami Distribution
l An empirical model that fits measured data in many mobile
environment better than Rayleigh or Ricean model
2 m m 2m 1 m x2
f ( x ) = x exp
( )
m
( E [ x ])
2
1
2

= E [ x2 ]; m=
Var [ x ] 2

12 , one sided Gaussian

1, Rayleigh pdf
m=
1
> 2 , approximates Ricean
, no fading
Nakagami Distribution
l Power distribution
m m1
m x m
f 2 ( x ) = exp x
(m)

F 2 ( x ) = P [ 2 x ]
= 0 f 2 ( y ) dy
x

m
1 m x m 1 m
= 0 y exp y dy
(m)
1 m
= G m, x G ( a,x ) = ( a ) ( a,x ) = 0 y a1 e y dy
x
(m)
Practice: page 251, 5.19
l Show that the magnitude (envelope) of the sum of
two independent identically distributed complex
(quadrature) Gaussian sources is Rayleigh
distributed. Assume that the Gaussian sources are
zero mean and have unit variance.
Practical Models
l Clark model
l Saleh and Valenzuela indoor statistical model

l Two-ray Rayleigh fading model

l SIRCIM and SMRCIM indoor and outdoor

statistical models
l And more
Level crossing rate by Rice
l Level crossing rate (LCR): the expected rate at which the
Rayleigh fading envelope, normalized to the local rms
signal level, crosses a specified level in a positive-going
direction

N R = rp( R, r)dr = 2 f m e 2
0

The time derivative of r(t)

The joint density function of r and at r=R

The value of specified level R, normalized to the local rms amplitude

!!R/Rrms
The Average Duration
l The Average Duration: the average period of time for
which the received signal is below a specified level R.
1
= Pr [r R ]
NR

Pr [r R ] =
1
T i
i Pr [r R ] = 1 exp( 2
)
i : the duration of the fade
T : the observation interval of the fading signal

2
e 1
=
f m 2
Practice: page 224, ex. 5.7
l For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive-going
level crossing rate for =1, when the maximum Doppler
frequency is 20 Hz. What is the maximum velocity of the
mobile for this Doppler frequency if the carrier frequency
is 900 MHz?
Practice: page 225, ex. 5.8
l Find the average fade duration for threshold levels
=0.01, 0.1 and 1, when the Doppler frequency is 200 Hz.
l Find the average fade duration for a threshold levels of
=0.707 when the Doppler frequency is 20 Hz. For a
binary digital modulation with bit duration of 50 bps, is
the Rayleigh fading slow or fast? What is the average
number of bit errors per second for the given data rate.
Assume that a bit error occurs whenever any portion of a
bit encounters a fade for which <0.1.

The average duration of a signal fade helps determine the most likely number of
signal bits that may be lost during a fade.
 Summary: Small Scale Fading
l Parameters of mobile multipath channels
l Time dispersion parameters and coherence bandwidth
l Doppler spread and coherence time

a P( ) 1 v
2

1 fd = = cos
k k k k
= k
= k
Bc
a k
2
P( )k
k 50 2 t
k

= 2
() 2
1 Tc
1
Tc
9
Bc fm 16f m
a P( ) 5
2 2 2
k k k k
2 = k
= k
9 0.423
a k
2
P( )
k
k Tc =
16f m2
=
fm
k
Summary: Small Scale Fading
l Types of small-scale fading
l Flat fading vs. frequency selective fading
l Fast fading vs. slow fading

Flat fading Frequency selective fading

BW of signal < BW of channel BW of signal > BW of channel
Delay spread < Symbol period Delay spread > Symbol period

Fast fading Slow fading

High Doppler spread Low Doppler spread
Coherent time < Symbol period Coherent time > Symbol period
Channel variation faster than Channel variation slower than
baseband signal variations baseband signal variations
Summary: Small Scale Fading
l Rayleigh fading distribution
r r2
exp 2 0 r
P ( r ) = 2 2
0 0>r

R2
P( R) = Pr (r R ) =
R
P(r )dr = 1 exp 2
0
2

l Level crossing rate and average duration

Practice
l Page 250, example 5.12: The fading characteristics of a CW
carrier in an urban area are to be measured. The following
assumptions are made (1) The mobile receiver uses a simple
vertical monopole. (2) Large-scale fading due to path loss is
ignored. (3) The mobile has no line-of-sight path to the base
station. (4) The pdf of the received signal follows a Rayleigh
distribution.
l Derive the ratio of the desired signal level to the rms signal level that
maximizes the level crossing rate. Express your answer in dB.
l Assuming the maximum velocity of the mobile is 50 km/hr, and the
carrier frequency is 900 MHz, determine the maximum number of times
the signal envelope will fade below the level found in (a) during a 1
minutes test.
l How long on average will each fade in (b) last?
Practice: page 248, 5.2
l Describe all the physical circumstances that relate to a
stationary transmitter and a moving receiver such that the
Doppler shift at the receiver is equal to (a) 0 Hz, (b) fdmax ,
(c) -fdmax and (d) fdmax/2