CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Overview

The prototype is meant only to show the concept in practical use and is not the
most efficient way the technology could be applied. When PV cells arranged in a circle
next to each other they could generate power from the entire area under the rotating disc
and not just a portion of the area as shown in the prototype. The optimum size might be
about the same size as a compact disc. Combining the phase matching with the
alternating current generation is what allows the AC solar generator to create AC power
without the losses and cost associated with the AC to DC power conversion process.
This is truly a transforming technology. The AC solar generator has the potential
to reduce the use of fossil fuels tremendously if you just imagine them installed
photovoltaic solar power centers around the country generating supplemental power for
the grid. Existing technology requires solar energy to be converted from direct current
(DC) to alternating current (AC) before it is compatible with the nations power grid.
The AC Solar Generator seeks to achieve the same result at a lower cost and with less
energy loss by producing alternating current directly instead of relying on additional
equipment. The prototype device used to demonstrate the process consists of solar cells
arranged into a circular pattern mounted on a base. Above the solar cells is a spinning
disc with slots which controls each cells exposure to light and darkness. The resulting
voltage is AC that can be configured to three-phase power usable with the national
power grid.

1.2 Need of Project

There is less number of non-renewable energy sources in India. They are used
widely. So after some year, there is a lack of such energy sources. While renewable
sources are easily available in environment. But they are rarely use. Hence for saving
non-renewable sources for future we use renewable sources for generation. A
photovoltaic system (PV system) is an arrangement of components designed to supply

1
 usable electric power for a variety of purposes, using the Sun as the power source. The
solar panels (photovoltaic or PV modules) convert daylight to electricity. A number of
modules are connected together to increase the electrical power that can be generated.

1.3 Project Objective

We generate electricity by solar energy using PV Cells. The system will provide
electricity at a rate lower than coal and nuclear.

1.4 Literature Survey

Solar AC Power Generator By R. V. Rajan IJREAT International Journal of Research

in Engineering & Advanced Technology, Volume 2, Issue 2, Apr-May, 2014.ISSN: 2320
8791.
In this paper, Solar AC Power Generator is used to generate alternating current
directly from solar power. It helped to avoid losses due to the conversion of DC to AC in
existing solar system. This system makes solar energy a viable, cost effective,
environmentally friendly option for residential and/or commercial use. Thus we could
achieve more efficiency than the existing system. This system reduces the need of other
forms of power. Moreover, Solar AC Power Generator can be set up in a cost efficient
and simple manner and used anywhere.

Solar energy: Trends and enabling technologies By Vijay Devabhaktuni, Elsevier.

The global demand for energy is currently growing beyond the limits of
installable generation capacity. To meet future energy demands efficiently, energy
security and reliability must be improved and alternative energy sources must be
investigated aggressively. An effective energy solution should be able to address long-
term issues by utilizing alternative and renewable energy sources. Of the many available
renewable sources of energy, solar energy is clearly a promising option as it is
extensively available. Solar power, especially as it reaches more competitive levels with
other energy sources in terms of cost, may serve to sustain the lives of millions of
underprivileged people in developing countries. Furthermore, solar energy devices can
benefit the environment and economy of developing countries.
Application of Solar Photovoltaic System in Oman By Sujit Kumar Jha, International
Journal of Renewable Energy Research Vol.3, No.2, 2013.

2
 In this research, paper has considered two case studies for optimum selection of PV
array to provide sufficient power back-up of a house remotely located and same for solar
water pumping system to provide water to remotely located community. The paper
presented the results of a research based on the survey of remotely located houses need
electricity power during a day and to find a suitable PV model for a house based on solar
radiation data available.

CHAPTER 2
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION & METHODOLOGY

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2.1 Block Diagram

Fig. 2.1 Block Diagram

Fig. 2.1 shows a block diagram of Solar AC Generation using Photovoltaic cells. A
Photovoltaic (PV) system is able to supply electric energy to a given load by directly converting
solar energy through the photovoltaic effect. PV cells are the main building blocks; these can be
arranged into arrays to increase electrical energy production.
PV cells are arranged in circle on lower disc. Upper disc (spinning disc) Mounted above
the lower disc. Upper disc is coupled with DC electric motor. The DC motor gets its power from
small DC solar cells mounted in the corners of the base. The speed of motor is control by circuit
which is mounted on PCB. The disc has holes into it allows light to pass through to every other
solar cell. As the disc spins each of the banks of solar cells is alternately exposed to light and
alternately produce power. When the portal is half way between the two cells the voltage cancels
and drops to zero. The resulting voltage is sinusoidal in nature.

2.1.1 Prototype Structure

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 Fig. 2.2 Prototype Structure

2.2 Control Circuit

Fig. 2.3 Control Circuit for DC Motor

Fig 2.3 shows control circuit of DC motor. In control circuit there is a PV cell which
supply 5V to the op-amp and voltage regulator. Op-amp circuit is made by using IC555.The
voltage regulator is used for supplying constant voltage to the DC motor. Transistor is amplify
the op-amp output signal and fed to DC motor. By using the preset and op-amp the input from
PV cells is control and after amplifying the signal it fed to motor. By varying the value of preset
we can vary the speed of dc motor. The frequency of output signal is depends on the speed of
motor.

CHAPTER 3
COMPONENT DISCRIPTION

3.1 Photovoltaic (PV) cell

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 Fig. 3.1 PV cell

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that produces electricity directly from sunlight. High-
efficiency solar cells are made from purified silicon. Constructing these devices requires
specialized equipment and extensive resources. However, the photovoltaic process can be
demonstrated using copper.

3.1.1 Working Principle

Photovoltaic cells are made of at least two layers of semiconducting material. The first
layer has a positive charge; the next layer has a negative charge. When sunlight strikes the cell,
the semiconducting material absorbs photons from the light. This process frees electrons from
the negative layer, which move to the positive layer. This flow of electrons constitutes an electric
current, which can be captured in a circuit connecting the two layers. The electricity generated by
a PV cell can be used directly, stored in batteries or sold back to a utility company.

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 Fig. 3.2 Working Principle of PV cell

A chemical reaction occurs between copper and oxygen. The copper atoms and oxygen
atoms form molecules called copper oxide. Copper forms two different oxides. They are cuprous
oxide (Cu2O) and cupric oxide (CuO). Cuprous oxide, a red crystalline material, can be
produced by furnace methods and is a semiconductor. The copper surface can be oxidized by
overheating, creating a layer of black cupric oxide. When the black layer flakes off, the red
cuprous oxide layer underneath is exposed. When sunlight strikes the cuprous oxide, free
electrons will move into saltwater, then into a clean copper plate, into the wire, through the
meter, and back to the cuprous oxide plate.

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 Fig. 3.3 Formation of Array

3.1.2 I-V Characteristics of PV cell

The open circuit voltage of the PV module (Voc) is the point of intersection of the
curve with the horizontal axis and it varies little with solar radiation changes. A rise in
temperature produces a decrease in voltage. Short circuit current (Isc), the point of
intersection of the curve with the vertical axis, is directly proportional to solar radiation
and is relatively steady with temperature variations. Actually, the photovoltaic module
acts like a constant current source for most parts of its I-V curve. For a given solar
radiation and operating temperature, the output power depends on the value of the load.
As the load increases, the operating point moves along the curve towards the right. Only
one load value produces a PV maximum power. The maximum power points line has a
relatively constant output voltage at varying solar radiation conditions.

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 Fig. 3.4 I-V Characteristics of PV cell

3.1.3 Types of PV cells

(1) Monocrystalline silicon (m-Si):
Sliced from single-crystal ingot silicon, highest conversion efficiency among all
technologies.
(2) Polycrystalline silicon (p-Si):
Sliced from blocks of cast silicon, less efficient and expensive than m-Si.
(3) Amorphous silicon (a-Si):
Thin-film type, non-crystalline form of silicon, slightly less efficient and much
cheaper than p-Si.
(4) Copper Indium Diselenide (CIS):
A thin-film technology using materials other than silicon, close to the cost of p-Si.

3.2DC Motor
A DC motor relies on the fact that like magnet poles repel and unlike magnetic poles
attract each other. A coil of wire with a current running through it generates
a electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. By switching the current on or off in a
coil its magnet field can be switched on or off or by switching the direction of the current in the
coil the direction of the generated magnetic field can be switched 180.

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 Fig. 3.5 DC Motor

A simple DC motor typically has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and
an armature with a series of two or more windings of wire wrapped in insulated stack
slots around iron pole pieces (called stack teeth) with the ends of the wires terminating on
a commutator. The armature includes the mounting bearings that keep it in the center of
the motor and the power shaft of the motor and the commutator connections. The winding
in the armature continues to loop all the way around the armature and uses either single
or parallel conductors (wires), and can circle several times around the stack teeth. The
total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around
dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created. The sequence of turning a
particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective electromagnetic fields are
pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created.
These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets
(permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force
on the armature which causes it to rotate.
Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected
provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC
motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The
introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed speed
control. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive
power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric cars as well as
driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small
as toys and disc drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines.

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 If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo.
This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric cars or
to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train
line when they slow down. This process is called regenerative braking on hybrid and
electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to
slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large
battery packs to recapture some of this energy.

The input is electrical energy (from the supply source), and the output is
mechanical energy (to the load).

Fig. 3.6 Electromechanical energy conversion

3.3 IC 555
These devices are precision timing circuits capable of producing accurate time delays or
oscillation. The threshold and trigger levels normally are two-thirds and one-third, respectively,
of VCC. These levels can be altered by use of the control-voltage terminal. When the trigger
input falls below the trigger level, the flip-flop is set and the output goes high. If the trigger input
is above the trigger level and the threshold input is above the threshold level, the flip-flop is reset
and the output is low.

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 Fig. 3.7 Pin Configuration of 555 Timer IC

The IC 555 has three operating modes:

1. Monostable mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM)
and so on.
2. Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. The 555 can be used
as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse length. E.g. selecting a thermistor
as timing resistor allows the use of the 555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the
output pulse is determined by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit
can then convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide calibration
means.

3. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not
connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce-free latched switches.

Table No. 3.1 IC 555 Pin Description

Pin Name Purpose

1 GND Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V).
The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input falls below
2 TRIG 1/2 of CTRL voltage (hence TRIG is typically 1/3 VCC, CTRL being 2/3 VCC
by default, if CTRL is left open).

3 OUT This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +VCC or GND.

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but the timing
4 RESET does not begin again until RESET rises above approximately 0.7 volts.
Overrides TRIG which overrides THR.

5 CTRL Provides "control" access to the internal voltage divider (by default, 2/3 VCC).
The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at THR is greater than
6 THR that at CTRL (2/3 V
CC if CTRL is open).
Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between intervals. In
7 DIS
phase with output.

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 8 VCC Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V depending on the
variation.

3.4 Voltage Regulator 7805

7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear
voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give
the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant
value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides
+5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output
pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Chapter 5

Op-amp

Fig. 3.8 Voltage Regulator 7805

Table No. 3.2 Voltage Regulator 7805 Pin Description

Pin Description:
Pin No Function Name

1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

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 3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

3.5 Transistor TIP 122

In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch
electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor material, with at least
three terminals for connection to external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistors terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled power can be much larger than the controlling power, the transistor provides
amplification of a signal.

Fig. 3.9 Transistor TIP 122

Transistors are categorized by:

Semiconductor material:- germanium, silicon, gallium arsenide, silicon carbide.
Structure:- BJT, JFET, MOSFET, IGBT.
Polarity:- NPN, PNP, N-channel, P-channel.

Function model of an NPN transistor

The base-emitter junction behaves like a diode.

14
 A base current flows only when the voltage across the base-emitter junction is
0.7v or more.
The small base-emitter current controls the large collector current .

Properties
Transistors have a maximum collector current rating.

The current gain can vary widely, even for transistors of the same type.
A transistor that is full on is said to be saturated.
When a transistor is saturated the collector-emitter voltage is reduced to almost 0V.
3.6 Resistor

A resistor is an electrical component that limits or regulates the flow of electrical current
in an electronic circuit. Resistors can also be used to provide a specific voltage for an active
device such as a transistor. All other factors being equal, in a direct-current (DC) circuit, the
current through a resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance, and directly proportional to
the voltage across it. This is the well-known Ohm's Law. In alternating-current (AC) circuits, this
rule also applies as long as the resistor does not contain inductance or capacitance.

Fig. 3.10 Color Band of Resistor

Table No. 3.3 Color Coding

15
3.7 Potentiometer

Fig. 3.11 Potentiometer

Table No. 3.4 Specification of Potentiometer

16
 Specification Value
Family 3296
Product Type Potentiometer
Type Trimmer
Resistance (Ohms) 100000
Tolerance (%) 10
Number of Turns 25
Temperature Coefficient (ppm/Cel) 100
Termination Style Pin
Shaft Diameter (mm) 2.19
Width (mm) 4.83
Height (mm) 11.55
Length (mm) 9.53

CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 Card Board

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 Fig. 4.1 Card board

It is a base on which Photovoltaic cells and circuitry is mounted. It is insulated by century

paper. Its size is 2 feet length and 1 foot in width. The PV cells are mounted in circular manner
on card board.

4.1.1 PV cells connection

Fig. 4.2 PV cells connection

The PV cells are mounted on the card board in circular manner. Alternate mounted PV cells
are arranged in parallel and this two parallel array are connected in anti-parallel.

4.1.2 Hardware Implementation

Fig. 4.3
Hardware Implementation

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 The PV cells are mounted on the card board in circular manner. Above which a spinning
disc is coupled with DC motor which is powered by another PV cells. Alternate mounted PV
cells are arranged in parallel and this two parallel array are connected in anti-parallel.
The upper spinning disc has a portal cut into it to allow sun rays on the alternate PV cells.
As the disc is rotate and rays falling on alternate PV cells. Due to this, it produce alternate power.
When the rays falling on three cells, other three cells are in dark. When the portal is half way
between three cells, voltage cancels and drop to zero. And produce sinusoidal or AC power. The
speed of spinning disc is controlled by OP-AMP circuit.
To increase the voltage, PV cells are arranged in Series And To increase the current, they
are connected in Parallel.

4.2 PCB Designing

4.2.1 Introduction
PCB was basically design as an interconnection method suitable for mass production.
This scheme is reduced with size and weight of equipment and also helped to reduce the
wiring errors. PCB design is very essential to make products that are reliable and competitive
in market. The following check list uses the major areas of concern in process of PCB
design:Optimum size and shape of board should be ensured.
a. The substrate should be selected properly by taking into considerations its cost,
mechanical properties and electrical properties.
b. Layout of conductor pattern should be taking care of from cross talk, leakage
sheilding, number of jumpers required and their placements.
c. Selection of conductor width, thickness and spacing should be done after analyzing
their placement.
d. The single sided PCBs are mostly used in entertainment electronics where
manufacturing cost has to be kept minimum.

4.2.2 Substrate material selection

The mechanical properties that should be considered are water absorption,
coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal ratings, tensile strength, shear strength, impact
strength etc. For most PCB applications the dielectric base material is chosen from one of
the four items given below-
a. Phenolic Resin impregnated paper
b. Acrylic polyster impregnated fibre glass, cloth
c. Epoxy impregnated paper

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 d. Epoxy impregnated fibre glass cloth

Some of the important technical consideration involved in selecting coating materials

are-
a. Effects of humidity and temperature on installation resistance of coating
material.
b. Flexibility of material
c. Resistance to tracking during thermal shock
d. Ease of application on PCB and also the ease with which it can be removed
while preparing the PCB.

4.2.3 Artwork Preparation

The generation of PCB artwork should be considered as the first step of PCB
manufacturing process. Different procedures are available to prepare a good network.
Among them the black taping on transparent base foil is widely used in industries.

4.2.4 PCB Preparation

The several boards of the same design are to be made of a complicated layout,
therefore it is worth considering photographic methods .There are several ways of
transferring a layout into copper laminated board photographically, the clean copper
laminated board is then coated with a positive photo resist such as fotolack according to
the manufacturers instruction, the master artwork is placed in contact with the resist and
exposed to light.
The exposed part is then placed in a developer path. The board is then wash and
each in normal wave negative photo resist are also available, these are used and then
unexposed portions of the resist are developed away of course negative photo resist in tail
the use of a negative master, that is a black background with transparent area for the track
pattern. This must be produced by making a contact point of the positive master on the
photographic film.

4.2.5 Etching
Final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all unwanted copper, which
is not protected by an each resistor. Under etching and over etching complicate the
matter. Etching can be obtained by two methods:
a) Over hang
b) Spray etching

4.2.6 Drilling

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 Drilling of component mounting holes into PCB is most important mechanical
machining operation in PCB production process. Holes are made by drilling whenever a
superior hole finish for plated through whole is required and where the tooling cost fit a
punching tool cannot be justified. Therefore drilling is applied by a professional grade
PCB manufacturer are generally in at smaller PCB production plants and labs.
The important of hole drilling into PCB has further gone up with electronic component
miniaturization and its need for smaller hole diameter. Diameter less than half the board
thickness and higher package density where hole punching is practically rules out.
4.2.7 Component mounting
Mounting of component goes along way in enhancing the reliability of PCB
special provision should be for holding a large component. Noisy component should be
properly shielded. The mounting of all components has to confirm to accept practices.
Smaller component do not need special provision. The solder joint provides the
mechanical fixation. Bigger and heavier components are adequately secured with clamps
or clips and suitable space has to be provided in the layout. Any rectangular shape
component should be mounted only in one of the two main direction of the board
preferably in rows.
4.2.8 Soldering Iron
For making reliable electrical connections between component lead and copper
track soldering is essential. For electric soldering wire of lead or tin is used. This alloy
wire melts at relatively low temperature that is about 200 degree Celsius. For this purpose
soldering iron is used. It forms a molecular bond with the component track.The soldering
iron is used for home construction purpose. This is typically consisting of thermally and
electrically insulated handle from which protrudes a stainless steel shaft containing a
ceramic encapsulated electrical heating element.

21
 Fig. 4.4 PCB Design

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Result
5V +/-2V AC power is obtained from PV cells. And AC waveform is shows on CRO or
DSO.

Fig. 5.1 Output Voltage

5.1.1 Output waveforms

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 Fig. 5.2 Output Waveform

5.2 Conclusion
PV cells are used for generate DC power from solar energy. In this project, the PV cells
are converted solar energy directly into AC power. It reduce the DC to AC conversion, cost of
inverter, battery and their maintenance. This system reduce the need of other forms of power.

5.3 Advantages
Generates free energy from the sun.
There is no use of Battery & Invertors

Non-polluting energy reduces emissions.

Has no direct impact on the environment.

Its easily scalable.

Can be installed and operated anywhere including areas of difficult access and
remote locations.

Helps get us off dependence on foreign oil.

PV cells make no noise and give off no exhaust.

5.4 Application
This project demonstrates the utilization of the renewable resource (solar energy)
in an efficient way.
It is used in home appliances.
They are used to power traffic signs and lighting.

5.5 Future Scope

23
 If we replaced the solar panels in place of PV cells and array of such prototype, we will
generate more power and installed photovoltaic solar power centers around the country
generating supplemental power for the grid.

REFERENCES

[1] Solar AC Power Generator By R. R. Rajanetetall IJREAT International Journal of

Research in Engineering & Advanced Technology, Volume 2, Issue 2, Apr-May, 2014.
ISSN: 2320 8791.
[2] Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews in Elsevier Solar energy: Trends and
enabling technologies By Vijay Devabhaktuni.

[3] Application of Solar Photovoltaic System in Oman By Sujit Kumar Jha, International
Journal Of Renewable Energy Research Vol.3, No.2, 2013.

[4] Jason Oliver -New AC Solar Generator Invention Could Revolutionize Solar Power
Production2010.

[5] Sanbo Pan and XiafeiHao -Power Management and Simulation of Renewable DC Power
System ICCEE 2010.

[6] R. Foster, M. Ghassemi and A. Cota, Solar Energy, Renewable Energy and the
Environmental, CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, ISBN 978-1-4200-
7566-3, (2010).

[7] A.A.W. Sayigh, Renewable energy: global progress and examples, Renewable Energy,
WREN, 2001, pp. 15-17.

24
 [8] Solar Photovoltaic Energy Generation And Conversion- From Devices To Grid
Integration By HuiyingZheng, Shuhui Li et all Department of Electrical & Computer
Engineering in the Graduate School of The University of Alabama, 2013.

APPENDIX
MATERIAL AND COSTING

SR. NO. MATERIAL COST QUANTITY TOTAL

1 PV CELL 500/- 09 4500.00

2 CARD BOARD 500/- 01 500.00

3 DC MOTOR 200/- 01 200.00

4 UPPER DISC 200/- 01 200.00

5 PCB PLATE 75/- 01 75.00

6 VR 7805 20/- 01 20.00

7 LED 3/- 10 30.00

8 IC 555 40/- 01 40.00

9 TRANSISTOR TIP 122 20/- 01 20.00

10 RESISTOR 10K 10/- 01 10.00

11 RESISTOR 100K 20/- 01 20.00

12 POTENTIOMETER 25/- 01 25.00

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13 WIRE 5/- 15Ft 75.00

14 OTHER - - 800.00

TOTAL 6515/-

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