Chapter 1 - Introduction To Cross Flow Turbine Theory

3/23/2017 Chapter1:IntroductiontoCrossFlowturbinetheory
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HydraulicsEngineeringManual
Chapter1:IntroductiontoCrossFlowturbinetheory
1.1Definitionsandfundamentalrelations
1.2.TheconceptoftheCrossFlowturbine
1.3.TheCrossFlowrunnerandinlettheory
CONTRACTTEXT
EXPANDCONTENTS
DETACH
NOHIGHLIGHTING
Chapter1:IntroductiontoCrossFlowturbinetheory
1.1Definitionsandfundamentalrelations
(Illustrationsandtextarebasedon[9])
1.1.1 Steadyflowequation
1.1.2 Equationofcontinuity
1.1.3 BERNOULLI'sequation
1.1.4 Dynamic pressure and stagnation
point
1.1.5 Angularmomentumequation
1.1.6 Velocitytriangles
1.1.7 EULERequation
1.1.1Steadystateflow
Flowissteadyoratequilibriumiftherelationshipoftwodifferentvaluesofvelocityobservedatdifferentpointsremainsconstantlythe
same.ThisisthecaseiftheflowrateofafluidthroughbothcrosssectionalareasAandBinfig.1.1areequal.Flowthroughapipe,
fromanoverheadtankwithconstantwaterleveltoalowerpoint,issteady.Ifthecrosssectionalareaofthepipeoutletischanged,flow
willreachsteadystateonlyafterreachinganewequilibrium.
Fig.1.1:Steadystateflow
1.1.2Theequationofcontinuity
IfQ[m3/s]istheflowrateofafluidthroughacrosssectionalareaA[m2],withanequalvelocityc[m/s]atallpoints,theequationof
continuityholdstrueforsteadystateflow:
{1.1}Q=cA=constant
TheobservedcrosssectionalareaAmustbeperpendiculartoallstreamlinesoftheflow.Forallpracticalpurposesthisisthecaseifthe
crosssectionalareaisperpendiculartotheaxisoftheconduit.
http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d0000000off0hdl000010000direct10401l11en5020about00010004001110 1/32
1.1.3BERNOULLI'sequation
Theflowenergyinallelementsofaflowingfluidiscomposedofthreecomponents:
a)thepotentialenergycomponent,whichtakesthevalue:
Wh
whereWistheweightoftheliquidandhistheperpendiculardistanceorheadaboveareferencelevel.
b)thepressureenergycomponent,whichtakesthevalueof:
wherepisthepressure[kg/m2]andg[kg/m3]isthedensityofthefluid(e.g.thepressureheadp/g),and
c)thevelocity(orkinetic)energycomponent,whichresultsfromthevelocityhead:
(accordingtothelawofTORICELLI,
),wheregisthegravitationalconstantandhisthehead,andtheweightWofthefluid,atavalueof
Theenergyheadcontainedinlkgoffluidistherefore:
{1.2}
Forpracticalpurposesofthestudyofflow,wemayassumethatallfluidelementscontainequalamountsofenergyattheentrypointinto
theobservedsystem,sothatequation{1.2}isvalidfortheentiresystem.Ifnoenergyisfedintothesystemorextracted,wehavethe
condition:
{1.3}
Equation{1.3}isBERNOULLI'sequation,expressingthatnoenergylossesoccurinasteadystateflowsystemwithinviscid(freeof
friction)fluids.Undertheconditionofh=constant,andforflowperpendiculartothecrosssectionalareaofreference,wehave:
{1.4}
Itispossibletoderivefromequation{1.4}thatatpointsoflowerpressure,highervelocitiesmustexist,andviceversa.Inaconduitof
continuouslydecreasingcrosssectionalarea,whereflowvelocityincreasesaccordingtoequation{1.1}inproportiontothedecreaseof
thecrosssectionalarea,pressuredropscontinuously.However,ifvelocityincreasestoomuch,resultinginexcessivepressuredecrease,
separation of the fluid may result. In this situation, vapor bubbles form in the water as soon as the pressure has decreased to a point
belowthevaporpressureofthefluid.Thisphenomenoniscalledcavitation,andisusuallyaccompaniedbysoundgeneratedbyvapor
bubblescollapsing.Beginningcavitationresultsinacracklingorlightrustlingnoise,ornoiseasifgravelispassingthroughthemachine.
Incaseofcompleteflowseparation,noiseincreasestosoundslikemachinegunfireorthunder.
1.1.4Dynamicpressureandstagnationpoint
Ifflowpassesbyanimergedobject(suchasinfig.1.2),therewillbeastreamlinewhichisdividedattheleadingedgeoftheobjectand
whichunitesagainatthedownstreamedgeoftheobject.
Fig.1.2:Roundedleadingedgeofanobjectimergedinaflowingfluid.S=stagnationpoint
Thepointsatwhichthishappensarenamedupstreamanddownstreamstagnationpoint,respectively(notationSinfig.1.2),because
relativetotheobject,nowvelocilyatpointSiszero.Thedynamicpressurehdyn[metersoffluidcolumn],resultingfromthestagnated
flowis:
{1.5}
Thedynamicpressurepdyninpressureunits[kg/m2]takesthevalueof:
{1.6}
wherethedensityis:
1.1.5Angularmomentumequation
Forpurelyrotationalflow,thelawofangularmomentumisapplied:
{1.7}r1c1=r2c2=rc=constant
Rotationalflowischaracterizedbyfluidelementsmovingvortexlikeonaplanewithacommoncenter.Wemaydeterminefromthis
equation,whichistheequationofanequalsidedhyperbola,thatthevelocitycincreasesquicklywithdecreasingradiusr(refertofig.
1.3)
Fig.1.3:Velocitydistributionaccordingtothelawofangularmomentum
Flowwiththesecharacteristicsiscalledrotationalorvortexflow.Velocitydecreasetowardstheperipheryandtherelatedriseinpressure
isexplainedbytheincreasingcentrifugalforces.Rotationalflowcontainedinacircularenclosuresuchasapipe,requiresinitscentera
solidcore,becausetheoretically,aninfinitelyhighvelocityandthereforeinfinitelysmallpressureexistsatthecore,whichinrealityisa
voidasmaybeobservedinavortex.
1.1.6Thevelocitytriangle
Animaginaryobserversittingonthebladeofarevolvingrunner,wouldobserveflowthroughtherunnerasiflookingatastationary
rectangularclosedconduit.Incontrasttoflowthroughastationaryconduit,flowintheobservedrunnerhastherelativevelocitywin
respecttotherunnerblade.However,astationaryobserveroutsidetherunner,observestheabsolutevelocitycofthemovingfluid.The
twovelocitiesdescribedaredifferentbytheperipheralvelocityuoftherunner,withctakingthehighervalue.Theabsolutevelocitycis
theresultofthegeometricaladditionoftherelativevelocitywandtheperipheralvelocityu,accordingtotheformula:c=u+w.
This situation is shown graphically in fig. 1.4 where the relative velocity w, flowing in the direction of the blade, and the peripheral
velocityuintangentialdirection,formaparallelogramasshown,or,togetherwiththeabsolutevelocityc,areformingvelocitytriangles.
In the velocity triangle shown, vectors u and v enclose the blade angle b and vectors c and u enclose the absolute flow angle a. The
relativepathofafluidelementisdeterminedbytheshapeoftheblade.
Thewidelyacceptedconventionsfornotationsusedinvelocitytrianglesare:
c=absolutevelocity
w=relativevelocity
u=peripheralvelocity
a=absolutevelocityangle
b=relativevelocityangle
index0=channelinlet
index1=cascadeinlet,bladechannelentrance
index2=cascadeexit
Fig.1.4:Volocitytrianglesinarunnerwithperipheralblades
Further,itisessentialtoknowthefollowingtermsshowninfig1.5:
Fig.1.5:Termsusedinvelocitytriangles
Cu =ccosa = absolute velocity component in peripheral

direction
wu =wcosb = relative velocity component in peripheral
direction
cm =csina = absolute velocity component in meridional
direction
Note:ItisageneralconventiontonotcalculatewithactualvelocityvaluesU,W,C,butwithdimensionlessexpressionsu,w,c,which
representtheratioofactualspeedtofreejetvelocity,thus:
where:
g=gravitationalconstant=9.81[m/s2]
H=pressurehead[m]
1.1.7EULERequation
Thepreconditionforanenergyexchangebetweenamovingfluidandamovingrunnerbladeofahydraulicmachineisthattherunner
bladecausesthefluidtochangeitsvelocity.Inthecasewherethefluidisacceleratedbytherunnerblade,energyisimpartedbythe
runnerbladestothefluidashappensinpumpsIntheoppositecase,wherethefluidisretardedbytherunnerblade,energyisimpartedto
therunnerofthemachinebythemovingfluid,whichistheoperatingprincipleofallwaterturbines.
Speckingintermsofvelocitytriangles,energyexchangebetweenthemovingfluidandthebladesoilaturbinerunnertakesplace,ifthe
entrance velocily triangle is different from the exit velocily triangle. Since the entrance as well as the exit velocity triangles arc
composed of the three velocity vectors c, u and v, the value of each term needs to be compared between entrance and exit, and the
followingenergytermsarcthusestablished:
{1.8}
staticpressuredifferenceduetochangeofabsolutevelocity
{1.9}
staticpressuredifferenceduetocentrifugalforces
{1.10}
dynamicpressuredifferenceduetochangeofrelativevelocity
Basedonthis,thetheoreticalenergyheadHthofarunnersystem,transferringflowenergywithoutlossintopower,maybewritteninthe
formoftheEULERequation
{1.11}
Thelawofcosinemakesthefollowingexpressionimplicit:
{1.12}w2=u2+c22uccosa
wherea=theanglebetweentheabsoluteandtheperipheralvelocityvectors
With:
{1.13}ccosa=cu
where:cu=theabsolutevelocityvectorinperipheraldirection,w2maybeexpressedas:
{1.14}w2=u2+c22ucu
andtherefore:
{1.15}
where:
u=peripheralrunnervelocity
cu=thecomponentoftheabsolutevelocityactinginperipheraldirection.
Equation{1.15}representstheEULERequationinitsgeneralform.ThetheoreticallyobtainableenergyheadHthisnothingelsebutthe
algebraicdifferenceoftheinletmomentofmomentumandtheexitmomentofmomentumofthesysteminquestion.
1.2.TheconceptoftheCrossFlowturbine
The initial work of developing Cross Flow turbines in Nepal was based on the theory of professor Donat BANKI, who patented this
novelconceptaround1920.BANKIspapershaveremainedaveryusefulsourceofinformationandthepresentchapterisdevotedto
reproducingafreetranslationofhisworkbyC.A.MockmoreandF.Merryfield,whichwaspublishedmanyyearsagobytheOregon
StateCollegeintheU.S.A.
With kind permission of the Oregon State University, the most important passages of this publication, containing the full theory of
BANKI,arereproducedhereinitsoriginal,withoutanychangesofwordingornotation,asabasisfortheunderstandingofsubsequent
chapters. In chapter 1.3, further theoretical and design aspects arc presented, which are not found in the work of BANKI. Since
notations,equationsandfigurenumberingofthepresentoriginaltextarcnotcompatiblewithchapter1.3.,nofurtherreferenceismade
lateron.Chapter1.2standsforitselfasafundamentalbasis.
The
BankiWaterTurbine
By
C.A.MOCKMORE
ProfessorofCivilEngineering
and
FREDMERRYFIELD
BulletinSeriesNo.25
February1949
EngineeringExperimentStation
OregonStateSystemofHigherEducation
OregonStateCollege
Corvallis
TheBankiWaterTurbine
By
C.A.MOCKMORE
and
FREDMERRYFIELD
I.INTRODUCTION
1.Introductorystatement.TheobjectofthisBulletinistopresentafreetranslationofDonatBanki'spaper"NeueWasserturbine",andto
showtheresultsofaseriesoftestsonalaboratoryturbinebuiltaccordingtothespecificationsofBanki.
The Banki turbine is an atmospheric radial flow wheel which derives its power from the kinetic energy of the water jet. The
characteristic speed of the turbine places it between the socalled Pelton tangential water turbine and the Francis mixedflow wheel.
There are some unusual characteristics not found in most water wheels, which are displayed by the Banki turbine and should be of
interesttomostengineers,especiallythoseoftheMountainStates.
IncludedinthisbulletinarediagramsoftwoBankiturbinenozzlesaspatentedandusedinEurope.
II.THEORYOFTHEBANKITURBINE
1.Descriptionofturbine.TheBankiTurbineconsistsoftwoparts,anozzleandaturbinerunner.Therunnerisbuiltupoftwoparallel
circulardisksjoinedtogetherattherimwithaseriesofcurvedblades.Thenozzle,whosecrosssectionalareaisrectangular,discharges
thejetthefullwidthofthewheelandentersthewheelatanangleof16degreestothetangentoftheperipheryofthewheel.Theshape
ofthejetisrectangular,wide,andnotverydeep.Thewaterstrikesthebladesontherimofthewheel(Figure2),flowsovertheblade,
leavingit,passingthroughtheemptyspacebetweentheinnerrims,entersabladeontheinnersideoftherim,anddischargesattheouter
rim. The wheel is therefore an inward jet wheel and because the flow is essentially radial, the diameter of the wheel is practically
independentoftheamountofwaterimpact,andthedesiredwheelbreadthcanbegivenindependentofthequantityofwater.
2. Path of jet through turbine. Assuming that the center of the jet enters the runner at point A (Figure 2) at an angle of a1, with the
tangenttotheperiphery,thevelocityofthewaterbeforeenteringwouldbe
V1=C(2gH)1/2
V1=Absolutevelocityofwater
H=Headatthepoint
C=Coefficientdependentuponthenozzle
Therelativevelocityofthewateratentrance,v1,canbefoundifu1,theperipheralvelocityofthewheelatthatpoint,isknown.b1,
wouldbetheanglebetweentheforwarddirectionsofthetwolattervelocities.
Figure2.Pathofwaterthroughturbine
For maximum efficiency, the angle of the blade should equal b1. If AB represents the blade, the relative velocity at exit, u2, forms
b2withtheperipheralvelocityofthewheelatthatpoint.Theabsolutevelocityofthewateratexittotheblade,V2,canbedetermined
bymeansofu2,b2,andu2.Theanglebetweenthisabsolutevelocityandthevelocityofthewheelatthispointisa2.Theabsolutepath
of the water while flowing over the blade AB can be determined as well as the actual point at which the water leaves the blade.
AssumingnochangeinabsolutevelocityV2,thepointC,wherethewateragainenterstherim,canbefound.V2atthispointbecomes
V1,andtheabsolutepathofthewateroverthebladeCDfrompointCtopointDatdischargecanbeascertained.
Accordingly
a1=a2
b1=b2
b1=b2
sincetheyarccorrespondinganglesofthesameblade.
Itisapparentthatthewholejetcannotfollowthesepaths,sincelhepathsofsomeparticlesofwatertendtocrossinsidethewheel,as
showninFigure3.Thedeflectionanglesqandq1,willbeamaximumattheouteredgeofeachjet.Figure3showstheapproximate
condition.
3.Efficiency.Thefollowingequationforbrakehorsepoweristrue:
HP=(wQ/g)(V1cosa1+V2cosa2)u1(2)
Partoftheformula(2)canbereducedbyplottingallthevelocitytrianglesasshowninFigure3.
V2cosa2=u2cosb2u1(3)
Neglectingtheincreaseinvelocityofwaterduetothefallh2(Figure2)whichissmallinmostcases,
u2=yu1(4)
whereyisanempiricalcoefficientlessthanunity(about0.98).FromthevelocitydiagramFigure4,
u1=(V1cosa1u1)/(cosb1)(5)
Substitutingequations(3),(4)and(5)inthehorsepowerequation(2)
HPoutput=(WQu1/g)(V1cosa1u1)(1+ycosb2/cosb1)(6)
Figure3.Interferenceoffilamentsofflowthroughwheel
Figure4.Velocitydiagram
ThetheoreticalhorsepowerinputduetotheheadH1
HP=wQH/g=wQV12/C22g(7)
Theefficiency,e,is,equaltotheratiooftheoutputandinputhorsepower,
e=(2C2u1/V1)(1+ycosb2/cosb1)(cosa1u1/V1)(8)
when
b2=b1,thenefficiency
e=(2C2u1/V1)(1+y)(cosa1u1/V1)(9)
Consideringallvariablesasconstantexceptefficiencyandu1/V1anddifferentiatingandequatingtozero,then
u1/V1=cosa1/2(10)
andformaximumefficiency
emax=1/2C2(1+y)cos2a1(11)
Itisnoticeable(seeFigure4)thatthedirectionofV2whenu1=1/2V1cosa1,doesnotbecomeradial.Theoutflowwouldberadialwith
u1=[C/(1+y)](V1cosa1)(12)
onlywhenyandCareunity,thatis,assumingnolossofheadduetofrictioninnozzleorontheblades.Toobtainthehighestmechanical
efficiency,theentranceanglea1shouldbeassmallaspossible,andanangleof16canbeobtainedfora1,withoutdifficulty.Forthis
valuecosa1=0.96,cos2a1=0.92.
Substitutinginequation(11),C=0,98andy=0.98,themaximumefficiencywouldbe87.8percent.Sincetheefficiencyofthenozzle
varies as the square of the coefficient, the greatest care should be taken to avoid loss here. There are hydraulic losses due to water
strikingtheouterandinnerperiphery.Thelatterlossissmall,foraccordingtocomputationstobemadelater,theoriginalthicknessof
thejets0,Figure5,increasesto1.90,whichmeansthatabout72percentofthewholeenergywasgivenupbythewaterstrikingthe
bladefromtheoutsideand28percentwasleftinthewaterpriortostrikingtheinsideperiphery.Ifthenumberofbladesiscorrectand
theyareasthinandsmoothaspossiblethecoefficientymaybeobtainedashighas0.98.
Figure5.Bladespacing
4.Constructionproportions
(A)Bladeangle:Thebladeangleb1,canbedeterminedfroma1,V1,andu1inFigures2and4.(10)
If u1 =V1cosa1
then tanb1 =2tanb1
assuming a1 =16
then b1 =2950'or30approx.
The angle between the blade on the inner periphery and the tangent to the inner periphery b2 can be determined by means of the
followingasshowninFigure6.DrawthetwoinnervelocitytrianglestogetherbymovingbothbladestogethersothatpointCfallson
point B and the tangents coincide. Assuming that the inner absolute exit and entrance velocities are equal and because a2 = a1 the
trianglesarecongruentandu2andu1fallinthesamedirection.
Assuming no shock loss at entrance at point C then b2' = 90, that is, the inner tip of the blade must be radial. On account of the
difference in elevation between points B and C (exit and entrance to the inner periphery) V1' might differ from V2' if there were no
lossesbetweenthesepoints.(14)
V1=[2gh2+(V2)2]1/2
Assumingb2'=90(Figure7a)u1wouldnotcoincidewiththebladeangleandthereforeshocklosswouldbeexperienced.Inorderto
avoidthisb2mustbegraterthan90.ThedifferenceinV2'andV1'howeverisusuallysmallbecauseh2issmall,sob2mightbe90in
allcases.
(B) Radial rim width: Neglecting the blade thickness, the thickness (s1) Figure 5, of the jet entrance, measured at right angles to the
relativevelocity,isgivenbythebladespacing(t).
s1=tsinb1(15)
Figure6.Compositevelocitydiagram
Figure7.Velocitydiagrams
Assumingb2=90theinnerexitbladespacingisknownforeveryrimwidth,(a),
s2=t(r2/r1)(16)
Aslongas(a)issmallthespacebetweenthebladeswillnotbefilledbythejet.As(a)increasess2decreasesso(a)willbelimitedby
s2=v1s1/v2(17)
Itisnotadvisabletoincreasetherimwidth(a)overthislimitbecausetheamountofwaterstrikingitcouldnotflowthroughsosmalla
crosssectionandbackpressurewouldresult.Moreover,arimwidthwhichwouldbeunderthislimitwouldbeinefficientsinceseparated
jetswouldflowoutofthespacingbetweenthebladesattheinnerperiphery.
Inordertodeterminethewidth(a)itisnecessarytoknowthevelocityv2,whichisaffectedbythecentrifugalforce(seeFigure5).
(v1)2(v2)2=(u1)2(u2)2(18)
or (v2)2=(u2)2(u1)2=(v1)2
but v2=v1(s1/s2)=v1(r1/r2)sinb1(19)
and u2=u1(r2/r1)
calling x=(r /r )2
2 1
x2 [1 (v1/u1)2]x (v1/u1)2 sin2b1 = 0

(20)
Iftheidealvelocityofthewheelu1=V1cosa1
then v1/u1=1/cosb1(21)
Assuming: a1=16,b1=30
then v1/u1=1/0.866=1.15
(v1/u1)2=1.33,approx.
1 (v1/u1)2 = 0.33 sin2b1 =

1/4
Thenequation20becomes
x2+0.33x0.332=0
x=0.435
x1/2=r2/r1=0.66
2r1=D1
Therefore a=0.17D1=radialrimwidth.(22)
D1 = the outside diameter of the

wheel.
Thisvalueof(a),theradialrimwidth,wasgraphicallyascertainedfromtheintersectionofthetwocurves(Figure5).
(v2)2 = (r2/r1)2(u1)2 + (v1)2

(u1)2(18)
and v2=v1(r1/r2)sinb1(19)
ThecentralanglebOC,Figure8,canbedeterminedfromequation(18)and
a2 =bOC/2
v1 =u1/cosB1=u1/0.866
r2/r1 =0.66
v2 = u1 [(0.66)2 + 1.33
1]1/2
=0.875u1(23)
tana2 =v2/u2(24)
=0.875u1/0.66u1
=1.326
a2=53
anglebOC =106(25)
Figure8.Pathofjetinsidewheel
Thethicknessofthejet(y)intheinnerpartofthewheelcanbecomputedfromthecontinuityequationofflow(Figure8),
V1S0 =V2y(26)
V2cosa2 =u2=(r2/r1)u1
=(r2/r1)V1/2cosa1
y =2cosa2S0/(r2/r1)cosa1(27)
=(3.03)(0.6)S0/0.961
=1.89S0(28)
Thedistancebetweentheinsideedgeoftheinsidejetasitpassesthroughthewheelandtheshaftofthewheel,y1(Figure8),
y1 = r2sin(90 a1) 1.89S0/2 d./2

(29)
since s1=kD1
then y1=(0.19860.945k)D1d./2(30)
Inasimilarmannerthedistancey2,thedistancebetweentheouteredgeofthejetandtheinnerperiphery,canbedetermined.
y2=(0.13140.945k)D1(31)
Forthecasewheretheshaftdoesnotextendedthroughthewheel,theonlylimitwillbey2.
Formostcases k=0.075to0.10
then y1 + d./2 = 0.128D1 to 0.104

D1
y2=0.060D1to0.0369D1
(C)Wheeldiameterandaxialwheelbreadth:Thewheeldiametercanbedeterminedfromthefollowingequation:
u1 =pD1N/(12)(60)(32)
(1/2)V1cosa1 =pD1N/(12)(60)
(1/2)C(2gH)1/2cosa1 =pD1N/(12)(60)
D1 =360C(2gH)1/2cosa1/pN(33)
WhereD1isthediameterofthewheelininchesanda1=16,C=0.98
D1=862H1/2/N(34)
ThethicknessS0ofthejetinthenozzleisdependentuponacompromiseoftwoconditions.AlargevalueforS0wouldbeadvantageous
becausethelosscausedbythefillingandemptyingofthewheelwouldbesmall.However,itwouldnotbesatisfactorybecausetheangle
of attack of the outer filaments of the jet would vary considerably from a1 = 16, thereby increasing these losses as the thickness
increases.Thethicknessshouldbedeterminedbyexperiment.
Infindingthebreadthofthewheel(L),thefollowingequationsaretrue:
Q =(Cs0L/144)(2gH)1/2(35)
=C(kD1L/144)(2gH)1/2
D1 =144Q/CkL(2gH)1/2
=(862/N)H1/2(34)
144Q/CkL(2gH)1/2 =(862/N)H1/2
L =144QN/862H1/2Ck(2gH)1/2
=0.283QN/Hto0.212QN/H(36)
where
k =0.075and0.10respectively
(D) Curvature of the blade: The curve of the blade can be chosen from a circle whose center lies at the intersection of two
perpendiculars, on to the direction of relative velocity v1at (A) and the other to the tangent to the inner periphery intersecting at (B)
(Figure9).
FromtrianglesAOCandBOC,COiscommon,
then
=r1
=r2
=r
r = [(r1)2
(r2)2]/2r1cosb1
When r2 =(0.66r1)and
cosb1 = cos
30=0.866,
r =0.326r1(37)
(E)Centralangle:
r1/r2 =sin(1801/2d)/sin(90(1/2d+b1))
=sind/cos(1/2d+b1)
tand =cosb1/sinb1+r2/r1)
d =7328
Figure9.Curvatureofblade

1.3.TheCrossFlowrunnerandinlettheory
1.3.1 Summaryoftherunnertheory
1.3.2 Development of the absolute now

path
1.3.3 Bladegeometry
1.3.4 Theinletcurve
1.3.5 Runnerdiameterandinletwidth
1.Summaryoftherunnertheory
Fig.1.6:VelocitytrianglesandrelatedformulaeforaCrossFlowturbine
c1= ghH=2u1w1cosb1
=1a=16
u3=u2u4=u1c3=c2 gH=
a3=a2b4=180b1 h= (cosa1
b3=b2=90
w2=w3w4=w1

c1cosa1=u1+w1cosb1
c4cosa4=u4+w4cos(180b4) tanb1=2tana1
c4cosa4=u1+w1cosb1 hmax=cos2a1
w12u12=w22u22 w2= }withb1=30R2/R1=

0,666
w2=w1R1/R2sinb1 }
tana2=w2/u2u2=R1/R2u1 withb1=30tana2=1,148w1/u1
w1 = 0,555 c1 u1 = 0,481 c1 tan a2 = a2=53c2=u2/cosa2=0,528c1

1,3
c4= a4=89c4=0,276c1
withu1=
1.3.2.Developmentoftheabsoluteflowpath
Basedonthevelocitytrianglesandtherelatedformulaeasdescribedintheforegoingsections,theflowpaththroughtherunnercanbe
tracedHowever,inthissection,theabsoluteflowpaththroughthefirststageoftherunnershallbediscussedindetailinanexplanatory
manner,asabasisforfurtherstudies
Duringthetimeneededbyafluidelementtotravelalongtheturbinebladefromtheentranceedgetotheexitedge,therunneritself
rotates.Tolocatetheexactexitpointofanabsolutestreamline,itisthereforeofinteresttocalculatetheangleofrotationoftherunner
duringthepassingtimeofafluidelementthroughthefirststageoftherunner.Thetaskathandistodetermineintermediatevelocity
trianglesbetweentheentranceandtheexitpointoftherunnerbladeTheentrancevelocityisdefinedasfollows:
c1 =1
a1 =16
u1opt =
=0.48063
b1 =30
w1opt =
=0.55498
TheouterrunnerradiusshallbedenotedasR1,theinnerrunnerradiusasR2andanyradiusinbetweenasRitherefore,theperipheral
velocityattheouterrunnerradiusisu1,theperipheralvelocityattheinnerrunnerradiusisu2andanyperipheralvelocityinbetweenis
ui.
Therelativevelocitycomponentatanypointbetweentheouterandtheinnerradiuscanbeexpressedas:
{1.16}
andwiththesubstitution:
{1.17}
with: u1=0.48063 }
w1=0.55498 }k=0.0770
Therelativevelocityanglebatanypointbetweentheouterandtheinnerrunnerradiuscanbeexpressedas:
{1.18}
andwiththesubstitution:
{1.19}
with b1 =30 }
u1 =0.48063 }l=0.1155
Theabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirectionatanypointbetweentheouterandtheinnerrunnerradiusistheproductofthe
relativevelocitycomponentandthesinusoftherelativevelocityangleatthatpoint:
{1.20}
Themeanabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirectionbetweentheouterrunnerradiusandtheinnerrunnerradiusandanyother
radiusinbetweenthetwo,correspondstotheintegraloftheabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirectionalongthetworadii:
{1.21}
Theangleofrotationoftherunnerduringthetravelofafluidelementfromtheouterrunnerradiustotheinnerrunnerradius,ortoany
radiusinbetweenthetwo,is:
{1.22}
where:g[]=theangleofrotationoftherunnerindegrees.
Thecalculationofthemeanabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirection
requirestheapplicationofanumericalintegrationmethodItisrecommendedtousetheSIMPSONformulabelow{1.23}.
Example:Themeanabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirection
istobecalculatedalongR1toRi1,aswellastheangleofrotationoftherunnergi1,Thefollowingvaluesaregiven:
R1 =100[mm]
Ri1 =88.88[mm]
b =u1=0.48063
k =0.0770
l =0.1155
n =4
Step1:calculationofa=ui
Step2:dividingtheintervalofu1touiinton=4sections:
ui1 =uya =0.42723
uy1 =0.44058
uy2 =0.45393
uy3 =0.46728
u1 =uyb =0.48063
Step3:calculatingthevalueyforeachvalueofuy:
y1 with =0.44058 0.30982

uy1
y2 =0.29822
y3 =0.28747
yb =cm1 =0.27748
Step4:numericalintegrationwiththeSIMPSONrule:
Step5:calculationof
Step6:calculationoftheangleofrotationgRi1oftherunner:
TheSIMPSONformula:
{1.23}
where: a=ui ya=cmi
b=u1 yb=cm1
n = number of
values
Fig1.7showstheabsolutenowpathofasinglestreamlinethroughthefirststageofaCrossFlowrunner.Thevaluesgiven,andthe
velocitytrianglesshown,correspondtothecalculationsdescribedintheforegoingsection.
Fig.1.7:DesignoftheabsolutenowpathinthefirststageofaCrossFlowrunner
ci wi ui bi cmi gRi
R1 = 1.00000 0.55498 0.48063 30 0.27748 0 0

100
[mm]
Ri1= 0.88269 0.50944 0.42723 39.25 0.32237 0.01596 0.29888 10.24

88.88
[mm]
Ri2= 0.74325 0.46555 0.37382 55.74 0.38479 0.03474 0.32523 18.82

77.77
[mm]
R2 = 0.53423 0.42400 0.32500 90 0.42400 0.05758 0.35937 25.54

66.66
[mm]
Tableofvaluescalculatedfortheabsoluteflowpath.
1.3.3Bladegeometry
InordertobeabletodesignacorrectCrossFlowrunner,itisindispensabletodeterminethebladegeometry,andindoingthis,itis
assumedthatthefollowingparametershavebeenchosenbasedonhydraulicconsiderationsandthedesiredvelocitytriangles:
R1 theouterradiusoftherunner
R2 theinnerradiusoftherunner,locusoftheendoftheskeletonlinesofthe
blades
b1 theouterbladeangle
b2 theinnerbladeangle
Itisfurtherassumed,thattheskeletonlineofthebladeisthesegmentofacircle,asisnormallythecaseinCrossFlowturbines.Other
geometricalparametersofinterestare:
rb the curvature radius of the

blade
rp thepitchcircleradius
d the segment angle of the

blade
ToexpressthegeometricalrelationshipamongtheparametersR1,R2,b1,b2,andrb,rpandd,anumberofadditionalparametersneedto
beintroducedasshowninfig.1.9:e,x,f,c,d.
Fig.1.9:Constructionofbladegeometry
Fig.1.9 also represents the graphical solution to the problem: the angle (b1+b2), is drawn from the center of the runner, so that one
vectorintersectstheradiusR1andtheothervectorintersectstheradiusR2.TheconnectinglinefromtheintersectionpointonR1tothe
intersectionpointonR2,representsc.ThelinecintersectsthecircleofradiusR2atadistanceof2dfromtheintersectionpointonthe
circlewithradiusR1.Erectingthemeanperpendicularon2d,wefindthelineonwhichthecenteroftheradiusofcurvaturerbof the
bladeissituated.Drawingalineatanangleofb1fromtheintersectionpointofthecirclewithradiusR1,wefindanintersectionwiththe
previouslyerectedmeanperpendicularwhichisthecenteroftheradiusofcurvaturerbof the runner blade, at a distance of the pitch
circleradiusrpfromthecenteroftherunner.Tracingtheradiusofcurvaturerbuptotheintersectionwiththeinnercircleoftheradius
R2,andconnectingthefoundintersectionpointwiththecenterofradiusrb,weestablishtheangled.Connectingtheintersectionpointof
thecirclewithrbandthecirclewithR2withthecenteroftherunner,wedeterminetheanglef,therebyalsoestablishingotherremaining
anglesasshown.
Thefollowingformulaearelistedintherequiredorderforcalculatingtheparametersd,rbandrpbasedontheknownparametersR1,R2,
p1andp2.Thegraphicalconstructionofthebladegeometrymaybeusedtoverifythecalculatedvalues.
{1.24}
{1.25}
{1.26}x=180(b1+b2+e)
{1.27}f=b1+b2(1802x)
{1.28}
{1.29}d=1802(b1+e)
{1.30}
{1.31}
Example:
Given:R1=200[mm],R2=136[mm],b1=30,b2=90
tobesolvedfor:d,rb,rp
Step1:calculationofc:
Step2:calculationofe:
Step3:calculationofx:
x=180(30+90+23.72)=36.28
Step4:calculationoff:
f=30+90(180236.28)=12.55
Step5:calculationofd:
Step6:calculationofthesegmentangledoftheblade:
d=1802(30+23.72)=72.55
Step7:calculationofthecurvatureradiusrboftheblade:
Step8:calculationofthepitchcircleradiusrp:
1.3.4Theinletcurve
Thewaterconveyedtotheturbinepassesthroughthepenstockwithacircularcrosssectionandthenenterstheadapter,wherethecross
sectionistransformedfromcirculartotherectangularcrosssectionoftheturbineinlethousing.Beforereachingtherunner,nowhasto
betransformedoncemore,inorderthatideallyeachstreamlineshouldfulfillthespecificentranceconditionstotherunner,suchas:
thecorrectabsolutevelocityc0
thecorrectabsoluteentranceanglea0
Fig.1.10showsthedifferentcrosssectionsofthewaterflowonitspathfromthepenstocktotherunneroftheturbine.Theturbineinlet
servesthepurposeoftransformingtheflowattheendoftherectangularadaptertotheoptimalnowpatternintheadmissionareaofthe
runner.
Fig.1.10:CrosssectionsofnowattheinletofCrossFlowturbines
Fig.1.11illustratesthedesiredflowpattern,whereallstreamlineshavethecorrectvelocityandangleofadmissionatanyradiusR1so
thatthefollowingconditionisvalid:
rcu=constant
Assumingthisconditionisfulfilled,allstreamlineswillentertherunneratR1havingequalvelocitycomponentsinperipheraldirection
cu0. If it is further assumed that the entire pressure energy has already been converted into kinetic energy at the end of the inlet, the
absolutevelocitycofeachstreamlineapproachingR1correspondstothefreejetvelocity
c0proportionalto
Fig.1.11:Idealflowconditionsintheinlet
IfcuandchaveconstantvaluesalongtheentranceareonR1theabsolutevelocityanglea0attheentrancetotherunnerisconstantas
well.Theinletcurvethereforeisideallyalineformingaconstantanglebetweenthetangentofapointontheinletcurveanditsradius
vectortotheoriginoftheinletcurve,asshowninfig.1.12.
Fig.1.12:Constantangleoftheidealinletcurve
Theonlycurveinwhichthefeatureofformingaconstantanglebetweenitstangentandthelinetoitsoriginisinherent,isthe
logarithmicalspiral.
Thelogarithmicalspiralisexpressedbytheformula:
{1.32}rf=ekf
k=cotk
(k>0)
where
rf =thedistanceofapointontheanglefromtheorigin
e =thenaturallogarithm=2.7183
k =cotk=cotangentoftheanglebetweenthetangenttothelogarithmicalspiral
anditsradiusvectortotheoriginofthespiral
=tana0(fig.1.13)
f =theangleexpressedinradiansbetweentwopointsonthespiralandtheorigin
ofthespiral
Fig.1.13:Designofthelogarithmicalinletspiral
Example:
TheinletcurveofaCrossFlowturbineistobedrawnwiththefollowinggivenparameters:
R1 =100[mm],theouterrunnerradius
a0 =16[deg],theabsoluteentranceangle
f =90[deg],theadmissionareforwhichthespiralistobe
designed
Theradiusrfshallbecalculatedforeverystepof5betweenf=0andf=90.
Step1:calculationofk:
k=90a0k=tana0=0.287
Step2:convertingfevery5from0to90intoradians.
360
2p
Step3:calculationofrf:
Step4:calculationofRf:
Rf=rfR1
360 rfR1
2p
deg. rad. rf Rf
0 0 1.000 100.0
5 0.087 1.025 102.5
10 0.175 1.051 105.1
15 0.262 1.078 107.8
20 0.349 1.105 110.5
25 0.436 1.133 113.3
30 0.524 1.162 116.2
35 0.611 1.191 119.1
40 0.698 1.222 122.2
45 1.253 125.3
50 0.873 1.204 128.4
55 0.960 1.317 131.7
60 1.047 1.350 135.0
65 1.134 1.384 138.4
70 1.222 1.420 142.0
75 1.309 1.455 145.5

80 1.396 1.492 149.2
85 1.484 1.530 153.0
90 1.569 156.9
1.3.5Therunnerdiameterandinletwidth
Theflowadmissionareaistheproductoftheinletwidthb0andthelengthLoftheadmissionarc,asshowninfig.1.14
{1.33}A=b0L
wherethelengthoftheadmissionarcLisdeterminedbytheadmissionarcLanglef[],andtherunnerdiameterD=2R1
{1.34}
Therequiredflowadmissionareadependsonthedesiredflowthroughtheturbineunderspecificheadconditions,accordingtoequation
{1.35}:
{1.35}Q=Av
where:
Q =dischargethroughtheturbine[m/s]
A =flowadmissionarea[m]
v = the flow velocity in perpendicular direction to the flow admission

area[m/s]
The velocity component perpendicular to the flow admission area is equivalent to the absolute velocity component in meridional
directioncm,andtherefore:
{1.36}Q=Acm
Theabsolutevelocitycomponentinmeridionaldirectioncmmayalsobeexpressedbytherelation:
{1.37}cm=csina
where:
a=absolutevelocityangle
c=absolutevelocity
Fig.1.14:FlowadmissionareaofaCrossFlowturbine.
Ifwesubstitutetheabsolutevelocitycomponentwiththecorrespondingfreejetvelocity,neglectinganyheadlossesduetofrictionof
flow,cmaybeexpressedas:
{1.38}
where:
g=gravitationalconstant
H=nethead
therefore,thedischargethroughtheturbinemaybewrittenindifferentways,usingtheabovesubstitutions:
{1.39}
Equation{1.39}containsallrelevantparametersinfluencingthedischargethroughtheturbine,namely:
b0 theinletwidth
R1 theradiusordiameterD=2R1oftherunner
f theadmissionarcangle
thesquarerootofthenethead
sina thesinusoftheabsolutevelocityangleattheentrancetothe
runner
Further,itbecomesevident,thattheinletwidthb0andtherunnerradiusR1haveanequalandlinearinfluenceonthedischargecapacity
ofaCrossFlowturbine.Putinotherwords,aturbinewithaninletwidthofb0=300[mm]andwitharunnerdiameterofD=400[mm],
wouldhavethesamedischargecapacityasaturbinewithaninletwidthb0=400[mm]anddiameteroftherunnerofD=300[mm],
providedbothmachinesworkunderthesamenetheadandhaveanequalabsolutevelocityanglea,aswellasequaladmissionarcangles
f Speed of the two machines on the other hand, would be different, due to equal peripheral velocities but different diameters of the
respectiverunner.

Chapter 1 - Introduction To Cross Flow Turbine Theory

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Cu =ccosa = absolute velocity component in peripheral

then tanb1 =2tanb1

x2 [1 (v1/u1)2]x (v1/u1)2 sin2b1 = 0

1 (v1/u1)2 = 0.33 sin2b1 =

D1 = the outside diameter of the

(v2)2 = (r2/r1)2(u1)2 + (v1)2

y1 = r2sin(90 a1) 1.89S0/2 d./2

then y1 + d./2 = 0.128D1 to 0.104

1.3.2 Development of the absolute now

w12u12=w22u22 w2= }withb1=30R2/R1=

w1 = 0,555 c1 u1 = 0,481 c1 tan a2 = a2=53c2=u2/cosa2=0,528c1

ui1 =uya =0.42723

y1 with =0.44058 0.30982

where: a=ui ya=cmi

R1 = 1.00000 0.55498 0.48063 30 0.27748 0 0

Ri1= 0.88269 0.50944 0.42723 39.25 0.32237 0.01596 0.29888 10.24

Ri2= 0.74325 0.46555 0.37382 55.74 0.38479 0.03474 0.32523 18.82

R2 = 0.53423 0.42400 0.32500 90 0.42400 0.05758 0.35937 25.54

rb the curvature radius of the

d the segment angle of the

5 0.087 1.025 102.5

10 0.175 1.051 105.1

15 0.262 1.078 107.8

20 0.349 1.105 110.5

25 0.436 1.133 113.3

30 0.524 1.162 116.2

35 0.611 1.191 119.1

40 0.698 1.222 122.2

50 0.873 1.204 128.4

55 0.960 1.317 131.7

60 1.047 1.350 135.0

65 1.134 1.384 138.4

70 1.222 1.420 142.0

75 1.309 1.455 145.5

80 1.396 1.492 149.2

85 1.484 1.530 153.0

v = the flow velocity in perpendicular direction to the flow admission

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