TABLE OF CONTENT-S

Preface ...................................................... i

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

I. Pressure Measuring Instruments .......................... 1

A. Principles of Pressure Measurement ................... 1

1. Absolute Pressure ............................... 1

2. Gage Pressure .................................. 2

3. Differential Pressure ............................ 3

B. Special Pressure Measurements ...................... 4

1. Manifold Pressure ............................... 4

2. Engine Pressure Ratio ........................... 5

3. Pressure Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 5

4. Altimeters ..................................... 6

a. Development ............................... 6

b. Types of Altitude Measurement ............... 7

c. Types of Altimeters .......................... 7

d. Altimeter Tests ............................ 10 .

5. Airspeed Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 11

a. Maximum Allowable Airspeed Indicators ...... 11

b. True Airspeed Indicator ..................... 12

c. Machmeter ................................ 13

6. Vertical Speed Indicator (Rate of Climb) ........... 14

7. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator ............ 14

IT. Temperature Measuring Instruments ..................... 16

A. Types of Temperature Measurement .................. 16

1. Non-Electrical ................................. 16

a. Expansion of a Liquid ....................... 16

b. Expansion of a Solid ........................ 16

ii
 c. Expansion of a Gas ......................... 17

2. Electrical ..................................... 17

a. Resistance Change ......................... 17

b. Voltage Generation ......................... 20

ill. M-echanical Movement Measurement ..................... 25

A. Accelerometer ..................................... 25

B. Remote Position Indicating Systems .................. 26

1. Direct Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

2. Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 27

a. Autosyn System ............................ 27

b. Magnesyn System .......................... 27

C. Tachometers ...................................... 29

1. Mechanical Tachometer ......................... 29

2. Electric Tachometers ........................... 30

a. Three-phase AC Tachometer ................. 30

b. Electronic Tachometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

IV. Gyroscopic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 32

A. Gyro Theory ...................................... 32

1. Rigidity in Space ............................ 32

2. Precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

B. Attitude Gyro Instruments .......................... 33

1. Directional Gyro ............................... 33

2. Gyro Horizon .................................. 34

C. Rate Gyro Instruments .............................. 36

1. Tum and Slip Indicator .......................... 36

2. Tum Coordinator ............................... 37

V. Direction Indicating Instruments ......................... 39

A. Principle of Operation .............................. 39

B. Inherent Errors ................... _ ................ 39

1. Variation ...................................... 39
iii
 2. Deviation ..................................... 39

3. Acceleration and Turning Error .................. 41

C. Remote Indicating Compass ......................... 41

D. Slaved Gyro Compasses ............................. 42

VI. Fuel Quantity Indicating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 46

A. Direct-Reading .................................... 46

B. Direct Current Electrical Gages ...................... 46

C. Capacitance Fuel Quantity System .................... 47

VII. Fuel Flow Indicating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 50

A. Fuel Injection System Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 50

B. Volume Flow Measurement ......................... 51

C. Mass Flow Measurement . . . . . . . ................... 51

VIII. Stall Warning and Angle of Attack Systems ................ 53

A. Stall Warning Systems .............................. 53

1. Electric Stall Warning System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 53

2. Non-Electric Stall Warning System ............... 53

B. Angle of Attack Indicators ........................... 54

IX. Automatic Pilots ....................................... 55

A. Automatic Pilot Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 55

1. Error Sensing ................................... 55

a. Attitude Gyros ............................. 55

b. Rate Gyros ................................ 56

c. Pitch Error Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 56

d. Altitude Deviation Sensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 56

2. Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ............. 56

3. Follow-up ..................................... 58

a. Displacement Followup ..................... 58

b. Rate Follow-up ............................. 58

4. Command .................................... 58

X. Instrument Pneumatic Systems .......................... 59

iv
 A. Venturi Systems ................................... 59

B. Vacuum Pump Systems ............................. 60

1. Vacuum Pumps ................................ 60

2. Suction Relief Valves ........................... 62

3. Filters ................ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 62

4. Instrument Servicing 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 63

XI. Pitot-Static System .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 64

Static System Check .. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65

1. Entrapped Moisture 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 65

2. Leakage . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 66

XII. Instrument Installation and Marking 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67

A. Panel Layout . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 67

B. Instrument Mounting 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69

C. Power Requirements 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69

D. Range Marking 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 0 69

1. Airspeed Indicator 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 69

2. Carburetor Air Temperature Indicator 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

3. Cylinder Head Temperature Gages--

Reciprocating Engines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

4. Manifold Pressure Gage--

Reciprocating Engines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

5. Fuel Pressure--
Reciprocating and Turbine Engines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

6. Oil Pressure--
Reciprocating and Turbine Engines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

7. Oil Temperature--
Reciprocating and Turbine Engines . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

8. Tachometer--
Reciprocating Engines 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70

9. Torque Indicator--
Reciprocating, Turboprop, and Turboshaft Engines. 71 0

10. Exhaust Gas Temperature--

Turbine Engines .... 0 0 0 71

11. Tachometer--Turbine Engines .. 0 0 71

v
 12. Dual Tachometer--Helicopter .................... 71

13. Gas Producer (N 1) Tachometer--

TurboshaftHelicopter .......................... 71

Glossary ..................................................... 72

Answers to Study Questions ................................... 76

Final Examination ........................................... 79

Answers to Final Examination ................................. 81

vi
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS is one of a series of
specialized study IDJides prepared for aviation
maintenance perstfunel to be used with a
corresponding 35mm filmstrip and recorded tape
cassettes.
This series is part of a programmed learning
course developed and produced for the Aviation
Maintenance Foundation, Inc. (AMFI), which is
the largest international nonprofit professional
organization for aviation maintenance personnel.
AMFI was founded to improve and promote the
aviation maintenance industry through research,
communications, and education. This program is
part of that effort to improve the quality of
education for aviation mechanics ,throughout the
world.
The purpose of each AMFI training series is to
provide basic information on the operation and
principles of the various aircraft systems and their
components.
This particular AMFI manual, AIRCRAFT
INSTRUMENTS, includes a series of carefully
prepared questions and answers to emphasize key
elements of the study and to encourage the
individual to continually test himself for accuracy
and retention as he uses this book. A twenty
question multiple choice final examination is
included to allow you to test your comprehension
of the total material.
Some of the words will be new to you, so they
are defined in the Glossary. Many of these words,
when they are first mentioned, are marked with
an asterisk (*).
An Instructor's Guide has been prepared to
adapt this book to the requirements of FAR 147
for Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools.
Lecture outlines and suggested projects are keyed
to the required levels of instruction.
For best results, the visual and audio portion
should be reviewed first, either in the classroom
under the direction of an experienced instructor,
PREFACE
or by individual study; then this material should
be reinforced with that included in this book.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The validity of any program such as this is
enhanced immeasurably by the cooperation shown
AMFI by recognized experts in the field, and by
the willingness of the various manufacturers to
share their literature and answer countless
questions in the preparation of these programs.
We would like to mention, especially, our
appreciation for the help given us by:
AC Spark Plug,
Division of General Motors
Airborne Manufacturing Company
Aircraft Instrument Manufacturing Corp.
ALCOR Aviation, Inc.
Bendix Corporation,
Instruments and Life Support Division
EDO-AIRE
Lewis Engineering Company
Mitchell Industries, Inc.
R.C. Allen, Inc.
Smiths Industries Limited
Teledyne Avionics
AMFI is organized for you, the practicing A&P
technician, and if you have any questions or
comments regarding this or any of the many other
programs offered by AMFI, simply contact the
Director of Education, Aviation Maintenance
Foundation, Inc., P.O. Box 739, Basin, Wyoming
82410, or call (307) 568-2466.

The earliest aircraft had very little use for
instruments, either engine or flight. The very fact
that the engine was running was remarkable in
itself, and the pilot had worries other than the
amount of oil pressure or temperature. Flight
instruments were of even less concern. As the
state of the art developed, however, the pilot
needed to know more about the condition of his
engines, especially those of multi-engine
airplanes whose engines were mounted on struts
between the biplane wings. The pilot had no
"feel" of the RPM or temperatures of these
engines, so he had to resort to tachometers,
pressure gages, and temperature gages mounted
on the nacelle to enable him to monitor the
condition of the engines in flight.
Flight instruments came into being as the pilot
became more concerned about his altitude, his
speed through the air, and the direction in which
he was pointed. These gages supplied
information helpful to the pilot--but the seat of his
pants still supplied his most trusted cues.
As aviation became of age, however, "blind
flying'' allowed pilots to fly without reference to
the natural horizon, with invisible radio beams vii
INTRODUCTION
providing directional reference above or in the
clouds; instruments then took on a new
importance. No longer could pilots disregard the
gages in favor of their feelings; they had to
discipline themselves to believe what the dials
told them, regardless of the signals sent up
through their jeans.
Now, flying in high-powered, high-speed jet
aircraft with pressurized cabins and engines
mounted out on the wings or back on the tail, and
with boosted controls, pilots can no longer fly their
airplanes- by feel and intuition. They must fly by
the numbers--numbers supplied by a highly
complex system of instrumentation.
It is the function of the aviation maintenance
technician to maintain this system so it will
accurately sense all the parameters and supply the
pilot with the accurate, reliable information he
requires.
Instrument repair and alteration are reserved
for FAA-approved repair stations, but knowing
what goes on inside the little black boxes enables
the A&P to more effectively analyze a malfunc-
tioning system, isolate the trouble, and remove
the proper box for repair in the shop.
 SECTION 1:
PRESSURE MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

Read A. PRINCIPLES OF PRESSURE MEA

tangent
to the SUREMENT
meniscus
Since the air in which we fly is a fluid*--
a gaseous fluid--supporting our airplanes by a
pressure differential*, it is necessary for us to
know a great deal about the pressures* which
exist in the atmosphere. In addition, pressure
gages for air, hydraulic*, oil, and various other
engine pressures keep us informed of the
conditions which exist in our airplane's many
operating systems.
Since pressure is a force, there must be a point
from which it is applied. This point, or reference,
determines the type of pressure we have.

~
~solute pressu~* is referenced f~om a vacuum*,
or zero pressure; gage eressur~* IS that above Or
below the existing atmospheric pressure; and
~ferential ~ressur~* is the difference between
two pressures.

1. Absolute Pressure
Standard Absolute pressure is measured from
sea le"el
pressure zero pressure, or a vacuum, and for most
29.92"
aeronautical applications it is measured in inches
of mercury*, as the mercury barometer* is used to
make this measurement. Consider a glass tube
about a yard long and an inch or so in diameter,
sealed at one end: if this tube is filled with
mercury, closed at one end, with the other end
immersed in a bowl of mercury, Fig. 1, the
mercury will drop in the tube until there is a space
above it. In this space, there is no air--it is a vacu..
urn. The atmospheric pressure on the mercury in
the bowl (or cistern, as it is properly called) holds
the mercury up in the tube. Under standard
atmospheric conditions at sea level, it will hold the
mercury up 29.92 inches (760 mm).
Absolute pressure is measured in inches of mercury.
Mercury barometers are obviously too
inconvenient to carry in an airplane, so aneroid
Fig. 1 (no liquid) barometers are used in flight for
1
measuring absolute pressure. Fig. 2 shows the
basics of an aneroid barometer:
Pressure bellows
ANEROID BAROMETER MECHANISM
~Fig. 2~
A pair of concentrically corrugated metal discs are
soldered together, forming a capsule, and all the
air between them evacuated, Fig. 3.
The spring ;action of the corrug;ations b;al;ances tit.
force of the ;atmospheric pressure.
-Fig. 3-
The air pressure on the outside of the capsule
tends to push it together, and this is opposed by
the spring action of the corrugated metal. By the
use of amplifying levers, the expansion and
contraction of the capsule is transmitted to a
pointer that moves over the dial.
Variations of this simple aneroid included
stacked diaphragms and bellows such as in Fig. 4.
2
- Pointer
Helic;al
The differenti;al pressure bellows of il m;anifold pressure lilJe meilSures
the difference between int;ake m;anifold pressure ;and il p;arti;al vilcuum.
~Fig. 4
A special form of the absolute pressure gage is
the altimeter*, about which much more will be
said in this book. Manifold pressure*, the
absolute pressure which exists in the intake
manifold of a reciprocating engine, is measured
with a differential bellows similar to that in Fig. 4.
2. Gage Pressure
The importance of engine oil
pressure and hydraulic pressure is not their
absolute pressure, but the amount the pressure
has been raised by the pump above that in the
tank or reservoir. For this reason, gage pressure
measurement is used. In its simplest form, gage
pressure is measured by applying a pressure to a
known area and measuring the force it exerts, but
in actual aircraft instruments, it is measured for
the higher ranges of pressure by a bourdon tube,
Fig. 5.
Pressure inside the bourdon tube tends to straishten it. The
straightening ;action moves the pointer.
-Fig. 5
A brass or bronze tube has been rolled into an
elliptical cross section and then curved into a half
circle, with one end sealed and attached to a link
which drives a sector gear*. The fluid whose
pressure is being measured is fed into the open
end of the tube attached to the instrument case.
The pressure in the tube causes distortion of the
ellipse which attempts to assume a round cross
section, straightening the curve. This moves the
Low pressures may be measured by a capsule similar to
an aneroid, except it is not e\loilcuated.
-Fig. 6
A differenti.ill pressure gge measures the difference between P1 inside
the capsule, and P2 cting on its outside.
-Fig. 7
3
sector and the pinion gear* to which the pointer is
attached.
Lower pressures may be measured by a capsule
similar to that used in an aneroid, but the pressure
is put into the capsule and is opposed by the
atmospheric pressure on the outside, Fig. 6.
3. Differential Pressure
It is often necessary to know, not the
pressure itself, but the difference between two
pressures. For example, in a pressure carburetor
the important pressure is the difference between
the inlet fuel pressure and the inlet air pressure.
Airspeed is measured by the difference between
the ram*, or pitot pressure*, and still air, or static
pressure. This differential pressure may be
measured by two bellows, such as seen in Fig. 4,
in which one pressure is sensed by one bellows
and the reference pressure by the other bellows.
The movement of the bellows is transmitted to the
pointer through a set of amplifying levers.
Airspeed is measured by introducing ram
pressure into the capsule and measuring this
against static pressure in the airtight instrument
case, Fig. 7
 QUESTIONS:
1. What is the reference point from which
absolute pressure is measured?
2. What is the reference pressure from which
gage pressure is measured?
3. What type of pressure is normally
measured with a bourdon tube type of
instrument?
B. SPECIAL PRESSURE MEASURE-
MENTS
1. Manifold Pressure
The power developed by a recipro-
cating engine is proportional to the amount of fuel
burned. This, in turn, is determined by the mass
of air with which it mixes. The actual mass of this
air is difficult to measure, but a usable indication
is its absolute pressure, just before it enters
the intake valve. One bellows of an absolute
pressure gage is connected to the intake manifold
somewhere between the butterfly valve of the
carburetor and the intake valve of the cylinders.
The other bellows has been evacuated and is
pressure g01ge
MANIFOLD PRESSURE PURGE VALVE
Fig. 8
! 4
I
sealed. The dial of this instrument is marked from
about ten inches of mercury to 40, 70, or 110
(depending on the power output of the engine with
which the instrument is used). When the engine
is not running, the instrument senses the
atmospheric pressure existing in the intake
manifold and indicates somewhere around 29 to 30
inches of mercury.
When the engine is started and is idling, the
pistons pump more air than the butterfly valve in
the carburetor will allow to pass, and the manifold
pressure, therefore, will be lower than
atmospheric; somewhere around 12 to 15 inches of
mercury. The highest manifold pressure a
normally aspirated engine is able to have is
slightly less than the existing atmospheric
pressure. Supercharged engines can have a
manifold pressure higher than atmospheric
because the air is compressed by a mechanical
compressor before it is put into the cylinders.
Moisture may condense in the manifold
pressure gage line and cause an erratic indication,
so provisions may be made to drain this mois-
ture. To do this, a normally closed purge valve is
installed between the manifold pressure line and
the atmosphere near the instrument. When the
pilot presses the purge valve button, air under
atmospheric pressure enters and forces any water
in the line into the engine, Fig. 8.
Outside 01ir enters
int01ke mmifold when
button is pressed.
 2. Engine Pressure Ratio Fig. 10 shows a typical fuel pressure warning
switch. The pressure port* is attached to the fuel
Manifold pressure is used with pressure inlet of the fuel control unit (or
engine RPM to provide the pilot with an indication carburetor) and the vent port to the air inlet.
of the power his reciprocating engine is
producing. In an axial-flow* turbine engine, an
indication of the thrust may be had by measuring
the ellgine RPM and the Engine Pressure Ratio,
EPR*. EPR is a differential pressure between
Pt2 (Compressor inlet total pressure*) and Pt 7,
Turbine discharge pressure*), Fig. 9. Because of
the long distances between the engines and
instrument panel of jet aircraft, these instruments
are usually remote-indicating. The two pressures
are fed into a transmitter, where a ratio is
developed and converted into an electrical signal
which drives the indicator on the instrument
panel.

3. Pressure Switches

It is often important that a pilot learn

immediately of a dangerous condition. In these
situations a pressure switch may be used to
Adiustment
initiate a warning device when a definite low or screw
high pressure is reached. Lights on the Differential pressure between fuel and atmospheric air holds the micro-
instrument panel are the most commonly used switch open. When the pressure drops, the swttch doses and the warning
light comes on.
warning devices, but audible signals may also be
used. -Fig. 10-

Differential bellows measures the pressure ratio between the compressor

inlet and the turbine discharse. This infCJr~Ution is carried into the codpit
by an Autosyn remote indicatins system.
-Fig. 9
5
Fuel pressure applied below the diaphragm moves
it over and through the actuating arms opens the
normally closed micro-switch. A disc spring
behind the diaphragm exerts a force in the
direction to close the switch and is opposed by the
helical spring* which tends to open it. The
compression of the helical spring is adjustable to
cause the switch to close at the pressure desired.
QUESTIONS:
4. What is the purpose of a manifold pressure
purge valve?
5. What is measured by an Engine Pressure
Ratio indicator?
4. Altimeters
a. Development
Probably one of the most used,
yet least understood instruments in a modem
aircraft instrument panel is the altimeter. This is
one of the oldest flight instruments, whose history
dates all the way back to some of the early balloon
flights; yet, still today, serious study is being
undertaken to find ways of improving it.
The standard altimeter had a simple evacuated
bellows or capsule whose expansion and
contraction moved a rocking shaft*, a sector, and
a pinion gear to which was attached a pointer,
Fig. 2. The dial for this instrument was calibrated
in feet, and since any change in the existing
barometric pressure caused a change in altitude
reading, the dial could be rotated so the pilot
THREE-POINTER SENSITIVE ALTIMETER
Fig. 11-
6
could make the instrument read zero while the
airplane was on the ground.
This simple form of adjustment made local
flying easier for the pilot, but it was useless for
cross-country flying, since the barometric
pressure at the destination is seldom the same as
that at the point of takeoff. So as soon as in-flight
radio communications became possible, alti-
meters with adjustable barometric scales were
developed, enabling the pilot to adjust his
altimeter to the barometric conditions existing at
the point of landing~ His instrument would then
read either zero when _his wheels touched down,
or, as is currently done, indicate his elevation
above mean sea level. In this way, the pilot can
determine his elevation above objects on the
ground, and his altimeter will indicate the
surveyed elevation of the field when his wheels
roll onto the runway.
The pressure lapse rate, the decrease in
pressure with altitude, is not linear*; that is, the
change in pressure for each thousand feet is
greater in the lower altitudes than at the higher
levels. It is possible to design the corrugations in
the bellows in such a way that their expansion will
be uniform for a change in altitude rather than a
change in pressure. The use of this kind of
bellows has made possible the use of multiple
pointers and uniform scales. One pointer makes a
complete round for 1000 feet; one, a turn each
10,000 feet; and a short pointer or marker would
make a complete trip around for 100,000 feet, if
the instrument went that high. Altimeters in use
in modern aircraft usually have ranges of 20,000,
35,000, 50,000, and 80,000 feet. Fig. 11 illustrates
one of the earlier forms of three-pointer sensitive
altimeters*.
 b. Types of Altitude Measurement

An altimeter can measure height

above any convenient reference point, and for
most flying, it measures the pressure above the
existing sea level pressure. This is called
indicated altitude* and is read directly from the
indicator when the altimeter setting* is placed on
the barometric scale. Altimeter setting is
determined by correcting the barometric pressure
that exists at the reporting station to sea level, and
this is included in the information given the pilot
by control towers and flight service stations. If
the correct altimeter setting is put on the
barometric scale while on the ground, the A
altimeter should read the surveyed elevation of
the airplane's parking space.
If the barometric setting is adjusted to 29.92
inches of mercury, or 1013 millibars*, the
altimeter will indicate the pressure altitude, the
altitude above standard sea level pressure.
This is not really a specific point, as it is constantly
changing; but airplanes flying above approxi-
mately 18,000 feet all adjust their altimeters to
this setting and therefore maintain the required
vertical separation, regardless of the barometric
pressure changes along the route.
The performance of an airplane and its engine is
based on the density of the air, not just its
pressure, and since density is determined by
temperature as well as pressure, density altitude*
must be considered. This is not a direct
measurement, but may be found by correcting the B
pressure altitude for nonstandard temperature by
the use of a chart or computer. By definition, Modern altimeters replace the small pointer with an easy-to-read marker,
density altitude is that altitude in standard air that and a barber pole-striped sector shows while flyina below about 16,000 feet.
corresponds with the existing air density.
Absolute altitude is of extreme concern to a -Fig. 12-
pilot on an instrument approach, but it cannot be
measured by a pneumatic altimeter*. A radar
altimeter*, which is not discussed in this With digital read-outs* becoming common in
particular AMFI text, must be used. many of our flight instruments, there has been
much research made into digitizing altimeters.
The main problem has been the extremely low
torque available to drive the mechanism.
c. Types of Altimeters A sensitive pneumatic altimeter uses a stack of
bellows, as seen in Fig. 11, to drive the pointers.
[1] Drum-Type Altimeters If, for example, the bellows change their
dimensions one-quarter of an inch for the full
The three-pointer altime- 35,000 feet, the tip of the long pointer will travel
ter, Fig. 12-A, was relatively easy to misread, as more than 300 inches. This amplification requires
the smallest pointer is easily hidden behind one of a rather complex and delicate transmission and
the others, and in pressurized airplanes with high some very small gears. The friction inside the
rates of climb it is difficult to know the altimeter even under near-ideal conditions is such
approximate altitude. Accidents have been that there must be vibration of the instrument for
attributed to pilots misreading the small pointer, accurate reading. This is no problem in
so the later models of altimeters replace the small reciprocating engine airplanes, as there is enough
pointer with a marker and a barber pole-striped vibration from the engine, but jet aircraft often
sector which disappears behind a mask at an require instrument panel vibrators to keep the
altitude of approximately 16,000 feet; Fig. 12-B. altimeter reading accurately.
7
r
One of the popular semi-digital altimeters is Figure 14 is a schematic of the works of this
shown in Fig. 13. altimeter. The two capsules drive a common
pointer shaft through two sets of rocking shafts
and temperature-compensated links. A bevel
gear from this shaft drives the three drums.
A ground-pressure setting knob actuates a cam to
move the pointer and provide the proper pressure
reference. An extension on the barometric scale
adjustment moves a potentiometer* in the cabin
pressurization system to relate it to the barometric
pressure the pilot has set on the flight aljhneter.
The torque required to drive the three 8rums in
addition to the pointer makes the use of a vibrator
mandatory, and, rather than depend on an
externally-mounted unit, an oscillator and vibrator
are included in the instrument case to provide just
Smiths exactly the correct amount of vibration for the
Digito~l counters o~nd drums provide o~ccuro~te, eo~sy to reolld instrument. A rotary solenoid* drives a failure
o~ltitude informo~tion. flag to warn the pilot if power is lost to the
-Fig. 13 vibrator.

Connector
Oscillator

Potentiometer
for co~bin
pressuriution
control

Cam

Smiths
INTERNAL MECHANISM OF A DRUM-TYPE NON-SERVO ALTIMETER

- Fig. 14
8
QUESTIONS:

6. What type of altitude is measured when

the altimeter setting is placed in the baro-
metric window?

7. When the barometric scale is adjusted to

29.92 inches of mercury, what type of
altitude is being measured?

8. How is density altitude determined?

[2] Servo Altimeters*
Some altimeters drive such
a complex drum-type display that it is not practical
for the bellows to do the work unassisted, so the
servo altimeter has been developed. Fig. 15 is a
photograph of the dial of a 50,000-foot servo
altimeter in which there is a tens-of-thousands-
foot drum--all of which move incrementally*, and
a continuously rotating drum that indicates the
tens of feet. The pointer makes one revolution in
1000 feet and indicates the same information
shown on the last three digits. In this instrument
the tens-of-thousands-foot drum shows the famil-
Al T WAHNIIIIG INPUT
Smiths
Ser\IO altimeters use the low torque from the bellows to pro\lide
a signal for the servo motor.
-Fig. 15-
iar barber pole stripes when the airplane is below
10,000 feet. There is also a dual barometric scale
where the pressure in either inches of mercury or
millibars can be set into the instrument. If
the power should fail, a power failure flag warns
the pilot that the altimeter is inoperative.
Fig. 16 is a schematic of the servo-type
altimeter.

VAliD SlbNAI I() A A l!

PRfSS TO HST
SIGNAL

SIGNAL
OUTPUTS
l
VISUAL
AURAL

Smiths
SERVO ALTIMETER MECHANISM

-Fig. 16-
9
The evacuated bellows or capsule is required to reading taken when the altitude is increasing and
drive only an extremely low-inertia rotary one taken when the altitude is decreasing. Hys-
pick-off*. The signal from the pick-off is built up teresis is essentially a lagging of the indication
by the amplifier and drives a servo motor which caused by the deflection of the metal in the
rotates the drums, pointer, and synchros*. These diaphragms not keeping up with the pressure
in tum drive repeater indicators* and code the changes.
transponder* for altitude reporting. After-effect: This error shows up by the
There is an eJ,Tor .inherent in static systems altimeter not returning to its original reading after
known as position error, caused by the the hysteresis test has been performed. It is the
impossibility of a static port to continually operate effect of the ''set'' the diaphragms have taken.
in perfectly undisturbed air. The servo altimeter Friction: All non-servo altimeters have enough
has a built-in correction system tailored for the friction that some form of vibration is needed for
particular airplane design that minimizes this their accurate reading. This test determines just
error for the full range of flight speeds and how much friction the instrument has. A reading
altitudes. is taken before and after the case is vibrated.
Case leak: The case is tested at 18,000 feet
[3] Encoding Altimeters* pressure to be sure it does not leak more than 100
feet in one minute.
Radar control of air traffic Barometric scale error: This test determines
has made the smooth, orderly flow of high-density that the movement of the barometric scale .has the
traffic possible, but until recently the controller proper effect on thepointers.
has had no accurate knowledge of the altitude of
the airplane he was following. The radar beacon TABLE I
transponder replies to the ground radar with a
code giving the controller certain information he Altitude Equivalent pressure Tole ranee
needs. These transponders have 4,096 codes (feet) (inches of mereury) (feet)
available, so the latest generation of altimeters
not only provide the pilot with a visible read-out of
his altitude, but code the transponder so it can -1,000 ------------------- 31.018 ------------- 20
0 ------------------- 29.921 ------------- 20
reply to the ground station with a signal providing
500 ------------------- 29.385 ------------- 20
a visible indication on the radar scope of the
1,000 ------------------- 28.856 ------------- 20
airplane's altitude in 100-foot increments. 1,500 ------------------- 28.335 ------------- 25
Encoding altimeters of the nonservo type must 2,000 ------------------- 27.821 ------------- 30
have an extra low-torque pick-off, and the 3,000 ------------------- 26.817 -------------- 30
majority now in use use optical encoders. In 4,000 ------------------- 25.842 ------------- 35
this system, the bellows drives a glass disc, 6,000 ------- ------------ 23.978 ------- ------ 40
etched with transparent and opaque sectors. 8,000 __________________ ., 22.225 ------------- 60
A light source shines through the disc onto 10,000 ------------------- 20.577 ------------- 80
photoelectric cells which convert the disc's 12,000 ------------------- 19.029 ------------- 90
movement into coded signals for the transponder. 14,000 ------------------- 17.577 ------------- 100
16,000 ------------------- 16.216 ------------- 110
This type of pick-off provides a high degree of
18,000 ------------------- 14.942 ------------- 120
accuracy with very low torque requirements. 20,000 -------------------- 13.750 ------------- 130
22,000 ------------------- 12.636 ------------- 140
d. Altimeter Tests 25,000 -------------- --- 11.101 ------------- 155
30,000 ---- --------- - -- --- 8.885 ------------- 180
The altimeter is the only 35,000 ------------------- 7.041 ------------- 205
instrument specifically singled out in the Federal 40,000 ------------------- 5.538 ------------- 230
Aviation Regulations as requiring a test. 45,000 ------------------- 4.355 ------------- 255
!'iO,OOO ________ . _____ .. ___ _ 3.425 . - - - - -- - -- - 280
Every twenty-four calendar months, every alti-
meter and every static system of airplanes used
for Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flying must be TABLE 11-TEST TOLERANCES
checked according to the tests prescribed in Tolerance
Test. (Feet)
F.A.R. 43, Appendix E. These tests include:
Scale error: The barometric scale is set to 29.92 Case Leak Test .. _ . __ . __ . _______ - - ____ - - - - - - =*= 100
inches of mercury and the instrument subjected to Hysteresis Test:
pressure corresponding to a series of test First Test Point (50 percent of maximum
altitude) _________________ -------- ----- -- 75
altitudes. The instrument must not have a scale
Second Test Point (40 percent of maximum
error in excess of that allowed in Table I.
ahUude) -------------------------------- 75
Hysteresis: This test is made to determine that After Effect Test _________________________ - - -- 30
the instrument will be within tolerance between a
10
 TABLE III-FRICTION

Altitude Tolerance
(Feet) (Feet)

1' 000 - - - -- - - - - - - - --- - - - - - :::i::: 70

2,000 ---------------------- 70
3,000 ---------------------- 70
5,000 ---------------------- 70
10,000 ---------------------- 80
15,000 ---------------------- 90
20,000 --------------------- 100
25,000 --------------------- 120
30,000 --------------------- 140
35,000 --------------------- 160
40,000 --------------------- 180
50,000 --------------------- 250

The airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gage.

-Fig. 18-

TABLE IV-PRESSURE-ALTITUDE DIFFERENCE To do this, the instrument is installed in an

airtight case vented to the static source, usually a
Pr911Ur9
(Inches
Altitude small hole in the side of the airplane fuselage, or a
nurerence
or H1> (Feet) closed-end tube with holes or slits in its side.
The mechanism itself consists of a diaphragm
2&.10 ------------------- -1727 connected to the pitot or ram air pickup tube.
28. 50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- -- - 1340 As the differential pressure increases, the
29. 00 - - - ----------------- - 863
29' 50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -- - 392
diaphragm expands and rotates the rocking shaft
29.92 ------------------------ 0
which, through the sector and pinion, moves the
30.50 -------------------- +531 pointer across the instrument dial.
30. 90 - - - - - -- -- - - - - - ------ +893 The calibration of the airspeed indicator is
30.99-------------------- +974 nonlinear*--meaning that there is not the same
amount of space between each ten mile per hour
mark. The instrument is calibrated in the
instrument shop by adjusting sctews in the
progressive restraint spring to make the pointer
read the same as the calibrating master.
Airspeed indicators may be calibrated in miles
per hour, in knots (nautical miles per hour), or, for
use in metric countries, in kilometers per hour.
QUESTIONS: The reading given the pilot is indicated airspeed,
and for it to be of use to him, there must be a
9. Why are some altimeters servo-operated? correction made for nonstandard air temperature.
This is the same correction used for density
10. What does an encoding altimeter do to altitude and when applied to the indicated
inform the ground controller of the air- airspeed it gives true airspeed*. True airspeed is
plane's altitude? higher than indicated by approximately two
percent for every thousand feet of altitude. This
11. How often should altimeters used for Ins- is because the air becomes less dense as the
trument Flight Rules flying be checked for airplane goes up in altitude, and the differential
accuracy? pressure is less, causing the indicated airspeed to
be lower.
a. Maximum Allowable Airspeed
5. Airspeed Indicators Indicators

Airspeed is measured by the Airplanes have for years been

difference between ram pressure of the air and the limited in their maximum airspeed by structural
still or static air pressure, Fig. 18. considerations--If you fly too fast, the air loads
11

I ~
may be greater than the structure can stand.
But by the end of World War II, airplanes had
become so strong and so fast that a new limit was
imposed, that being an aerodynamic limit.
As airplane speed approaches the speed of
sound, shock waves form on the structure and
produce buffeting and serious control problems.
To prevent an airplane flying fast enough for
shock waves to form, therefore, the airspeed must
be restricted to a value below the critical Mach
number*., As the airplane changes altitude, the
indicated airspeed for the limiting Mach number
changes, so a fixed red line on the airspeed
indicator is not adequate. Airplanes whose design
makes them susceptible to shock wave formation
use maximum allowable airspeed indicators.
Fig. 19.
b. Tme Airspeed Indicator
The pilot can read his airspeed
indicator, altimeter, and outside air temperature
gage and apply these three indications to his flight
computer to come up with his true airspeed--TAS.
Doing all this may be too distracting a procedure,
however, and a true airspeed indicator may be
installed in the panel. Fig. 20 is a true airspeed
indicator manufactured by ALCOR Aviation, Inc.
The case of this instrument holds both an airspeed
indicator which moves the pointer and an
altimeter mechanism which moves the dial.
The movement of the altimeter mechanism is
affected--opposed or aided--by the action of a
bimetallic spring exposed to outside airflow, and,
as the airplane goes up in altitude, the dial rotates
in such a direction that the pointer will indicate a
higher value. If the air is warmer than standard
for the altitude the airplane is flying, the
temperature sensor will assist the altimeter to
cause the true airspeed reading to be higher than
under standard temperature conditions.

The striped pointer is attached to an altimeter mechanism and

moves to a lower airspeed as the airplane goes up in altitude.

-Fig. 19-

In the same case, and with a pointer coaxial

with the airspeed indicator pointer, is an altimeter
mechanism with a wide red checkered or striped
pointer which indicates the maximum airspeed the
pilot may fly at any given altitude.

\ Temperature
sensor

This true airspeed indicator modifies the airspeed indication by moving

the dial in response to altitude and temperature [density) changes.

-Fig. 20-
12
 c. Machmeter
Mach number is the ratio of the
airspeed of the plane to the speed of sound in the
same air conditions. To measure the Mach
number, the airspeed indicator has its output
modified by an altimeter mechanism, Fig. 21.
This expands as the airplane gains altitude,
decreasing the movement of the pointer for a
given expansion of the airspeed diaphragm.
With this type of mechanism, the dial of the
instrument may be made linear.

Altimeter
mech~nism

Airspeed
mechanism

Machmeter- an airspeed indicator mechanism whose output

is modified by an altimeter.

Fig. 21

QUESTIONS: 14. What drives the maximum allowable

pointer in a maximum allowable airspeed
indicator?
12. What two pressures are compared in an
airspeed indicator? 15. What corrections must be applied to
indicated airspeed to produce true
13. As an airplane goes higher, does the true airspeed?
airspeed for a given indicated airspeed
increase or decrease? 16. What is meant by Mach Number?

13
 A - Measuring diaphragm
B - Calibrated leak
C - Overpressure diaphragm
D - Zero adjustment screw

VERTICAL SPEED OR RATE OF CLIMB INDICATOR

-Fig. 22-

6. Vertical Speed Indicator [Rate of
Climb]
It is important that a pilot be able
to establish a climb or descent that will allow him
to gain or lose a given amount of altitude in a
given amount of time; so a vertical speed indicator
has become one of the required instruments for
JFR flying. The vertical speed indicator is a
lag-type instrument, as it measures the rate of
pressure change--and pressure must be changing
before it can be measured. There have been sev-
eral types of mechanisms used for this, but that in
Fig. 22 illustrates the basic operating principle.
The works are housed in a vacuum-insulated
container to prevent cockpit temperature affecting
the reading. Air from the static port enters both
the measuring and overpressure diaphragms
14
directly and goes into the case through a diffuser,
a very fine calibrated leak. When the airplane
ascends or descends, the pressure inside the
diaphragms changes immediately, while that in
the case changes more slowly. This creates a
differential pressure which causes the pointer to
move over the dial to indicate the rate of pressure
change. When the airplane levels off, the
pressure inside the case becomes the same as that
in the diaphragms, and the needle returns to zero.
7. Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator
The ordinary vertical speed indicator
whose indication lags the pressure change is not
of as much value as it would be if it had no lag.
For this reason, the instantaneous vertical speed
indicator (IVSI) has been developed. An IVSI uses
a vertical speed indicator mechanism in the case
 Accelerometer-
actuated pumps
or dashpots

,.,~- ................
""'
/
I '-
' \
\
\
\
\
\

I
,
I

Calibrated leak

Teledyne Avionics

The instantaneous vertical speed indicator uses accelerometer-actuated

pumps, or dashpots, to cause an indication change when the airplane
pitches, before there is a pressure change.

-Fig. 23-

with an accelerometer-operated pump, ordashpot,

across the diaphragm. When the airplane noses
over to begin a descent, the inertia of the accelero- QUESTIONS:
meter piston causes it to move upward, instantane-
ously increasing the pressure inside the diaphragm 17. What does a vertical speed indicator
and lowering the pressure at the diffuser. This actually measure?
gives an immediate indication of a descent. By the
time the lag of the ordinary vertical speed instru- 18. What type of device causes an instan-
ment has been overcome so it will indicate the taneous vertical speed indicator (IVSI) to
descent, there is no more inertia from the nose- give the pilot an immediate indication of
down rotation and the piston is again centered, pitch?
making the instrument ready to indicate instantly
the levelling off from the descent.
15
 SECTION II:
TEMPERATURE
MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS

A. TYPES OF TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT

1. Non-Electrical

To make any kind of temperature

measurement, we must realize that an increase in
heat, which is what we are actually measuring,
causes most materials to expand, and this
expansion is usually pretty much linear--that is,
the dimensions change just about the same
amount for any given temperature change,
regardless of the part of the scale it is on.
This characteristic of dimension change with
temperature may be used with liquids, solids, or
gases.

a. Expansion of a Liquid

A glass tube having a tiny bore

and a fairly large bulb on its end, filled with
mercury or alcohol, is well known to all of us as the
thermometer used in medicine, photography, and
to measure the air temperature in our homes.
This finds a very limited use around airplanes,
however, because it is difficult to read and easy to
break.

b. Expansion of a Solid

The outside air temperature

gage we see sticking through the windshield of
most light airplanes is one of our most familiar
applications of the expansion of a solid to measure
temperature, Fig. 24. The measuring element of
this gage is a metal strip made up of two
The outside air thennometer registers temperAture dissimilar metals welded together. This strip is
changes by the expansion of a solid - metal.
twisted and attached at one end to a pointer with
-Fig. 24- the other end attached to the case of the
16
instrument. As the temperature changes, the
metals expand in different amounts and the strip
twists, moving the pointer over the dial.
c. Expansion of a Gas

---
Most of the oil temperature
gages in our light aircraft are actually pressure
gages. A bulb, a capillary tube, and a bourdon
tube are all sealed togeth~r and filled with methyl
chloride--a gas at ordinary room temperature, but
a liquid if held under pressure. The vapor
r
pressure, that pressure required to keep the
vapors in the liquid, is fairly high and is I
L---~~~~
proportional to the temperature. The bulb is
placed where the temperature is to be measured,
and, as the temperature changes, the vapor
pressure of the methyl chloride changes. This
is read by the bourdon tube pressure gage which STEM-SENSITIVE NICKEL WIRE
is calibrated in units of temperature rather than RESISTANCE-TYPE TEMPERATURE BULB
pressure, Fig. 25. -Fig. 26-

Some bulbs are stem-sensitive, Fig. 27-A, some

tip-sensitive, 27-B, and some fit flush with the
airplane skin to measure outside air tempera-
ture, 27-C.

~----~ A

=~:"":
The pressure-type temperature indicator uses a bourdon tube to measure
the yapor pressure of the liquid in the bulb and capillary.

-Fig. 25-
B
2. Electrical

a. Resistance Change

The electrical properties of

metals, as well as their physical dimensions,
alter with temperature change. This charac-
teristic is used when measuring the temperature c
of outside air, carburetor air, oil, and even the A - Stem-sensitive temperature bulb
cylinder heads in our modem aircraft. A fine B - Tip-sensitiYe temperature bulb
C Flush-mounted surface-type temperature bulb
nickel wire wound on a mica core, Fig. 26, is
placed where the measurement is to be taken. Fig. 27-
17
 AN5795-2

T
e 151J.
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

0
c

50 90.38

Bulb resistance, given in ohms

There are two standard calibrations oi resistance bulbs, one with 50 ohms
at zero degrees C., and the other, 90.38 ohms at Zero degree~ C.

-Fig. 28-

There are two basic calibrations of these bulbs,

one having a resistance of 50.00 ohms at zero
degrees C. and the other with a resistance of 90.38
ohms at zero degrees C. These temperature-
resistance curves are shown in Fig. 28. +
Resistance-type temperature measurements
may be made with either a Wheatstone
bridge-type indicator or with a ratiometer.
The Wheatstone bridge, Fig. 29, operates on the 8
principle of controlling the flow of current through
the indicator by varying the resistance of one of
the legs of the bridge. In Fig. 29, if the ratio of
R1/R 3 is the same as R2/X, the bridge will be
balanced and the voltage at point B will be the X
same as that at point C. No current will flow
through the indicator.
When the temperature measured by the bulb
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE-TYPE RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
increases, the resistance of the bulb will also
increase, as will the voltage drop across it. -Fig. 29-
18
This makes the voltage at point C higher than at
Point B, so current will flow through the indicator.
If the resistance of the bulb drops below that
required to balance the bridge, the voltage at
point C will be low enough for current to flow
through the indicator in the opposite direction.
There are two types of ratiometer indicators,
both measuring the ratio of the current through
the bulb and that through resistors in the
indicator. By measuring a ratio of current, the
indicator is less affected by variations in line
voltage than a Wheatstone bridge.
One form of ratiometer uses two coils moving in a
non-uniform air gap in a permanent magnet, Fig.
30-A. When the bulb resistance is low, current
flows through C 1 to ground and drives the pointer
toward the low side of the scale. When the
resistance of the bulb is high, it is easier for
current to flow through c2 to ground and the
pointer will move across the scale to the high side.
Fig. 31 illustrates a more rugged type of ratio-
meter indicator; rugged, in that the moving ele-
ment is a small permanent magnet with much less 14 v 28 v
mass than the two moving coils, and having no 0 A
hairsprings since no current flows in the moving
MOVING MAGNET RATIOMETER
element. When the bulb resistance is low, current
flows through resistor A, the low end coil, and the -Fig. 31-
bulb to ground. The magnetic field of the low coil
pulls the permanent magnet over so that the high end coil. and resistor D to ground.
pointer indicates at the low end of the scale. As The pointer will then move over to the high end of
the temperature and the bulb resistance increase, the dial.
current begins to flow through resistors B, C, the Most ratiometer temperature indicators may

To To ground
bulb
+
through R1
-
A B
MOVING COIL RATIOMETER

-Fig. 30-
19
 The voltage generated in a thermocouple system is proportional to the temperature difference between the two ends.

-Fig. 32

be used in either 14- or 28-volt airplanes. b. Voltage Generation

If it is installed in a 28-volt system, power enters
the indicator through pin A so that the voltage can If wires made of certain
be dropped by a resistor to 14 volts. If it is dissimilar metals are welded together into a loop,
installed in a 14-volt airplane, power comes in a voltage will be generated between the two
through pin D, bypassing the dropping resistor. junctions that is proportional to the difference in
Troubleshooting these systems is not at all temperature between the two ends. The voltage is
complicated. A small drift magnet in the fixed coil in the order of millivolts and varies with the
meter and the hairsprings in the movable coil metals, Fig. 32.
models pull the pointer off scale on the low side
when the power is off. If the meter fails to operate
when the power is turned on, the trouble is either QUESTIONS:
no power to the indicator or else the bulb is 19. How can temperature be measured with a
shorted, indicating zero resistance. To tell which pressure gage?
problem you have, tap the instrument case; if
there is no power, the pointer will bounce up 20. Does the resistance of most metals increase
slightly, but if the bulb is shorted, the pointer will or decrease with an increase of tem-
be held off scale so tightly the pointer cannot perature?
bounce up.
If there is an open circuit in the bulb, the 21. What indication would be given by an open
indicator will see an infinite resistance and will circuited resistance bulb?
peg off-scale on the high side.
l 20

l
 Constantan*, an alloy of copper and nickel, may be held constant. Two standard values have been
be used with either iron or copper to form the chosen for aircraft thermocouples: two ohms,
thermocouple for measuring cylinder head most often used on single-engine aircraft, and
temperatures of reciprocating engines. Copper eight ohms, more often used on multi-engine
and constantan have been used in the past for this installations. It is not normally practical to cut the
purpose, but the range was somewhat limited, leads with exactly the correct resistance, so a
and since the combination of iron and constantan resistor, Fig. 34, consis~ing of two spools of
has a higher useful temperature range, it is contantan wire, may be inserted in the negative
presently the most widely used couple for lead to adjust the resistance. The lead is
reciprocating engines. Turbine engine installa- installed, and the negative wire is cut at some
tions use chromel and alumel to determine convenient location.
exhaust gas temperature or tail pipe temperature.
In reciprocating engines, this combination is used
for exhaust gas temperature and for turbine inlet
temperature for exhaust-driven turbochargers.
Fig. 33 shows the millivolt output for the three
most commonly used thermocouples.
The junction of the thermocouple at the engine
is called the measuring junction, and the end
inside the instrument case is the cold, or
reference, junction. A voltage is generated at
both junctions, and when the temperature is the
same at each end, the voltages cancel each other
If one end is hotter than the other, a voltage will
be present and current will flow in the wires.
For the vast majority of temperature measure-
ments in airplanes, it is this current that is
measured. Voltage is proportional to the THERMOCOUPLE LEAD RESISTOR
temperature difference between the junctions,
and for current to reflect this, the resistance must -Fig. 34-

Chrome-alumel
42

M
i
I 22.5
I
i
v
0

: 15 .

300 410 Degrees Celsius 1,000

MILLIVOLTAGE OUTPUT VS. TEMPERATURE FOR THREE THERMOCOUPLES

-Fig. 33
21
 Terminals are silver-soldered to the ends and the
lead resistor installed. Only enough wire is used
from the spool to give exactly two or eight ohms
when measured between the ends of the leads that
go over the meter terminals.
Another problem inherent with thermocouple
instruments is their sensitivity. Temperature
changes in the meter itself cause the resistance
, of the moving coil and the hairsprings to change.
To prevent this change from inducing an error, a
compensating resistor made of a material with a
negative temperature coefficient of resistance is
connected in series with the meter movement.
When the instrument temperature and its internal
resistance increases, the resistance of the
compensator will decrease so the total resistance
remains constant.
For final calibration of a thermocouple
instrument, there is a small coil of resistance wire
in the back of the case. If the instrument is too
sensitive, more wire is added in the circuit;
if it is not sensitive enough, some of this wire
clipped off. This calibrating resistor is shown
in Fig. 35.
Because thermocouple instruments are shunted
with low-resistance thermocouples, their moving
coils are wound on paper bobbins instead of the
light-weight aluminum frames used by most other
Negative _ _ _..,
terminal
INTERNAL CIRCUIT FOR
THERMOCOUPLE TYPE TEMPERATURE INDICATOR
-Fig. 35-
22
meters. Meters with aluminum bobbins are
electrodynamically damped. As the pointer
swings back and forth, the aluminum frame (a
closed circuit) moves through the magnetic field of
the meter magnet. This generates a voltage and
causes current to flow in the frame. The magnetic
field from this current opposes the swinging
movement. When the thermocouple meter is
connected to the low-resistance leads, there is a
complete path for the current through the meter
coil and leads so electrodynamic damping will
result even through there is no field from the
frame. However, when the leads are disconnected
from the meter there can be no damping, and the
pointer will swing back and forth enough that the
movement may be knocked out of balance.
Before removing a thermocouple instrument from
the instrument panel, disconnect the leads and
wrap a piece of safety wire around the meter
terminals. This will complete the circuit through
the coil and provide enough electrodynamic
damping that the meter movement is less likely to
he knocked out of balance by handling.
Another practical point to note is that the
terminals of thermocouple instruments are of
different sizes. The positive terminal is larger
than the negative to prevent the installation of the
wrong leads.
Top control
.--- spring
Compensating
spring
 These instruments measure the temperature
difference between the two junctions, and since it
is not practical to hold the cockpit temperature
absolutely constant, some provision must be made
to compensate for changes in cockpit tempera-
ture. The current enters and leaves the moving
coil, to which the pointer is attached, through a
pair of calibrated hairsprings. Moving the anchor
point of these springs determines the resting point
of the pointer, and the lower hairspring, instead of
being attached to a zero adjustment arm as on
most meters, is attached to a bimetallic or
compensating spring, Fig. 35. This bimetallic
spring, acting as a thermometer, measures the
temperature inside the instrument case. If the
cockpit temperature increases, the voltage
difference between the two ends will come closer
together and the current will decrease; but the
bimetallic strip moves the pointer up just enough
to compensate so there will be no error from
this temperature change. When the engine is
cold, the two junctions are the same temperature
and no voltage is generated by the thermocouple
so the indicator should indicate the ambient
temperature.
A

Thermocouple leads are paired

in a common cloth braid.
[1] Thermocouple Leads

Thermocouple leads are

normally made up by the manufacturer in pairs,
insulated from each other and wrapped in a
common braid, Fig. 36-A. The insulator is color- Thermocouple lead assembly
coded, and the wires may be identified by their
appearance or magnetic characteristics.
Copper-constantan leads are identified by
yellow and red insulation. There is no problem in
identifying the metals because of copper's red c
color and the silver color of the constantar . Spar!! plug gasl!et-type thermocouple
Iron-constantan's insulation is yellow and black,
with the yellow, again, on the constantan.
Iron is a darker and duller metal than constantan
and is magnetic.
For reciprocating engines, cylinder head
temperature may be measured by either replacing
the regular gasket under the spark plug with a
special gasket attached to the thermocouple, Fig.
36-C, or by pressing a bayonet-type probe against
the wall of the cylinder head, Fig. 36-D. The
leads that carry this current into the instrument
are made up as in Fig. 36-B, with one lead shorter
than the other, a lug on one terminal, and a nut on
the other. The instrument end has a #10 lug on
the positive lead and a #8 on the negative.
Turbine engine temperatures are taken using a
system essentially the same as that used for D
reciprocating engines, except that there are Bayonet. type thermocouple
usually more than one measuring point, and these
are connected in parallel so that the average -Fig. 36-
23
temperature of the exhaust gas can be taken, Fig. is placed, and is magnetic. The insulation on the
37. The leads used for turbine engine thermocou- chrome! lead is white and that on the alumel
ples are made of chrome I and alumel wire. Alumel is green.
is the negative lead, the one in which the resistor

Resistor spool

Constantan

Fan Inner case

Common Turbine case

[Aiumel] A

Harness
Inlet splices
port

Outlet
port
Fan air case

Thermocouple
harness
EGT THERMOCOUPLE PROBE ENGINE, REAR VIEW
TURBINE ENGINE EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURE MEASURING SYSTEM

-Fig. 37-

QUESTIONS:

22. What two metal combinations are used
for reciprocating engine thermocouples?
23. What metals make up the thermocouple
for turbine engines?
24. What are the two standard values of ther-
mocouple resistance used for aircraft
engines?
25. How can a thermocouple-type meter be
protected from damage and being knocked
out of balance when it is taken out of the
instrument panel?
27. How are changes in cockpit temperature
compensated with a thermocouple-type
meter?
28. What thermocouple metal combination
would be indicated by black and yellow
insulation on the wires?
29. Other than the color of the in~lation, how
can iron be distinguished from constantan?
30. Are the multiple thermocouple probes in a
turbine exhaust gas measuring system
connected in series or in parallel?

26. What provision is made on a thermocouple- 31. What thermocouple metal combination is
type meter to minimize the possibility of identified by white and green insulation
reversing the leads? on the lead wires?

24
 SECTION III:
MECHANICAL MOVEMENT
MEASUREMENT

A. ACCELEROMETER

An airplane structure is designed and

built to withstand a certain load, and an accelero-
meter on the instrument panel gives the pilot an
indication of the load imposed on the airplane in
terms of load factors. An airplane that is allowed,
for instance, a load factor of 3.8 positive is able to
carry 3.8 times its maximum gross weight before
structural failure is likely to occur. The
accelerometer uses a weight suspended and
centered on a couple of shafts by a spring-
loaded control cord, Fig. 38. Three pointers
are attached to a pulley driven by the control
cord. When the airplane pitches up or down,
intertia acts on the mass of the weight and
causes it to ride up or down the shafts,
Guide transmitting this movement to the main pulley
shafts and the pointer. Two auxiliary pointers also move
) with the pulley; the one moving only in the
negative direction remains at the maximum
negative value, and the other, moving only in the
positive direction, stays at the maximum positive
load factor. These auxiliary pointers may be
returned to the at-rest condition by turning the
pointer-reset button which releases the pawls*.
Accelerometers are calibrated in G units* and
when the airplane is at rest, the instrument should
read one G positive. Before installing an
accelerometer in the panel, place it on a flat
surface and note its indication; it should be + 1.
Turn the instrument on its side and it should read
zero. Invert it on the level surface and it should
indicate - 1. When the instrument is smoothly
moved up and down in your hands, the pointers
should indicate both positive and negative, and
the auxiliary pointers should remain at the
maximum excursions in each direction. When
An accelerometer indicates the load placed on an airplane structure the instrument is still and the reset knob turned,
and is calibrated in G-units. the pointers should all return to the same position
-Fig. 38 as the main pointer.
25
 the current flows through a fixed resistor and coil
QUESTIONS: A. The magnbtic field of coil A pulls the
permanent magnet and the pointer to the left side
32. What does an accelerometer actually of the scale. When the resistor arm is clear over in
measure? the opposite direction (for a full fuel tank) most of
the current flows through Coil B to ground and the
33. What should an accelerometer read when it pointer now moves to the right side of the dial.

-------------
is laid on its side? An expanded range DC remote-indicating
system uses an indicator with three windings on a
ring-shaped, soft iron core, Fig. 40.

B. REMOTE POSITION
INDICATING SYSTEMS
1. Direct Current
The simplest form of remote position 40
indicating done in general aviation aircraft is fuel
quantity measurement. A simple system is shown
in the circuit of Fig. 39. DC is supplied to
the indicator where it divides through two
coils, one going to ground through a resistor
in the instrument case, and the other to ground
through the sender or transmitter, a variable
resistor moved by a float in the fuel tank.
Expanded range DC remote indicating systems use three coils wound on a
With the resistor arm all the way over in one ring-type core.
direction (empty, in the case of a fuel tank), all of
the resistance is in the circuit and the majority of Fig. 40-

E~f

T.Jnk
unit

DC+
SIMPLE DC REMOTE INDICATING SYSTEM
-Fig. 39
26
These windings are supplied with current &om
a circular resistor at the point where movement
is being measured. The two wipers of the
circular resistor are positioned in such a way
that coils 1 and 2 have equal current flowing
through them and both ends of coil 3 are at the
same voltage so no current will flow through it.
A magnetic field is set up in the core of the
indicator in such a way that the permanent
magnet on which the pointer is mounted is held in
a given position. When the mechanism being
monitored moves, the two wipers change their
position and the voltage across the three coils and
the current through them change, changing the
magnetic field and moving the pointer over to
indicate movement of the transmitter.
2. Alternating Current
The rotor is excited by 26 volts, 400 Hertz
alternating current, either through slip rings and
brushes or through hairsprings. The rotors in the
indicator and the transmitt.er are connected in
parallel and are electrically identical. Sur-
rounding the rotors are three-phase, delta-wound
stators, also connected in parallel. The 400 Hertz
AC in the rotor induces a voltage into the windings
of the stator~ and, since the rotor of the
transmitter is mechanically connected to the
object whose movement is being measured, as it
moves the phase relationship in the stator
windings change. The two stators are in parallel
so their phase relationships are the same and the
magnetic field in the indicator causes its rotor to
move until it has the same relationship to the
stator as the rotor in the transmitter. A light-
weight pointer is attached to the indicator rotor
and follows the movement of the transmitter.

There are two types of AC b. Magnesyn System

remote-indicating systems in common use, one
using an electromagnet for the rotor and the other Using a permanent magnet as a
a permanent magnet. rotor does away with the need for carrying current
into the moving element so the rotor can be much
a. Autosyn System lighter. The basic element of this instrument is a
toroidal-wound coil on a soft iron, ring-shaped
The autosyn system uses an core. One such coil is in the transmitter, and one
electromagnet as a rotor, Fig. 41. in the indicator. Each of these coils is tapped

26 v
400Hz
AC

I
I Stator
coils
I
I Indicator
I
I Transmitter
I
I AUTOS\'N REMOTE INDICATING SYSTEM

The rotor of the transmitter is connected to the object being monitored and the rotor of the indicator, to a
Raht-wf'ight pointer. Both rotors are excited with AC and serve as primo~ries of .1 transformer, with the
stator t:OIIs the seconduies.

-Fig. 41-
27
one-third of the way around and the two are
connected in parallel and then excited with 26
volt 400 Hertz AC, Fig. 42. Riding in the center of
the transmitter coil is a permanent magnet, free to
rotate and moved by whatever is being measured.
The pointer is attached to a similar magnet in the
indicator.
Reviewing the basic generation of electricity,
we remember that a voltage is generated in a
conductor when there is relative motion between
the conductor and the magnetic field. There is no
problem when generating a voltage with the
magnetic field set up by AC, as is done in the rotor
of the Autosyn, but generating a voltage with a
permanent magnet, without physically moving it,
is something else. This is done by causing the
core of the coil to alternately accept and reject the
lines of flux from the permanent rotor. Let's
consider the condition which exists when the AC
in the stator is of such value that its magnetic field
saturates the ring-shaped core; the permeability
of the saturated core is very low, and it will not
accept any lines of flux from the permanent
magnet. About one eight-hundredth of a second
later (one alternation of 400 Hertz AC) the core is
demagnetized and will accept the flux from the
rotor. In accepting it, the lines of flux must cut
across the coil, and a voltage is generated in the
three sections of the winding. The voltage
relationship between the three sections is
dependent on the position of the rotor, and since
the two coils are in parallel, the magnetic field in
the indicator will be the same as that in the trans-
mitter. The rotor and the pointer in the indicator
will line up in its stator in exactly the same way as
the rotor in the transmitter lines up with its stator.
QUESTIONS:
34. To which part in an autosyn system is the
power supplied, to the rotor or the stator?
35. What is meant by a toroidal coil?
36. What changes in a magnesyn system to
allow voltage to be induced into the
windings of the coil?

Permanent
magnet rotor
- attached to
object being
monitored

Indicator

26V
400Hz
AC

The magnesyn remote indicating system uses a permanent magnet as a

rotor. The 26 V 400 Hz AC alternately saturates and demagnetizes the
ring-shaped core so it will accept and reject the flux from the rotor.

-Fig. 42-
28
 C. TACHOMETERS
Tachometers were one of the earliest
aircraft instruments, and through their evolution
they have utilized many different principles.
A centrifugal mechanism similar to a steam
engine governor was common in many of the early
mechanical tachometers, and the British have
made very good tachometers utilizing a clockwork
mechanism. Electrical tachometers have been
made utilizing the principle of a DC generator
producing a voltage proportional to the speed the
generator is turned. Many principles and systems
have evolved down to three which are commonly
in use today.
1. Mechanical Tachometer
The magnetic drag tachometer has
replaced all other types of mechanical tacho-
meters in modern aircraft. It is identical in
principle and very similar in construction to an
automobile speedometer, and, as a result of
high-volume production, its cost is relatively low.
A flexible steel cable, driven at one-half engine
speed, is slipped into the back of the tachometer
and drives a permanent magnet, Fig. 43.
The magnetic drag tachometer uses eddy currents in an aluminum or
copper drag cup to react with the field of the spinning magnet.
Fig. 43
An aluminum or copper drag cup rides over the
magnet so that it cuts the lines of flux as the
magnet spins, but does not touch it. The cup has a
shaft sticking from its center to which the pointer
is attached and is supported in bushings so that it
is free to turn. The pointer is held against a stop
by a calibrated hairspring. When the magnet
spins, its line of flux generates a voltage in the
drag cup, causing a current (an eddy current) to
flow. This current establishes a magnetic field in
the cup. The strength of this field is pro~ortional
29
to the speed the magnet is turned, so the drag cup
will rotate against the hairspring with a force
proportional to the speed of the engine. The
pointer moves across the dial to indicate the
engine speed.
Calibration may be done by moving the anchor
point of the hairspring; but, in actual practice, the
low cost of these instruments makes servicing
them by an instrument shop impractical. The
factory, with this in mind, crimps the bezel to the
case, so the only way the instrument can be
opened is to pry the case apart. They are normally
replaced rather than repaired.
The accuracy of these instruments is not such
that they can be trusted for precision work, so if
you ever encounter trouble with an engine failing
to reach the proper static RPM, or are unable to
synchronize the engines on a twin, it is a good idea
to have the tachometer checked for accuracy or to
swap the suspected tachometer for one you know
to be good.
Magnetic drag tachometers often have an
hourmeter, Fig. 44, similar to the mileage
odometer in an automobile speedometer.
The hourmeter is accurate at only one speed, the
cruise speed of the engine which is normally
stamped on the instrument case.
The simple magnetic drag tachometer is similar in construction and
operation to an automobile speedometer.
Fig. 44
Tachometers for small general aviation aircraft
differ in their markings and hourmeter
calibration, and, for this reason, they are usually
not interchangeable between different models of
airplanes, even though their operating principles
are all the same.
The cable, sometimes called a chain, is the
source of most trouble with this type of
instrument. It is made up of double-wound spring
steel wire, constructed so that either direction of
rotation will tighten one of the wraps and prevent
 its uncoiling. It is enclosed in a steel casing and
lubricated with graphite grease. Either too much
or too little grease will cause the cable to interfere
with smooth instrument indication, and if there
are any kinks or looseness in the casing, the
indicator will oscillate.
Cables made up at the factory have their ends
swaged to fit the engine and instrument; but
. since swaging tools are not commonly found in
the small shops where a majority of airplanes
using this type of tachometer are serviced, a
replaceable tip is sold that may be attached to the
cable by plastic resin in the hollow end of the tip.
Cut the cable, heat its end with a match, and
insert it in the socket of the tip. As the resin cools,
it bonds to the cable.
Tachometer cables may have a drive adapter swaged on their ends.
If no swaging tool is available, a plastic drive adapter may be bonded
on the cable with a thermoplastic resin.
Fig. 45
TURBINE ENGINE AC TACHOMETER
The three-phase generator is driven by the engine to produce AC whose
frequency relates to engine RPM. The indicator holds a synchronous motor
which drives a magnetic drag tachometer magnet.
-Fig. 46-
30
2. Electric Tachometers
a. Three-phase AC Tachometer
The most common electric
tachometer uses a three-phase AC generator
driven by the engine. It has a four-pole
permanent magnet rotor for reciprocating
engines, and a two-pole rotor for turbines .
The voltage output of the generator varies with its
speed, but in this instance it is not the voltage we
are concerned with; it is the frequency. Inside
the instrument is a synchronous motor that turns
at exactly the same speed as the generator, Fig.
46. This motor drives another permanent magnet
which operates a magnetic drag mechanism
similar to that used with the mechanical
tachometer. The strength of the tachometer
generator magnet is not as critical as it would be if
the voltage were used for the indication; the
instrument shop has only to determine that its
strength is within rather wide limits. If it is too
weak or too strong, the indicator may oscillate.
Most tachometers of this type when used on
multi-engine airplanes have two mechanisms in
one case, driving concentric pointer shafts.
These often have a third instrument in the case, a
synchroscope, which is simply a differential motor
sensing the output of the two generators and
turning an indicator wheel at one-half of the
difference in the speed of the two engines.
 b. Electronic Tachometer
Some modem light twin-engine
aircraft use electronic tachometers. These
instruments, Fig. 47, take their signal from a
special set of breaker points in one of the
magnetos on each of the engines. The special
points are insulated from the magneto housing
and serve no function related to the ignition
system. A measuring circuit in the tachometer
indicator senses the opening and closing rate of
the points and converts it to a signal which
indicates on the meter as RPM.

Tachometer
breaker points

Tachometer Bendix
leads

A B

The dual electronic tachometer measures the tachometer breaker point rate A set of breaker points, insulated from the ignition points, provides the
of opening and closing, to provide an indication of engine RPM. signal for electronic tachometer.

- Fig. 47

QUESTIONS:
39. Is the three-phase AC tachometer system
37. What is done with most light aircraft voltage- or frequency-sensitive?
magnetic drag tachometers which require
repair? 40. What does a synchroscope indicate?

38. What is the difference between the tacho- 41. Where does the signal originate that pro-
meter generator used on a reciprocating vides engine RPM to an electronic tacho-
engine and one used on a turbine engine? meter?

31

A. GYRO THEORY
A gyroscope is a small wheel having its
weight concentrated around its rim, spinning at a
high rate of speed. It has two characteristics
which make it useful as the heart of aircraft flight
instruments:
When a freely suspended gyro is spinning, it will remain rigid in space.
-Fig. 48-
Rotating a gyro's mount has no effect on the gyro.
-Fig. 49-
32
SECTION IV:
GYROSCOPIC
INSTRUMENTS
1. Rigidity in Space
If we assume a heavy-rimmed gyro
wheel supported in a universal joint, Fig. 48, and
spinning at a high rate of speed, it will remain in
the same position in space regardless of the way
the mount is turned; Fig. 49. Gyroscopic inertia
causes this effect, and it is used in attitude gyros,
the directional gyro and the gyro horizon.
The fact that these freely-suspended gyros act
according to the dynamic law of inertia, rather
than just the law of gravity, makes them appear to
turn all the way around in twenty-four hours as the
earth rotates. It is this effect, in fact, that gives
the gyroscope its name. It means "to view the
rotation of the earth --Leon Focault made his first
gyroscope in 1851 for the purpose of studying the
earth s rotation.
In Fig. 50, if we envision the rotating earth and
a gyroscope suspended in space, at midnight, the
Midnight
A freely suspended gyro will appear to rotate completely in
twenty-four hours.
Fig. 50
gyro's arrow will point straight toward the center
of the earth; at six in the morning, it will appear
horizontal with the arrow pointing east; at noon it
will point away from the earth; and at six p.m. the
arrow will again be horizontal, but this time it will
be pointing west. This seeming rotation of the
gyro is known as apparent precession or apparent
drift and should not be confused with the actual
characteristic of precession.
2. Precession
True precession is by definition that
characteristic of a gyro which causes it to react 90
degrees to the point of any applied force. In
Fig. 51, the gyro is spinning with its spin axis
horizontal. If a force is applied to the top of the
wheel, it will not lay over, as might be expected,
but will rather turn about its vertical axis, as
shown by movement P.
Force
felt
here
Rotation
A Ioree applied to a gyro wheel is felt 90 from the point of application,
in the direction of rotation.
-Fig. 51-
A force must be applied to its side in. order to
make it tilt. Precession is made use of in rate
gyros such as the tum and slip indicator and the
turn coordinator.
B. ATI'ITUDE GYRO INSTRUMENTS
1. Directional Gyro
Magnetic compasses are used by the
pilot to indicate the heading of the airplane, but
compasses have problems, as we will see later, so
the ''dead beat' ' characteristics of a gyroscope are
utilized to give the pilot directional indication.
33
Fig. 52 illustrates an older type horizontal card
instrument.
The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal
universal joint, and the entire mechanism placed
in an airtight case which is evacuated by a vacuum
pump or an outside venturi. Air coming into the
housing passes through a nozzle to spin the rotor.
The dial or card is a metal band with the 360
marking of the compass around it. The pilot sees
this card across a vertical reference, or lubber
line, and uses the directional gyro as he does an
ordinary magnetic compass. When the caging
knob is pushed in, the two gimbals lock together,
and by rotating the knob the card may be set to
any desired heading.
In operation, when the gyro comes up to speed,
around 12,000 RPM, it will remain rigid. The
pilot reads his magnetic compass and sets the
The directional g'(ro is set to agree with the magnetic compass and gives
the pilot directional information without the errors inherent in the compass.
-Figure 52-
D.G. to agree with it, and he now has an
immediate indication of his heading without any
oscillations or the lead and lag errors inherent in a
magnetic compass.
Rigidity in space is the characteristic used by
the attitude gyro, but precession is also present;
both that precession caused by bearing friction
and apparent precession caused by the earth's
rotation. To compensate for bearing friction,
better bearings, cleaner air, and an erection
system have been developed; but still the pilot
must check his D. G. against the magnetic
compass every fifteen minutes or so and apply the
needed correction. Apparent precession is
compensated for by a weight on the inner gimbal
frame that causes an actual precession equal to
 but opposite the apparent precession. This
correction is accurate for only one geographic
location, but, for practical purposes, recalibration
for apparent precession is not necessary unless
there is a change of operation of more than about
fifty degrees of latitude.
These older instruments had a tumble limit* of
approximately 55 to 60 degrees in both pitch and
,r.oll. This means that if these limits are exceeded,
the gyro will reach its limits and a precessive force
will cause the inner gimbal to bang against its
stops and knock the system out of balance. The
precessive force on the outer gimbal will cause the
card to spin violently.
The newer generation of directional gyros are
small, fitting into the standard 3-1/8" instru-
ment hole, and on some gyros the tumble limits
have been increased to around 80 to 85 degrees.
These new, smaller gyros require much less
power to operate. One of the most notable
features of this new series, Fig. 53, is its vertical
card.
A.I.M.
The new vertical card directional gyro instruments use the image of an
airplane as the lubber line.
-Fig. 53
The rotating vertical dial is driven by a couple of
bevel gears from the gimbal and the direction is
read against the lubber line, the nose of the little
airplane painted on the glass. Small triangular
indices at each 45 and 90 degrees help the pilot
make turns of a given number of degrees without
having to use so much mental arithmetic. The
knob in the lower left comer is the caging knob,
and, if pushed in and turned, will rotate the dial to
any desired heading. When the knob is released,
it automatically uncages the instrument. Bear-
ings may be damaged if an instrument is left
caged when the airplane is taxied.
34
2. Gyro Horizon
The presentation of the earlier gyro
instruments is backwards to the natural instincts
of the pilot, so he must apply a conscious effort to
fly them; but during World War ll when
instrument flying really came into its own, many
thousands of pilots learned to fly this
presentation, and a more natural presentation has
been slow in becoming generally accepted. In
Fig. 54-A the gyro actuates the horizontal bar and
the small wings on the front of the instrument
represents the airplane.
-Fig. 54-
While the bar appears to move, it is really the only
thing that does not move relative to the earth Is
horizon. The bank indices at the top of the dial
indicate the number of degrees of bank, 10 20, 1
30, 60 I or 90, but is backwards since it moves to
the right side in a left bank. The more natural
presentation, Fig. 54-B, replaces the bar with a
two-color dial; the top half, colored to represent
the sky while the lower half is darker, represent-
ing the ground. Converging lines represent
various degrees of bank and, by changing the part
that moves, the bank index has been made to indi-
cate in the correct direction. Horizontal lines on
the dial indicate the degrees of pitch.
The spin axis of the gyro in the gyro horizon is
vertical, so it can sense rotation about both the roll
and pitch axes and an erection mechanism holds
the instrument level by the action of the earth's
gravity. Pneumatic instruments use a set of pen-
dulum valves, Fig. 55. When the rotor tilts, the
pendulums swing over, opening the valve on
one side of the housing and closing the valve on
the opposite side. The exhaust air will put a
reactive force on the bottom of the housing, ninety
degrees to the direction the rotor has tilted, and
the housing will erect.
Electically-driven gyro horizons may use an
erection system consisting of a ball track around
the top of the gyro housing. A single steel ball
rolls around the housing with no reaction on the
disc, but when the disc tilts, the ball rolls to the
low point and opposes the disc trying to push it
uphill. This opposition is felt by the gyro as a
force 90 degrees to the direction the gyro tilted.
The gyro remains upright with the earth's
gravity because of the erection mechanism, and in
a tum the acceleration force on the pendulum
valves or on the ball gives a false indication of a
tilt; so when the airplane rolls out of the tum there
will be an indication of pitch--the direction
depends on the direction of the turn. Most
instruments compensate for this by tilting the
gyro housing slightly.

Lll-J
I I
,.,...,

~ JJ
I

l:D" BOTTOM VIEW RESULT

A
INSTRUMENT ERECT
The air exits the housing uniformly, and there is no precessive force
on the rotor.

r l

BOTTOM VIEW RESULT

INSTRUMENT TIL TED

When the instrument tilts, air exhausts non-uniformly and a precessive
force, 90 to the direction of tilt, causes the rotor to erect.

-Fig. 55

QUESTIONS: 43. What happens to a directional gyro when

its tumble limits are exceeded?

44. Why does a gyro horizon give an indication

42. Narne the two characteristics which make of pitch when the airplane rolls out of a
a gyroscope useful as a flight instrument. coordinated turn?
35
 The turn and &lip indicator uses the force of precession on the gyro to oppose a calibrated spring. Pointer movement is
opposite the direction the rotor lays over, so the rotor will remain upright when the o~irplane banks in the turn.
-Fig. 56-
C. RATE GYRO INSTRUMENTS
1. Turn and Slip Indicator
The earliest instrument for blind
11
flying'' was the needle and ball, later called the
tum and bank indicator and more recently and
more correctly, a tum and slip indicator. This is a
rate instrument and works on the principle of
precession. A gyro wheel spins in a single gimbal,
with only one plane of freedom. The gimbal pivot
is in line with the longitudinal axis of the airplane
and the rotor axis parallel with the airplane's
lateral axis. No force is applied to the system
36
when the airplane rolls or pitches, but any rotation
about the vertical axis, yawing, is felt by the gyro.
This force, according to the principle of
precession, is felt, not at the front or the rear, but
90 to this point, at the top or the bottom. This
makes the gimbal lie over against a calibrated
spring. The amount it lies over is proportional to
the rate of rotation about the vertical axis. The
direction of rotation of the rotor is such that it
always tends to remain upright with the earth
when the airplane is in a properly banked tum, so
a reversing mechanism is used between the
gimbal and the pointer. Fig. 56 is a sketch of the
operating principle of this instrument.
 The measurement is rate of yaw, yet the dial
has no calibration numbers. The instrument is
calibrated in terms of a standard rate of turn.
For most instrument flight, a standard rate of turn
is considered to be three degrees per second, but
with faster airplanes, turns are made at 1-1/2
per second. Fig. 57-A shows the dial of an
instrument whose pointer will lie over one
needle-width to represent a three degree per
second tum; the airplane will complete a 360 tum
in two minutes. Fig. 57-B is a four-minute turn
indicator, and the pointer will lie over one
needle-width for a half standard rate tum, or
1-1/2 per second. When the needle aligns with
the "dog house," a standard rate of turn (3 per
second) is being made.
When attitude instruments became commonly
used in aircraft, the rate instrument was relegated
to a position of standby or backup status, and it is
important that no loss of power be able to totally
deprive the pilot of instruments needed to fly
without reference to the natural horizon. For
this reason it is common practice to have attitude
gyros on one power system and the rate
instruments on another. The directional gyro and
gyro horizon may be on the electrical system and
the turn and slip indicator operated by
pneumatics, or vice-versa.
2. Turn Coordinator
The turn and slip indicator senses
rotation only about the vertical or yaw axis, and so
a turn must actually be in progress before it is
indicated. By applying a simple aerodynamic
principle, we find that a more sensitive indication

.,.
4MIN
/I~ TURN

A B

One needle-width of pointer deflection represents 3 per second turn, or A standard rate 13 /second] turn will cause the needle of a four-minute turn
360 in two minutes. indicator to align with the dog houses.

c D

Turn coordino~ctors sense rotation about both roll and yaw axes, to provide an indication of a tum-

-Fig. 57-
37
 of a turn can be had if the roll axis as well as the QUESTIONS:
yaw axis is sensed. The turn coordinator does this
by having its gimbal tilted upward by about thirty 45. What is meant by a standard-rate tum?
degrees or so. Fig. 58 shows the way roll as
well as yaw forces are felt by the gyro. As soon 46. Why do turn and slip indicators have a
as a wing drops to begin the turn, the turn reversing mechanism between the rotor
coordinator, Fig. 57-C, D, senses the rotation and and the pointer?
gives an immediate indication of the tum and, as
.the name implies, makes it easy for the pilot to 4 7. What does the ball in a turn and slip indica-
coordinate his turn. tor actually indicate?
Both of these instruments have a curved glass
tube, partially filled with a clear liquid, and a glass 48. What is meant by a four-minute turn
ball seale~ inside. The ball reacts to both gravity indicator?
and centnfugal force, and the liquid damps its
movement. If the rate of yaw is too great for the 49. What is the difference between a turn and
angle of bank, centrifugal force predominates and slip indicator and a turn coordinator?
the ball goes to the outside of the turn. If, on
the other hand, the bank angle is too great for the 50. Rotation about which two axes is sensed
rate of yaw, the ball will drop to the inside of the by a turn coordinator?
turn.

Yaw
axis

Gimbal
allis

The canted rotor in a turn coordinator senses rotation o~bout both the roll and yaw axes, to give the indication of a turn.

-Fig. 58
38
 SECTION V:
DIRECTION INDICATING
INSTRUMENTS
A. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The fact that an airplane will fly is only

part of its excuse for existence--It must get its
occupants from point A to point B in the most
expeditious manner. This requires navigation.
The surface of the earth is divided into lines of
latitude and longitude to provjde a grid system for
location and direction. The earth is, fortunately, a
large spinning magnet, and a small permanent
magnet, suspended either in the air or floating in
a bowl of liquid, will align itself with the earth's
magnetic field. Using this field as a reference,
navigation may be accomplished over the
geographic grid.

B. INHERENT ERRORS
1. Variation
The magnetic poles of the earth do
not coincide with the geographic poles used as
reference for our aeronautical charts, so a
correction must be applied. You will notice in Fig.
59 that the map of the United States has lines of
equal" variation (isogonic lines) drawn across it.
Anywhere along the line angling southeast
through Chicago, both poles are in line and no
correction is required, but anywhere except on
this line, the agonic line, the magnetic and
-10 -5 0 5 10 +1S+20+24 geographic poles are not in line and the amount of
variation correction shown on the aeronautical
I
chart must be applied. East of the agonic line, the
I variation error is subtracted from the true course
I to get the magnetic course; and west of the line,
-20#*
I the magnetic course is greater than the true
I
/ course by the amount of the variation error.
/
~ Correction is a mathematical computation used by
~
the pilot and requires no compensation of the
compass itself.
0
Agonic
line
2. Deviation
While the technician has little to do
Lines of equal variation wander across the United States
in an irregular pattern. with variation error, he has much to do with
deviation. The floating magnet in the compass is
-Fig. 59- not selective--it does not care whether it aligns
39
with the earth's field, or with some magnetic field
in the airplane. Ferrous metal parts and wires
carrying electrical current have a tendency to
attract the magnets of the compass and induce the
error called deviation. To minimize this error, the
compass is swung, or compensated.
Most of the larger airports have a compass
rose on some isolated taxi strip or some out-of-
the-way place where there are no extraneous
magnetic fields. The rose is a graduated circle,
laid out with reference to magnetic north, Fig. 60.
Magnetic
north
240
210 150
180
Compass roses are laid out with reference to magnetic: north.
-Fig. 60-
The airplane is pointed along the magnetic north
line with the engine running fast enough for the
generator or alternator to be on the line, and with
all normally operating radio equipment turned
on. Adjust the N-S adjustment screw to remove
all of the error; that is, turn it until the compass
actually reads North. This screw, Fig. 61, rotates
a small permanent magnet in the compass so it
will counteract the effect of any offending
magnetic fields.
There are two compensating magnets in a compass, or_te adjusted by the
N-S screw to remove north-south deviation, and the other moved by the
E-W screw to minimize the effect of deviation on east or we!llt headings.
-Fig. 61-
40
Turn the airplane until it aligns with magnetic
east, and with the E-W screw, remove all of the
error; make the compass read East. Now turn the
airplane to magnetic south and remove one-half of
the error. What you are now doing is dividing the
error between north and south. Turn the airplane
to point right down the west line, and remove
one-half of the error there. This divides the error
between east and west. All of the compensating
you can do has now been done, and you should
swing the airplane all of the way around, stopping
every thirty degrees and recording the heading
along the rose and the actual reading of the
compass. A compass correction card, similar to
Fig. 62, is made up, dated, and signed by the A&P
doing the calibration.
FOR (MAGNETIC) N 30 60 E 120 150
STEER( COMPASS)
FOR (MAGNETIC) s 210 240 w 300 330
STEER( COMPASS
COMPASS CORRECTION CARD
AftN the compass is swung, a card should be filled in, signed, and mounted
in plain vil'w of the pilot, near the compass.
-Fig. 62-
Sometimes a compass cannot be made to read
within the maximum allowable deviation limits of
ten degrees, and it is necessary to demagnetize
some of the steel structure or controls around the
compass. A demagnetizing tool can be made from
strap steel, laminated as shown in Fig. 63 and
wrapped with a coil of wire excited with 60 Hz AC.
Turn the demagnetizer on, then pass it up and down along any magnetized
structure. Remove the demagnetizer and THEN turn it off.
-Fig. 63
A more readily available demagnetizer found
around most maintenance shops is an ordinary
growler such as used to test generator arma-
tures. Tum the demagnetizer or growler on and
pass it up, down, and around the steel structure
and take it away before you tum it off. Check
the structure for residual magnetism by holding
the compass near it and noting any attraction.
Any instrument \!ontaining a permanent magnet,
such as the cylinder head temperature gage and
the tachometer, must be located away from the
compass.
the float and magnet. Damping fins prevent the
float oscillating in rough air, and the diaphragm
allows for expansion of the fluid. Inside the float
is the magnet that aligns with the earth's field.
Below the float, outside of the fluid chamber, is
a torroidal-wound* coil. As the airplane turns, the
coil moves relative to the floating magnet, and the
signal is transmitted to the indicator by the action
described in the Magnesyn system of remote
indication in Chapter III.

3. Acceleration and Turning Error

The magnet aligns with the earth's

magnetic field, its vertical, as well as its horizon-
tal component. Near the poles the vertical
component becomes appreciable enough for the
magnet to cause the float to tilt. To compensate
for this, the float is weighted slightly on the end
nearest the equator (south end, in the northern
hemisphere). When the airplane banks, the
weight acts along the vertical axis of the air-
plane because the bank is coordinated, but the
attraction on the magnet still acts toward the
center of the earth, and it will pull the card
around. When the airplane banks toward the
south, the pull on the card is in the same direction
14
as the turn and the compass will lead the airplane.
If the turn is made toward the North, the force on
the card will cause it to rotate in the direction
opposite the turn, and the compass will lag behind
the airplane.
The dip-compensating weight has another bad
effect. On a heading of east or west, when the
nose drops or rises and the airplane accelerates or
decelerates, the inertia of the weight will cause 1 - Heeling compensator 8- Bowl
the card to rotate. When the airplane accelerates, 2 Compensating magnet 9- Transmitter coil
3 Compensator screws 10 - Compensator housing
the compass will indicate a turn to the north and 4 - Compensating magnets 11 - Bmw: compensator
when it decelerates, it looks as though the 5- Clamp 12 - Compensator screws
airplane is turning to the south. & - Uni\lersal compensator 13 Diaphragm
7 - Damping fins 14 Float
Both turning and acceleration errors will be in
the opposite direction when flying in the southern
hemisphere. ~Fig. 64 ~

C. Remote Indicating Compass

Deviation error, caused by extraneous
magnetic fields, is the only error the A&P can
correct. An instrument panel usually has a
concentration of magnetic fields around it and is a
bad place to install the compass; so, to eliminate
this problem, a remotely-mounted compass
transmitter carrying the floating magnet can be
mounted in the vertical fin, wing tip, or in the rear
part of the fuselage, where interference is
minimized.
The transmitter of Fig. 64 is typical. It is
made up of a spherical plastic bowl which houses
41
When a remote-indicating compass is installed,
care must be taken that no steel mounting
brackets or screws are used, and that the
transmitter is adequately shock-mounted. The
arrow on the transmitter case must align with the
longitudinal axis of the airplane and point
forward. Compensating or swinging this compass
is done in the same way as the panel-mounted
compass, being sure to use a nonmagnetic
screwdriver to tum the compensators. A good
screwdriver can be made by filing down a piece of
brass brazing rod to a screwdriver point.
 The indicator used with the Magnesyn remote
#!Ompass has its dial calibrated in 360 degrees,
Fig. 65.
been updated and improved upon as the
techniques of electronics and gyros have
advanced.
Fig. 66 is the basic frame, or spider, of the flux
valve, Fig. 67.

MAGNESYN REMOTE COMPASS A

Fig. 65

The lubber line is a pair of parallel lines which

may be turned with the knob in the lower left
corner of the instrument to indicate the heading
the pilot wants to fly. When he is on heading, the
pointer and the lubber lines form three parallel
lines.

QUESTIONS:

51. What error is compensated when a

magnetic compass is "swung?"

52. What information other than the compass The flux vlve uses highly permeble frme, or spider, to pick up flux
correction numbers is required on a com- lines from the enth's manetic field where they cut across the pickup coils.
pass correction card?
Fig. 66-
53. What tool can be used to demagnetize
an aircraft structure around the magnetic
compass?

54. When demagnetizing an airplane structure,

should the demagnetizer be turned off
before it is taken away from the structure,
or after it is removed?

55. Why does a remote-indicating compass

usually have less deviation error than a
panel-mounted compass?

D. SLAVED GYRO COMPASSES

The floating magnet type compass has so

many inherent problems that a totally different
concept of direction measurement has been
developed. The principle of the Earth Induction The flux valve is mounted in a portion of the aircrilft structure as fr trom
magnetic interference as possible.
compass has made possible many of the record
breaking long distance flights of the 1920s and has -Fig. 67
42
 E~rth's
flux lines
Airplane headed
north
The distribution of flux lines through the picliup coils changes
as the airplane's heading changes.
-Fig. 68-
A coil wound around the center of the flux valve is
excited by 400 Hz AC whose field periodically
saturates the arms of the frame. In Fig. 68, the
airplane at A is headed north and the lines of flux
from the earth's field are intercepted by the frame.
All pass through leg A, and part of them exit
through leg B and part through leg C. When
the airplane turns to a heading of West, the flux
lines will change in the three legs of the frame.
43
8
Airplane headed
west
Pickup coils are wound around each leg of the
frame, and during the part of the excitation cycle
when the frame is not saturated, lines of flux from
the earth cut across the coil and induce a voltage.
During that part of the cycle when the frame is
saturated, the lines of flux are rejected. This
alternate acceptance and rejection of the earth's
flux generates a voltage in the three windings that
differ with each heading.
 ~-- --- -- -,--------------,
I II I
I I
I

Earth's
magnetic
field

400Hz
AC Rotor

Fig. 69-

Looking at the basic circuit of the slaved gyro
compass in Fig. 69, we see that the signal from the
earth's magnetic field generates a voltage in the
three-phase stator of the flux valve. This is
carried over to the stator in the slaved gyro control
where the voltage in its rotor is amplified and sent
to the variable phase of the two-phase slaving
torque motor. This produces a precessive force on
the directional gyro and causes it to turn. As it
turns, it moves the rotor in the gyro control, and
44
when it is in exactly the same relationship to its
stator as the earth's field is to the stator in the flux
valve, the slaving torque motor stops its force on
the gyro gimbal, and the gyro stops precessing.
Also attached to the gyro is the rotor of the
indicator. This is an Autosyn system and the dial
in the indicator rotates to indicate to the pilot the
relationship between the nose of the airplane and
the earth's magnetic field.
The most efficient instrument for navigation
now in use is the RMI or Radio Magnetic
Indicator, Fig. 70-A. It uses the slaved gyro just
described to drive the dial of the instrument, and QUESTION:
two pointers to indicate the bearing of radio
stations; one, the magnetic bearing to an omni 56. What does an RMI indicate?
(VOR) station, and the other, the bearing to a
station (such as a nondirectional beacon [NDB])
picked up by the Automatic Direction Finder
(ADF), Fig. 70-B.

Magnetic bearing to
VOR station

" Masnetic bearina

toNDB

VOR
station

NondirediCMYI
beacon
A B
The radio magnetic indicator, RMI, indicates the bearing between the nose
of the airplane and masnetic north as well as the bearing to radio facilities.

-Fig. 70-

45
 SECTION VI:
FUEL QUANTITY
INDICATING SYSTEMS
A. DIRECT-READING

The most simple fuel quantity gaging
system is the floating cork attached to a piece of
welding rod sticking out of a hole in the fuel cap.
These are just about extinct, but one of the surviv-
ing direct-reading fuel quantity indicators moves
its pointer across the dial by a magnetic coupling,
Fig. 71.
The float rides on top of the fuel and
drives a bevel gear which rotates a magnet. On
the other side of a solid aluminum alloy
diaphragm, outside of the tank, is the pointer, also
a magnet. The pointer follows the magnet inside
the tank and indicates the relative amount of fuel.

A horseshoe-sh~ped m~gnet is moved by ~ flo~t riding on the top of the

fuel. This m~gnet moves ~ m~gnetic pointer on the outside of the
1~1e c~se.

-Fig. 71 -

Wiper
B. DIRECT CURRENT Adjust~ble contad arm
ELECTRICAL GAGES to tum on low-level
lisht or boost pump

The simple fuel quantity indicator found

in most of the smaller general aviation aircraft is
described in Section lll. Some of the more
elaborate transmitters, such as the one in Fig. 72,
have provisions for adjusting the empty and full
settings, and for turning on a low-level warning
light or a boost pump when the fuel in the tank
drops to a certain level.

Full adjustment

A VARIABLE RESISTOR IN A FULLY ADJUSTABLE TANK UNIT

-Fig. 72-
46
 C. CAPACITANCE FUEL
QUANTITY SYSTEM

A float riding on the top of the fuel in a

tank measures the number of gallons in the tank,
but as we think back to basic physics, we Inner
remember that the power developed by an engine pl;~te

is a function of the mass of the fuel, and mass

changes with temperature. In the evolution of fuel
quantity measurement, the capacitance bridge
system has been developed which has the
advantages of measuring the weight or mass of
the fuel, totalizing all of the tanks with a minimum Outer
plate
of complexity, having no moving parts except the
servo motor in the indicator, having a high degree
of reliability, and incorporating an internal test
feature.
In principle, the capacitance bridge is a
balanced circuit, Fig. 73, having two sections:
inductor A-B, capacitor C1, and the indicator; and
inductor B-C, capacitor C2, and the indicator.

The tan!. unit is made of concentric metal tubes separated by a very

accurately controlled distance.

-Fig. 74-

A
the tank is empty, and any condition between full
and empty will give a corresponding capacitance
change.
The dielectric constant of the fuel is approxi-
B
Indicator type of fuel and its temperature. Located in the
fuel tank, actually a part of the probe itself,
the fuel tank, actually a part of the probe itself,
is a compensating capacitor, Fig. 75, which is
completely covered as long as there is any fuel in
When the product of the Inductance A-8 and Capacitance C1 equals In the tank. The compensator is electrically in
ductance BC and Capacitance C2, the bridge is balanced and no current
flows through the indicator.

-Fig. 73-
When the values of the two inductors and
capacitors are exactly the same, the bridge is
balanced, and since the phases of the two circuits
are 180 degrees apart, there will be no current
flow in the indicator.
The capacity of a capacitor depends on: (1) the
area of the capacitor plates, (2) the distance
separating the plates, and (3) the dielectric
constant of the material between the plates. The
capacitor used for fuel quantity measurement is
made up of two or more concentric cylinders, Fig. Teflon
protective
74. The area of the plates and their separation is sleeve
fixed, so the only thing that can change is the
dielectric constant. Air, the separating medium
The compensator is built onto the bOttom of the tank unit where it will be
when the tank is empty, has a dielectric constant submerged in the fuel at all times.
of one, and aircraft fuel has a constant of
approximately two. If the tank is full, the probes -Fig. 75-
will have a much greater capacitance than when
47
 parallel with the reference probe in the indicator,
Fig. 76, and any change in the basic dielectric
constant of the fuel is cancelled out as it affects
both sides of the bridge.
In Fig. 76, the system is further evolved. The
indicator has been replaced by an amplifier whose
output feeds the variable phase of a two-phase
servo motor inside the indicator. The reference
phase of this motor is taken from the input
winding of the power transformer through a fixed
phase-shift capacitor. The reference capacitor is
compensated by the compensator in the tank and
the amplifier is fed a signal proportional to the
dielectric constant of the tank probe and thus the
mass of the fuel in the tank.
To complete the circuit, Fig. 77 adds a few
features. When the capacity of the tank probe
changes because of the fuel level changing, the
amplifier receives a signal of an unbalanced
bridge. The variable phase winding in the servo
motor causes it to rotate and drive the pointer
toward the correct indication. The motor drives
AC
S ervo
motor Q
Fixedcapacitor
pha..,_se_s-hi-ft_ ___,f ~ 0O"G)
_L_
....___----1{
CAPACITANCE FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEM
-Fig. 76-
48
\_
not only the indicator pointer, but it moves the
wiper of a rebalancing potentiometer across part
of the inductor. When the proper weight of fuel
on board has been reached, the rebalancing
potentiometer will have moved exactly enough to
compensate for the change in dielectric constant
in the tank unit, and the bridge will rebalance.
Calibration by the A&P is quite simple. The
tank is emptied and the Empty adjust
potentiometer is moved until the indicator reads
Empty. The tank is then filled and the Full adjust
potentiometer is moved until the tank reads Full.
Some tanks have odd shapes, and one probe is
inadequate to measure the intermediate values
between empty and full, so multiple probes are
installed; often these probes have unusual shapes
so that capacitance changes will be linear as the
fuel is used.
A test circuit allows the pilot to press a test
button on the indicator and short out some of the
windings in the bridge inductor so the indicator
will drive toward the empty mark. As.soon as it is
1---- ------1
Tank probe
I
I
Compensator
Tank unit
Amplifier
Reference capacitor
in indicator
 Tank probe

Amplifier
AC

Reference
Co1pacitor

Full
adjustment

. ~L_:E)
o1nd
indicator
Fixed
phase

Fixed pho1se shift

Capacitor

COMPLETE CAPACITANCE FUEL GAGING S'YSTEM

Fig. 77

released, the indicator will return to the value it

had before the test button was pushed.
Troubleshooting and servicing capacitance fuel QUESTIONS:
gaging systems are done by substitution. _A test
set consists of a capacitance bridge and various 57. What three variables affect the capacity of a
values of substitution capacitors. Disconnecting capacitor?
the probe and substituting a test capacitor
eliminates the probe as a source of trouble; 58. Why do some fuel tanks require multiple
disconnecting the indicator and reading the probes in a capacitance fuel gaging
capacity of the probe and wiring from the indicator system?
plug with the test capacitance bridge will
eliminate the indicator. 59. How does the test system operate in a
Capacitance bridges are driven by ?igh- capacitance fuel gaging system?
frequency alternating current, and not only 1s the
capacitance of the probe important, but the 60. What kind of wire is used to connect the
capacitive effect of the wiring in the measuring probe to the indicator in a capacitance-
circuit must be taken into consideration. For this type fuel gaging system?
reason, the measuring circuit is wired with coaxial
cable. The proper termination of this special wire
is covered in Section Xll.
49
 SECTION VII:
FUEL FLOW
INDICATING SYSTEMS

A. FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

FLOWMETERS

Many small engine fuel injection systems

have an instrument called a flowmeter that is
actually a pressure gage across the injector
nozzles. It may legitimately be calibrated in
gallons or pounds of flow per hour, only because
of the principle that the pressure drop across a
fixed orifice is directly proportional to the flow
through it.
This type of flowmeter leads to one basic
problem: if a nozzle plugs and the actual flow
decreases, the pressure across the nozzle will
increase and there will be the indication of an
increased flow. This must be taken into
consideration when troubleshooting a fuel
injection system.

to
nozzles

Flowmeter

-Fig. 78
50
 Fuel inlet
Transmitter
Fuel flow ~ b--~
AUTOSYN REMOTE INDICATING TYPE VOLUME FLOWMETER
-Fig. 79-
B. VOLUME FLOW MEASUREMENT
Engines using pressure carburetors do
not measure flow by the pressure drop across the
discharge nozzle, but rather by a movable vane in
the fuel line between the pump and the
carburetor. Fig. 79-A shows the design of the
vane and its flow chamber. Fuel enters the
flowmeter and flows around the metering
chamber and out the discharge. The metering
vane is held against the flow of fuel by a cali-
brated restraining spring. To make the move-
ment of the vane linear, the opening between the
end of the vane and the wall of the flowmeter
forms a convolution; that is, it becomes larger as
more fuel flows to the engine.
51
Fuel
outlet
Meterins
vane
Indicator
The rotor of an Autosyn transmitter is attached
to the vane, and its movement is measured by the
Autosyn indicator in the instrument panel, Fig.
79-B.
In case the metering vane should hang up, a
bypass valve will open and allow fuel to flow to the
engine without being measured.
C. MASS FWW MEASUREMENT
Energy released is determined by the
number of pounds of fuel burned per hour, so it is
important that the flowmeter measure the mass,
not the volume, of the fuel delivered to the engine.
 In Fig. 80, a motor-driven power supply
produces a three-phase AC output at a closely
controlled frequency. This AC drives an impeller
which gives a swirling motion to the fuel as it
flows to the engine, and as this swirling fuel flows
through a turbine, it tries to spin it. The turbine is
restrained, however, by some calibrated
hairsprings so that it cannot spin, but will move an
, amount determined by the velocity of the fuel and
its viscosity. Viscosity of the fuel as well as mass
changes with the temperature so that the amount
the turbine rotates is determined by the mass-
flow of the fuel.
The shaft of the turbine is attached to the
permanent magnet of an AC remote-indicating
system, and the indication of the amount of its
movement shows up on the flowmeter indicator in
the instrument panel.
QUESTION:
61. Would a plugged fuel injector nozzle give a
high or a low flow reading on the flow-
meter?

Dec:oupling disk Fuel flow

Transmitter
Impeller
motor

Fluid passage

115 vac

DC+

Indicator Power supply

MASS TYPE FLOWMETER

-Fig. 80-

52
 SECTION VIII: The only instrument the Wright brothers had on
the Flyer was an angle of attack indicator, or,
STALL WARNING AND more specifically, a piece of string blowing in the
wind. This told them more about the aerodynamic
ANGLE OF ATTACK conditions their wing was subjected to than any
airspeed indicator could have told them.
Precision flying is not so much the control of the
SYSTEMS airspeed, though this is important, but the control
of the angle of attack. We must remember that an
airplane can stall at almost any airspeed,
depending on the load and the angle of bank; but
it will stall at only one angle of attack. For an
approach, if the correct angle of attack is
maintained, the airplane will descend with the
proper combination of steep descent angle and
slow sink rate. For takeoff, the pilot can hold an
angle of attack that will provide either the
maximum angle of climb or the maximum rate of
climb, whichever he desires.

A. STALL WARNING SYSTEM

Many small, general aviation aircraft are

required to have a stall warning system to tell the
pilot when he is approaching a stall. There are
two types of these instruments in common use:
1. Electric Stall Warning System

A number of aircraft use a small vane

about the size of a postage stamp protruding from
the leading edge of the wing, about halfway out to
the tip. This is the lift transducer or stall warning
vane. The location of this vane is quite critical, as
it must be at the stagnation point*; that is, the
point at which the airflow separates--some flowing
over the top of the wing and some going under it;
Fig. 81. As the nose of the airplane rises, the
angle at which the wind strikes the wing increases,
as the stagnation point moves down. At a speed
somewhere around five knots above the stall
speed, the vane will lift and close a micro-switch.
This turns on a red light on the instrument panel
or activates a buzzer, telling the pilot he is
approaching a stall.

2. Non-Electric Stall Warning System

Other stall warning devices are

totally independent of the electrical system anc:l
The stall warning vane is located at the stagnation point operate by an airflow through a vibrating reed.
on the leading edge of the airplane wing. For normal flight the air hole leading to the stall
.. Fig. 81- warning reed is in an area of positive pressure and
the reed does not vibrate. But as the angle of at-
53
tack increases, the area of low pressure above the
stagnation point moves over the entrance to the
reed and it begins to vibrate. As the angle of
attack changes, the tone of the vibrations
changes, so the pilot can tell by the sound just how
far from a stall he actually is.
The indicator for this system is marked from
0 (zero degrees angle of attack) to 1 for the angle
of attack that will produce a full stall. With this
instrument the pilot is able to adjust his angle
of attack to get any flight condition he wants.
The pick-up for this system is, quite naturally,
more complex than just the simple vane. Fig.
84-B shows the probe that sticks out into the
airstream and the two slots that feed air into the
two chambers of the pick-up housing. These
chambers are separated by a moving paddle
which, through a shaft, drives a variable resistor.
This arrangement provides a smooth movement of
the resistor as the angle of attack changes.

VIBRATING REED TYPE STALL WARNING INDICATOR

Fig. 82

B. ANGLE OF ATIACK INDICATORS

An elaboration of the stall warning

system is the simple angle of attack indicator that A
uses a pick-up similar to the electric stall warning
vane. But instead of a micro-switch to tum on a
light or actuate a buzzer, the vane moves a
resistor that drives the indicator to tell whether
the angle of attack is high, low, or just right for a
"normal" approach or climb-out, Fig. 83.
Continuing to elaborate on the stall warning
device, an angle of attack indicating system has
been perfected for the Navy and adapted to
civilian aircraft. It tells, not just whether you are Synchro
fast or slow for a normal condition, but what your
angle of attack actually is so the pilot can
accurately set up for the best angle or best rate of
climb or for the most efficient cruise.

Teledyne
Avionics

-Fig. 84

+ QUESTION:

62. Why is a measure of the angle of attack of

STALL WARNING LIFT TRANSDUCER
more value than airspeed in a stall warning
system?
-Fig. 83-
54
 The stability of the modern airplane and the
long hours of flight of which it is capable have
made some form of automatic flight control
essential. The first automatic pilot was installed
in a Curtiss flying boat before World War I, but its
real importance did not become apparent until
World War II when long-range raids with heavily
loaded airplanes made automatic flight a
necessitv.
The fi~st automatic pilots were cumbersome and
had limited performance, but the modern
generation of autopilots with their smaller gyros
and complex electronic circuits have greatly
reduced their bulk while increasing their utility
countless times.
SECTION IX:
A. AUTOMATIC PILOT FUNCTIONS
AUTOMA1IC PILOTS
1

When the functions of an automatic pi-

lot are broken down, they logically fall into four
categories:

1. Error Sensing

Some system is required in an

automatic pilot that determines when all is not
well, or when a condition is not that for which the
control has been programmed. Almost all modern
automatic pilots use gyros for this purpose, and
there are two ways an error signal may be
generated.

a. Attitude Gyros

The earliest automatic pilots and

many modern ones use a directional gyro and an
artificial horizon to provide a stable reference
from which the error signal may be generated.
Pick-offs which take the signal from the gyro
may be in the form of a pneumatic valve, a
variable resistor, a variable inductor or capacitor,
or even electrical switches that control relays for
the servos.
For directional control, the ''bug'' on the
directional gyro is set to the heading the pilot
wants to fly and the autopilot turned on to the
"Heading" mode. The airplane will tum to this
heading, going in the shortest direction, and, once
established, will generate an error signal any time
the airplane varies from the setting on the D .G.
Roll and pitch are sensed by the gyro horizon, and
when these modes are engaged, an error signal
Bendix
will be generated any time the nose of the airplane
55
drops or rises or any time a wing drops from level
flight.
b. Rate Gyros
While attitude gyros sense an
error proportional to the amount the airplane is off
the desired attitude, rate gyros sense the speed at
, which the airplane departs from the desired
condition. Instead of deriving their signal from
the instrument the pilot uses, rate-sensitive
autopilots use a gyro similar to that used in a turn
coordinator which, instead of driving a dial or
pointer, operates pneumatic or electrical pick-offs.
These operate servos in the aileron control
system. The rate gyro senses error in roll and
yaw, and another type of system must be used for
pitch error sensing.
c. Pitch Error Sensing
Attitude gyros make pitch
deviation easy to sense, but without them we can
still consider dynamic and inertial forces to
determine deviation from level flight. When the
nose of an airplane pitches (drops or rises), there
is first an inertial force felt and this is picked up
with an accelerometer. After this initial change,
there is a change in the airspeed and vertical
speed which is sensed by bellows, and these
signals are all put together and made to drive a
servo in the elevator control system.
d. Altitude Deviation Sensing
As we can sense deviation from
straight and level flight, we can also sense
deviation from any given pressure level. There
are two methods of altitude control:
[ 1] Altitude Hold
When the pilot selects the
Altitude Hold mode of automatic flight, he actu-
ally traps a sample of air at the pressure level he
wishes to hold. When the airplane deviates from
this level, an error signal is generated and the
elevator servos are actuated.
[2] Altitude Select
The pilot selects the alti-
tude at which he wishes to fly. If the airplane is
not at that altitude, an error signal is generated
and the elevator servo puts the airplane in an
attitude that seeks the altitude selected. When
this altitude is reached, the error signal
disappears--until the airplane leaves that altitude.
56
2. Correction
Once it has been established that an
error exists or that all is not as the pilot wants it,
something must be done. The signal from the
~e~sor is ~sually too slight to be .used directly, so
1t Is subJected to some form of amplification.
Pneumatic pick-offs can use a strictly mechanical
advantage amplifier, or direct the small pressure
changes to a relatively large-area servo piston or
diaphragm. Automatic pilots with hydraulic
servos use the air signal to operate a sensitive
hydraulic selector valve. An electrical signal is
quite easy to amplify and is able to drive the
servos from the output of a transistor amplifier.
There are two levels of complexity in automatic
flight control systems. The simpler systems
control the airplane in roll and yaw only, while the
more complex also control pitch. If we review the
basic laws of aerodynamics, we will see that an
airplane will not naturally deviate from a given
heading without first dropping a wing. Because of
this, the signals from the directional gyro and the
roll sensor of the gyro horizon may be fed to the
aileron servo so that any time a wing drops or the
airplane deviates from the desired heading, the
aileron servo will immediately bring the wing back
up, or lower it to regain the heading. Automatic
pilots using rate gyros already sense roll and yaw
with one sensor, so its output is made to control
the aileron servo.
Servos vary in complexity with the size of the
airplane and the aerodynamic forces they must
control. The most simple is the pneumatic servo,
Fig. 85, in which a diaphragm, moved either by
suction or positive air pressure from the gyro
pick-off (the controller), is attached to the control
cable and moves it as commanded.
Suction from
controller
Simple pneumatic senos cl.1mp onto the cOntrol cable to ~ it
in one direction.
. Fig. 85.
 Electric servos for light aircraft may use either
reversable DC motors driving a capstan through a
reduction gear, as shown in Fig. 86, or a
single-direction DC motor driving two gears in
opposite directions, with clutches driven by the
autopilot to move the control cable in one direction
or the other. A capstan around which the control
cable is wrapped is driven by one or the other
output shafts from the clutches. If, for instance,
the error signal calls for Up elevator, the servo
amplifier sends current into the electromagnetic
clutch that will drive the capstan in the direction to
pull the elevator up.

A reversable DC motor drives a capstan which pufls a bridle attached

to the main control cable with clamps.

-Fig. 86

QUESTIONS: replace a gyro horizon for pitch indication?

63. What is the purpose of the error signal in an 66. What is the difference between Altitude
automatic pilot? Hold and Altitude Select mode of an
autopilot?
64. About which two axes does a wing
leveler-type autopilot control rotation? 67. Where would one servo be placed to control
an airplane about both its roll and yaw
65. What two measurements can be used to axes?

57
 3. Follow-up
To cause the control to move in the
proper direction to correct an error is not enough.
There must be a system that will stop the control
when enough movement has been reached and do
it smoothly enough that the airplane will not
oscillate or ~ehunt."
a. Displacement Follow-up
This type of follow-up system
stops the movement of a control surface once
sufficient displacement has been reached.
For example, let's assume that the left wing of our
airplane drops. The gyro senses an error and
sends a signal to the aileron servo to move the left
aileron down. When the aileron has moved an
amount proportional to the amount the wing
dropped, the follow-up system will generate a
signal equal in intensity but opposite in polarity to
the error signal and wipe it out. The left wing is
still down and the aileron is deflected, but since
the signals have cancelled, the automatic pilot will
not cause any more control movement. Now
aerodynamics gets into the act and brings the
wing level. As it does so, there is an error signal
generated that is opposite the original one so that
the aileron will be brought .back level. Since all of
this is a continual process, the ailerons streamline
as the wing comes level and there is no
overshooting.
b. Rate Follow-up
The displacement follow-up sys-
tem considered the amount the airplane had
deviated from its desired condition to determine
how much the control surface should move. The
rate system works on the basis of how fast the
airplane deviated, assuming that the faster the
deviation, the more it would eventually deflect.
Let's make the same assumption we did with the
displacement system: Our left wing drops,
relatively rapidly, because of a pretty good wmd
gust. The rate gyro senses a rapid departure from
the desired straight and level condition and sends
a signal to the servo motor to lower the left
aileron. The left aileron goes down an amount
58
proportional to the rate of deviation, and as it
moves down the wing stops dropping and starts
back up. The recovery will be slower than the
original roll and it generates a signal opposite the
original. The aileron will move toward the neutral
position, and by the time the wing is level it will be
streamlined.
4. Command
In order for the automatic pilot to fly the
airplane as the human pilot wants, a command
signal is incorporated.
When the automatic pilot is in the Heading
mode, and the pilot changes the heading bug on
the D. G., an artificial error signal is inserted in
the system and the airplane will tum until its
heading agrees with that set in the directional
gyro.
Most complete automatic pilots are coupled
with the radio navigational systems so that they
can receive their signals and fly the airplane
accordingly. For example, when the automatic
pilot is placed in the VOR mode and a usable
signal is received from an omni station, the
autopilot will sense an error signal and turn the
airplane to a heading to intercept the desired
radial, computing a maximum intercept angle.
As the airplane nears the radial, the error signal
decreases and disappears when the airplane
reaches the radial. The airplane will then track
the radial and, any time it gets off, an error signal
will be generated to bring the airplane back on.
In the LOC mode, the autopilot senses an error
signal any time the airplane is off of the localizer
center line, and correction is made to bring the
airplane back on it.
QUESTIONS:
68. What is the purpose of an autopilot follow-
up system?
69. What does the rate-type follow-up system
use to determine how much a control
surface should deflect?
 SECTION X:
INSTRUMENT
PNEUMA TIC SYSTEMS
A. VENTURI SYSTEMS

Airplanes which do not have provisions

for a vacuum pump power their pneumatic gyros
with a venturi, Fig. 87. Venturi tubes are rated by
the amount of vacuum they produce at 120 MPH;
the two-inch venturi is used to produce two inches
of mercury suction to drive one tum and slip
indicator. The larger four-inch tubes are used for
the attitude gyros. One design of the larger tube
is called a "super" venturi, or an eight- or
sometimes a nine-inch venturi. This tube has an
auxiliary venturi in its throat and is capable of
more suction for the same airspeed.
When installing a venturi, be sure that the skin
on which it is mounted is reinforced with a doubler
so that vibration will not crack it. If a regular
four-inch venturi is used, in all likelihood two of
them will be required to get sufficient airflow for
both a gyro horizon and a directional gyro. A suc-
tion relief valve is instaJled between the
instruments and the venturis, Fig. 88.

A venturi uses outside airflow to provide the low pressure to drive A suction relief valve maintains the desired low pressure inside
pneumatic gyroscopic instruments. the instrument case.

Fig. 87 Fig. 88
59
 After installation has been made and checked 1. Vacuum Pumps
out, the airplane is flown for system calibration. It
is trimmed out for cruise flight and the suction Most of the earlier vacuum pumps
relief valve adjusted for the pressure recom- were of the vane type, Fig. 90, with steel vanes.
mended for the attitude gyros. This will usually Inlet
be between 4. 75 and 5.25 inches of mercury at the
instrument. The tum and slip indicator requires
two inches of suction for its operation, so a needle
'valve restrictor is installed between it and the
attitude gyro. When you adjust this lower
pressure, you must temporarily install a test
suction gage in the tum and slip indicator.
Rotor

B. VACUUM PUMP SYSTEMS Vane

Under conditions of Instrument Flight

Rules, when the gyro instruments are most
needed, venturis mounted outside are the most
susceptible to failure because of ice. For this
reason, engine-mounted vacuum pumps have
replaced the venturi for all serious instrument
flying. If the direction of rotation of the vane pump is reversed, the inlet and
Pump systems are essentially the same as those outlet ports will be reversed.
used with a venturi except for the pump itself, and
there are two types of these, Fig. 89. Fig. 90

Return to oil sump

Air overboard

Suction
Suction

Wet vacuum pumps require iln oU Dry vacuum pumps do not

sepilriltor in their output side to require an oil se~rator.
remove the oil from the discharge air.

Fig. 89
60
For lubrication and sealing, these pumpa are fed a
metered amount of low-pressure engine oil. This
oil has a one-way passage through the pump and
is discharged overboard, along with the air. (To
prevent this oil from streaking the airplane, an oil
separator is installed in the pump discharge line,
Fig. 91, to return the oil to the engine crankcase.)
The more modem vacuum pumps are ''dry'';
that is, they have their wearing parts made of
Teflon and carbon. These pumps, Fig. 92, do not
require an oil separator and some are mounted on
external brackets and are belt-driven.
Twin-engine systems are similar to those used
on single-ending airplanes, with the exception
that both pumps feed into a common manifold
with two check valves, Fig. 93.

Wet vacuum pump

Wet vacuum pumps return the oil from the exhaust air into TYPICAL DRY VACUUM PUMP
the engine crankcase.

-Fig. 91- -Fig. 92

Suction sase

Filter

Check valve Check valve

Pump Pump
TYPICAL TWIN-ENGINE VACUUM SYSTEM

-Fig. 93.
61
In the case of a pump failure or an engine adjusts the spring tension. The older relief valves
shutdown, the check valves prevent the had a piece of screen wire over the port where the
inoperative system interfering with the operation
of the good one. The suction gage on twin-engine
installations has some means of identifying the
failure of one of the systems. Fig. 94 illustrates
one form of indicator. When both engines are
operating normally, both red buttons are pulled
i.pto the instrument case and, in the event of
failure of one pump, the button for that pump will
pop out.

ll
This suction relief ulve uses a foam sock to remove dust or dirt from
the air entering the system.

Fig. 95
air entered, but the more modern valves use a
foam sock or garter around the valve to prevent
the entry of any dirt or dust into the system. This
dirt will accelerate the wear of the pump.

INDICATING-TYPE SUCTION GAGE

Fig. 94
2. Suction Relief Valves
In order to maintain the proper
pressure inside the instrument case, suction relief
valves are installed between the pump and the
instrument. These valves, Fig. 95, usually
incorporate a spring-loaded disc which pops off its
seat when the desired pressure is reached and
allows air to enter, keeping the pressure at the
required value. A knurled knob on these valves
3. Filters
Just about the first thing to suspect
in any trouble with pneumatic gyros is the filter.
Suction-operated instruments act as vacuum
cleaners and suck any dust, dirt, or smoke in the
cockpit into the instrument case and right into the
bearings of the gyro. This causes friction and
excessive precession. To guard against
premature failure of the instruments, be sure
adequate and clean filters are installed in the air
inlet line. Fig. 96 shows representative types of
filters.

INSTRUMENT FILTERS

Fig. 96
62
 A dirty filter will restrict the airflow into the
instrument, but the suction reading will still be
high because the relief valve will compensate by
allowing more air into the system. The resulting
low rotor speed will cause excessive precession
and early tumbling.
4. Instrument Servicing
The actual overhaul of any aircraft
instrument is naturally a job for an approved
repair station, but most of the troubles with
instruments are caused by their installation.
When there are problems with a gyro
instrument, first check the filters; if they are clean
and all of the lines in the system are open and not
INSTRUMENT GROUND TEST VACUUM PUMP
-Fig. 97-
63
leaking, connect a vacuum pump such as Fig. 97
into the system and operate it at the suction
recommended by the instrument manufacturer.
The instrument should erect and come up to speed
within the time allowed and should remain erect
without any vibration.
Be sure the shock mounts are strong enough for
the panel and that there is no possibility of the
panel being able to move in and out enough for the
instruments to hit anything. The instruments
must be level when the airplane is level. One com-
plaint of an out-of-rig airplane may be a weak
instrument shock mount, allowing the panel to sag
on one side. When the pilot attempts to keep the
wings level according to the instruments, he must
hold controls and the airplane is actually out of
trim instead of out of rig.
QUESTIONS:
70. Why are doublers required inside the skin
when a venturi is installed on the side of an
airplane fuselage?
71. What is the purpose of an oil separator in
an instrument pneumatic system?
72. What effect on a pneumatic gyro
instrument will a clogged air filter have?
73. What causes most of the problems with a
pneumatic gyro instrument installation?
74. How could weak instrument panel shock
mounts give the pilot the indication that his
airplane is out of trim?
 SECTION XI:
PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

The system that provides pressure for the

airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the rate of
climb indicator is the only one for which the
Federal Aviation Regulations specifically require
an inspection. FAR 91.170 requires that the static
system of every airplane operated under
Instrument Flight Rules be inspected for integrity
every twenty-four months and a record kept of
those inspections.
Static systems connect the altimeter, airspeed
indicator, and rate of climb indicator to a port or
hole in the side of the airplane, Fig. 98, or a hole
in the side of the pitot-static head, Fig. 99. This
provides undisturbed air for use as a reference for
these instruments.

--J

heaters
He~ted pitotst~tic heads pick up pressure for the ~irspeed indic~tor,
rate of climb indicator, and altimeter.

Pitot heads and static ports are susceptible to

blockage by ice, so electric heaters may be
installed to prevent its formation. These heaters
St~tic ports on the sides of ~irpl~nes should be kept
generate more heat than can be dissipated without
frH of dirt, ice, or polish. a cooling airflow, so the heaters should not be
operated on the ground any longer than just for a
. Fig. 98. check to see that they will operate properly .
64

Altimeter
SINGLE-ENGINE PilOT-STATIC SYSTEM
Fig. 100
Fig. 100 shows a complete single pitot-static
system installation. The pitot tube attaches
directly to the airspeed indicator, and the static
ports of the three instruments are manifolded
together and connect into a common static sump,
then to the static ports. There are often two static
ports connected together, one on either side of the
airplane, so that in a slipping or skidding
condition the pressure on the two sides of the
airplane will balance and a true static reading will
be provided.
An alternate source valve may be provided in
the static system so that in the event the outside
static ports ice over, the pilot can open the valve
and have an acceptable, though perhaps not
highly accurate, reading. Non pressurized
airplanes vent this valve into the cockpit at the
instrument panel, but pressurized airplanes must
provide the alternate static source outside the
pressurized area.
65
Airspeed
indicator
Pitot head
Static
sump
Alternate
source
valve
Static ports
A. STATIC SYSTEM CHECK
In compliance with FAR 91.170, every
twenty-four calendar months the static system
must be checked for entrapped moisture and re-
strictions, for leakage, and for any alterations as
described in FAR 43, Appendix E.
1. Entrapped Moisture
Disconnect the static system from
the three instruments behind the instrument
panel, and, with low-pressure air, blow the line
out from the instrument. panel end toward the
static pick-up portNEVER from outside the
airplane toward the inside. When all of the
moisture has been blown out of the line, reconnect
the instruments and check for leaks.
 2. Leakage
When testing for leakage, the
static port that will not be used to attach the test
line should be covered with a fairly wid~ black
plastic tape, making a large black X over the port.
The reason for this is to help you remember to
remove it when the test is completed. Never use
~transparent tape; it's too easy to forget. Attach a
suction source and valve to the port that is not
covered and lower the pressure as required for the
te~t. The test equipment can be quite complex, as
that shown in Fig. 101 which will perform not only
the static system check but the altimeter test as
QED, INC
THE MASTER ALTIMETER AND STATIC SYSTEM TESTER
Fig. 101
QUESTIONS:
75. How often should the static system of an
airplane operated under instrument flight
rules be checked for leakage?
76. Which three instruments normally connect
into the static system?
77. How long should a pitot head heater be
operated on the ground?
78. What instrument or instruments attach to
the pitot tube?
66
well; or it can be as simple as the rubber air bulb
and surgical rubber hose shown in Fig. 102.
Attach the suction system to the static port and
slowly open the valve. Be sure the pressure is not
dropped so fast that the rate of climb indicator will
exceed its limits. Lower the pressure until the
altimeter has increased its reading by 1, 000 feet,
then seal the tester off. Hold this pressure for one
minute, and the reading of the altimeter should
not drop more than 100 feet. Release the pressure
slowly so the rate of climb indicator does not peg.
Simple static system tests may be performed
usin& a rubber bulb to lower the air pressure.
- Fig.102-
79. Why are there often two static ports on an
airplane?
80. What is the purpose of the alternate source
valve in an airplane's static system?
81. Should static lines be blown out from the
static port inward, or from the instrument
panel outward?
82. How much pressure is applied to test a
static system for leakage?
83. How much leakage is allowed in a static
system?
 MODERN SINGLE-ENGINE INSTRUMENT PANEL
Fig. 103
A. PANEL LAYOUT
A good look at almost any of the older
airplanes will affirm the fact that the arrangement
of instruments in the panel has been .haphazard,
at best. And the nonstandard size of the
directional gyro and gyro horizon has made it
difficult to place these instruments in the panel in
67
SECTION XII:
INSTRUMENT
INSTALLATION
AND MARKING
such a way that would allow a meaningful scan of
the instruments for IFR flying. It was only when
the new 3-1/8" instruments became commonly
used that the now familiar T arrangement of flight
instruments became standard in the smaller
general aviation airplanes, as well as in the
airliners.
Fig. 103 illustrates the panel of a modem
single-engine airplane equipped for IFR Dying.
 Directly in front of the pilot in the top row of
instruments is the gyro horizon, and below it is the
directional gyro. In the arm of the T on the right is
the altimeter and on the left is the airspeed
indicator. In these positions the basic flight
instruments have a standard arrangement so that
the pilot does not have to familiarize himself with
a strange layout each time he gets into a different
airplane. Below the airspeed indicator is the turn
and slip indicator or the tum coordinator, and
below the altimeter is the vertical speed indicator.
To enable the pilot to fly partial panel*
instruments, the clock is located next to the tum
coordinator, near the airspeed indicator. To the
right of the altimeter and vertical speed indicator
and right next to the radio control boxes are the
VOR indicators. The engine controls, the throttle,
propeller pitch, and mixture control are located
CESSNA TWINENGINE INSTRUMENT PANEL
-Fig. 104-
68
below the panel; the instrument affected by each
of these is located either near the control or in a
position relative to the control. The manifold
pressure gage is near the throttle, the tachometer
is near the propeller pitch control, and, for fuel
injected engines, the fuel flowmeter is near the
mixture co~trol.
Fig. 104 shows the panel of a light twin with the
flight instruments arranged in the same basic T
and the engine instruments in a vertical column to
the right side of .the radios. Dual manifold
pressure gages are at the top, and the throttles are
the left set of controls. The dual electronic
tachometers are in the center because the
propeller controls are in the center, and the dual
fuel flowmeter indicator on the bottom relates to
the mixture controls on the right side.
 B. INSTRUMENT MOUNTING
Most instruments are mounted in a
shock-mounted subpanel and covered with a false
panel for appearance. One of the most impor-
tant things to check, on an inspection of an
instrument installation, is the condition of the
shock mounts. Of the two forms used for
instrument panels Fig. 105-A is the shock mount
used for most of the larger panels and attaches
between a bracket riveted to the panel and one
mounted on the aircraft structure.
Panel
{Load side]
A
SECTION THROUGH PANEL MOUNT
. - - - . -. . -2Y
B
INSTRUMENT PANEL SHOCK MOUNTS
Fig. 105-
Fig. 105-B is the smaller mount, and it screws into
the structure and into the panel. A thin aluminum
bonding strap jumps the shock mount to carry
return current from the instrument lights. On an
inspection, be sure none of these straps are
broken. Deflect the panel as much as possible to
be sure the instruments cannot hit against the
structure or any other installed equipment.
C. POWER REQUIREMENTS
When any instrument is installed, be
sure to check to determine that the power
required for its operation is available. Pneumatic
instruments must have the proper pressure at the
specified flow rate. The airframe or instrument
manufacturer will specify the size of the tubing
required for each instrument.
Electrical instruments must have the supply
voltage checked. The DC source should be
checked, first for proper polarity, and for
69
adequate voltage at the instrument whlle it is
operating. This assures you that there is not
enough line-loss to lower the voltage below
acceptable limits. AC supplies are checked for
proper voltage, at the instrument with it
operating, and for proper frequency and phase
rotation.
QUESTIONS:
84. What. instrument is in each position in a
standard T arrangement for flight
instruments?
a. Center of T
b. Bottom
c. Right arm
d. Left arm
85. What three instruments are used for partial
panel instrument flight?
86. When checking for proper DC voltage,
should you make the measurement at the
circuit breaker or at the instrument?
87. Besides voltage and frequency, what
should be checked when a three-phase AC
instrument installation is made?
D. RANGE MARKING
Any instrument that provides informa-
tion relating to acceptable or non-acceptable
ranges of operation should be marked with these
ranges. The following are the acceptable range
markings:
1. Airspeed Indicator
a. White arc- Flap operating range.
A white arc, with the lower end at the flaps-down
stall speed, and the upper end, the maximum
airspeed for flaps-down flight.
b. Green arc - Normal operating
range. The bottom is the flaps-up stall speed, and
the top end is the maximum airspeed for rough
air.
c. YeDow arc .. Structural Warning
area. The bottom joins the green arc and extends
 to the never-exceed red line. It is permissable to
fly in this speed range in smooth air, but gusty air
could impose loads on the structure that exceed its
allowable limits.
d. Red radial line - Never-exceed
speed. This denotes the structural limits for
airspeed.
e. Blue radial line - Best single-
~ engine rate of climb. A blue radial line is used on
the airspeed indicators of twin-engine airplanes to
mark the speed for the best rate of climb with one
engine out.
2. Carburetor Air Temperature
Indicator
a. Red radial line - Maximum
permissable carburetor inlet air temperature
recommended by the engine manufacturer.
b. Green arc - Normal operating
range for trouble-free operationt with the upper
limit at maximum carburetor inlet air temperature
and the lower limit at the point where icing may be
anticipated. An additional green arc may be
required in the temperature range below the icing
range.
c. Yellow arc - Range indicating
where icing is most likely to be encountered.
3. Cylinder Head Temperature Gages--
Reciprocating Engines
a. Red Radial line - Maximum
permissable cylinder head temperature.
b. Green are - From maximum
permissable t~mperature for continuous operation
to minimum recommended by the engine
manufacturer for continuous operation.
e. Yellow are - Maximum temper-
ature for continuous operation to maximum
permissable temperature.
4. Manifold Pressure Gage - Recipro-
cating engines.
a. Red radial line - Maximum
permissable absolute manifold pressure for wet or
dry operation, whichever is greater.
b. Green arc From maximum per-
70
missable pressure for continuous operation to the
minimum pressure selected by the aircraft
manufacturer for cruise power.
e. Yellow arc From maximUm.
pressure for continuous operation to maximum
permissable pressure.
5. Fuel Pressure - Reciprocating and
Turbine Engines
a. Red radial line - Maximum
and/or minimum permissable pressures estab-
blished as engine operating limitations.
b. Green are Normal operating
range.
c. Yellow are Cautionary ranges
indicating any potential hazard in the fuel system
such as malfunction, icing, etc.
6. Oil Pressure - Reciprocating and
Turbine Engines
a. Red radial line - Maximum
and/or minimum permissable pressures esta-
blished as engine operating limitations.
b. Green arc - Normal operating
range.
c. Yellow arc - Cautionary ranges
indicating any potential hazard due to
overpressure during cold start, low pressure
during idle, etc.
7. Oil Temperature - Reciprocating and
Turbine Engines
a. Red radial line - Maximum
and/or minimum permissable temperatures
established as engine operating limitations.
b. Green are - Normal operating
range.
c. Yellow are - Cautionary ranges
indicating any potential hazard due to .
overheating, high viscosity at low temperature,
etc.
8. Tachometer Reciprocating Engines
a.Red radial line - Maximum per-
missable RPM.
b. Green are - From maximum
permissable RPM for continuous operation to
minimum recommended for continuous operation
except in the restricted ranges, if any. 12. Dual Tachometer - HeHcopter
e. YeUow arc - From maximum
RPM for continuous operation to maximum RPM.
d. Red are Range or ranges in a. Red radial Hoe - Engine
which operational speed is restricted, except to Maximum permissable RPM.
pass through, for all operating conditions because b. Red radial Hoe Rotor
of excessive stresses, etc. Maximum and minimum rotor RPM for power-off
operational conditions.
9. Torque Indicator Reciprocating, c. Green arc Engine
Turboprop, and Turboshaft Engines. From maximum RPM for continuous operation to
minimum recommended for continuous operating
power, except in restricted ranges, if any.
a. Red radial line Maxim urn
pennissable torque pressure for wet or dry d. Green arc Rotor
operation, whichever is greater. From maximum to minimum normal operating
range.
b. Green are From maximum
torque pressure for continuous operation to e. Yellow arc - Engine
minimum torque pressure recommended. Precautionary ranges, such as altitude limits.
c. Yellow arc - From maximum
torque pressure for continuous operation to 13. Gas Producer fNll Tachometer
maximum permissable torque pressure. Turboshaft 'Helicopter

10. Exhaust Gas Temperature Turbine a. Red radial line .. Maximum per-
Engines. missable RPM.

a. Red radial line Maximum per-

missable gas temperature for wet or dry QUESTIONS:
operations, whichever is greater.
b. Green arc From maximum 88. What is the meaning of the white arc on an
permissable temperature for continuous operation airspeed indicator dial?
to minimum recommended by the engine
manufacturer. 89. What speed is indicated by the bottom of
the green arc on an airspeed indicator?
c. Yellow arc - From maximum
temperature for continuous operation to maximum 90. What is indicated by a blue radial line on an
permissable gas temperature. airspeed indicator?

11. Tachometer Turbine Engines 91. What is indicated by the yellow arc on a car-
buretor air temperature gage?
a. Red radial line - Maximum 92. What temperature is indicated by the top of
permissable RPM. the green arc on a cylinder head
b. Green arc - From maximum temperature indicator?
RPM for continuous operation to minimum RPM
recommended for continuous operation. 93. What are the limits of the yellow arc on a
manifold pressure gage?
c. Yellow arc - From maximum
RPM for continuous operation to maximum RPM. 94. What is meant by a red arc on a tacho-
meter?
Turboshaft heUcopter
95. Why does a single-engine helicopter use a
a. Red radial Hoe - Maximum dual tachometer?
pennissable RPM.

71
1'
This glossary of terms is to give a ready refer-
ence to the meaning of some of the words with
which you may not be familiar. These definitions
may differ from those of standard dictionaries but
are more in line with shop usage.
accelerometer: An instrument that measures the
force of the attraction of gravity on a body. It
is calibrated in G units.
agonic tine: An imaginary line across the surface
of the earth along which the magnetic and
geographic poles are in line and where there is
"a-gonic"--"no angle" --or no variation error.
airspeed, calibrated: Indicated airspeed correc-
ted for instrument and position error.
airspeed, indicated: Airspeed as indicated on
the airspeed indicator with no corrections
applied.
airspeed, true: Calibrated airspeed corrected for
altitude and temperature.
altimeter, pneumatic: A form of aneroid
barometer calibrated in feet, used to measure
height above a given pressure level.
altimeter setting: Station pressure corrected to
sea level. When this number is placed in the
barometric window of an altimeter, the
instrument will read indicated altitude.
Autosyn system: A form of AC remote-indi-
cating system using an electromagnet excited
by 400 Hz AC as its rotor and having a three-
phase stator.
axial flow: The straight-through flaw of a fluid.
In an axial flow compressor, the air flows
through the compressor parallel to the engine,
and the stages of compression do not
essentially change the direction of the flow.
72
Glossary
barometer, mercury: A closed glass tube
partially filled with mercury, used to
determine the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere.
bezel: The rim which holds the glass in an
instrument case.
bourdon tube: The mechanism in a pressure
gage consisting of a flat or elliptical cross-
sectioned tube bent into a curve or spiral.
When pressure is applied, the tube attempts
to straighten.
cable, tachometer [chain]: The flexible cable
used to drive a mechanical tachometer from
the engine. It is made of two layers of steel
wire, spiraled in opposite directions about a
central core.
capacitance bridge: A null-type measuring
instrument used to measure capacitance.
capacitor: Another name for condenser. A
device used to store an electrical charge.
constantan: An alloy of copper and nickel used
as the negative lead in thermocouples for
reciprocating engines.
dashpot: A mechanical damper used to cushion
or slow down movement by restricting the flow
of viscous fluid.
deviation: A compass error which is caused
by the compass magnets attempting to align
with extraneous magnetic fields in the air-
plane. Deviation error changes with the air-
plane's heading rather than the geographic
location.
dielectric constant [k): The characteristic of an
insulator that determines the amount of
electrical energy that can be stored in the form
of electrostatic fields.
digital read-outs: Presentation of information by
an instrument in a digital form such as light
emitting diodes or drums, rather than by the
movement of a pointer over a numbered dial.
directional gyro [D.G.]: An attitude-type gyro-
scopic instrument with a dial calibrated in 360
degrees of azimuth. It is set to agree with the
magnetic compass and will provide directional
information without the oscillation and lead
and lag errors inherent in the magnetic
compass.
dog house: A mark on a four-minute tum and
slip indicator which resembles a dog house.
It is located one needle-width away from the
center, and when the pointer aligns with it, a
standard rate of tum is being made.
drag cup, magnetic: The aluminum or copper
cup surrounding the rotating magnet in a
simple mechanical tachometer. Eddy currents
are generated in this cup causing magnetic
fields which oppose those of the rotating
magnet.
drift magnet: A small permanent magnet in a
fixed-coil ratiometer indicator, used to drift or
pull the pointer off scale when the instrument
is not energized.
Earth Induction compass: A form of direction
indicator which derives its signal from the
lines of flux of the earth cutting across the
windings of the flux valve mounted in the
airplane.
electrodynamic damping: The diminishing of
oscillations of the pointer of an electrical
meter by the generation of electromagnetic
fields in the frame of the moving coil.
encoding altimeter: A form of pneumatic
altimeter which codes the transponder
differently for each one hundred feet of
altitude.
EPR [engine pressure ratio]: The ratio between
the compressor inlet pressure and the turbine
discharge pressure. It is used as a parameter
of power output measurement of an axial-flow
turbine engine.
fluid: A substance, gaseous or liqUid, that will
conform to the shape of the container that
holds it. A gaseous fluid will expand to fill
the entire container, while a liquid fluid will fill
oilly the lower part of the container.
73
gimbal: The frame in which a gyro spins. Rate
gyros use a single gimbal, while attitude gyros
are universally mounted in a double gimbal.
G unit: The unit of acceleration. One G is the
attraction of gravity for a body.
gyroscope: A device utilizing a rapidly spinning
wheel with its weight concentrated around its
rim. This wheel exhibits the characteristics of
rigidity in space and precession.
helical spring: A spring wound in the form of a
spiral.
hourmeter: An odometer-type instrument used
to measure hours of operating time. When
incorporated into a mechanical tachometer, it
is accurate only at a specified RPM.
hydraulic: Pertaining to force transmitted by a
noncompressive fluid.
inches of mercury: A measure of pressure; the
height of a column of mercury the pressure
will support.
incrementally: Moving in steps rather than in
continuous motion.
indicated altitude: Height above existing sea
level pressure. It is read on an altimeter when
the altimeter setting is placed in the
barometric window.
inertial force: A force due to inertia, or the
resistance to acceleration or deceleration.
linear movement: A type of movement or
progression in which the output or result is
directly proportional to the input.
lines of Dux: Lines of magnetic force connecting
the poles of a magnet.
WC mode: The mode, or operating position, of
an automatic pilot when it is receiving its
signals from the localizer portion of an instru-
ment landing system (ILS).
lubber line: The reference line of a magnetic
compass or directional gyro. The line
represents the nose of the airplane.
Mach number: The ratio of the speed of an
airplane to the speed of sound in the same
atmospheric conditions.
Magnesyn system: An AC remote-indicating
system in which a permanent magnet is used
as the rotor. The stator is a saturable core,
toroidal-wound coil, excited with low-voltage
AC. When the core is saturated it will not
accept lines of flux from the rotor.
manifold pressure: The absolute pressure that
,. , exists in the intake manifold of a reciprocating
engine.
millibar: A unit of barometric pressure equal to
approximately 0. 75 millimeters of mercury.
nonlinear output: An output that is not directly
proportional to the input.
omni station: The ground station of a very high
frequency omnirange (VOR) navigation
system.
out-of-rig: The condition in an airplane in which
straight and level, hands-off flight is not
possible because the controls are not properly
rigged.
out-of-trim: The condition in an airplane in
which straight and level, hands-off flying is not
possible because of an aerodynamic load
caused by an improperly adjusted trim device.
partial panel Bight: Flight by reference to instru-
ments using the turn and slip indicator, clock,
and airspeed indicator instead of the artificial
horizon and directional gyro.
pawl: A pivoted stop in a mechanical device
which allows motion one way but prevents it
in the opposite direction. It is commonly
used in a ratchet mechanism.
pendulum valve: Gravity-operated air valves
over the discharge ports of the rotor housing
of a pneumatic gyro horizon. When the gyro
tilts, the pendulum valves change the airflow
frmn the housing and cause a precessive force
which erects the gyro.
pick-off: That portion of a device or system
which removes a signal from a sensor.
pinion gear: A small gear on a shaft driven by
either a sector gear or a toothed rack.
pitot pressure: Ram or impact pressure used in
the measurement of airspeed.
pneumatic altimeter: A form of altimeter that
measures height above a given pressure level.
Its calibration is based on a specified lapse
rate, or change in pressure with height.
74
position error: The error in an airspeed indicator
caused by the static air source not being
exposed to absolutely still air.
potentiometer: A form of variable resistor with
terminals at both ends of the resistance strip
as well as the wiper.
precession: One of the characteristics of a gyro-
scope which causes an applied force to be felt,
not at the point of application, but ninety
degrees from that point in .the direction of
rotation.
pressure: Force per unit area.
pressure, absolute: Pressure measured relative
to zero pressure or a vacuum. Absolute
pressure is often measured in inches of
mercury, as, for example, manifold pressure.
pressure, differential: A pressure difference
between two pressures. The measurement of
airspeed is an example of the use of a
differential pressure.
pressure, gage: Pressure measured relative to
the existing atmospheric pressure.
pressure port: The opening in an aircraft instru-
ment through which pressure is introduced.
radar altimeter: A form of absolute altimeter
that measures the distance of the airplane
from the terrain below it by measuring the
time required for a pulse of electrical energy
to travel from the airplane to the ground and
back.
radial: A line of radio bearing radiating out from
a VOR station. Each VOR station has 360
radials.
ram air pressure: See pitot pressure.
ratiometer indicator: A form of DC remote-
indicating system whose pointer movement is
determined by the ratio of current flow
between two resistors, or portions of a special
variable resistor.
repeater indicator: An instrument that repeats
the information produced by a master
indicator.
rocking shaft: A shaft or rod in an instrument
that changes the direction of a movement,
usually by ninety degrees.
.- 1
rotary piek-off: A device that is rotated by some
object whose movement is to be measured.
The pick-off generates a signal proportional
to the amount of movement.
rotary solenoid: An electromagnet whose
movable core is rotated by current through
the coil.
sector gear: A portion of a large diameter gear
which meshes with a much smaller pinion
gear to amplify angular movement.
sensitive altimeter: A form of pneumatic
altimeter in which a pointer makes a complete
revolution for each thousand feet, and which
has an adjustable barometric scale by which
the instrument may be adjusted to the existing
barometric pressure.
servo altimeter: An altimeter in which the
aneroid mechanism moves a rotary pick-off
whose signal is amplified to drive a servo
motor which moves the drums and pointers.
slaved gyro: A directional gyro which is
''slaved'' to the output of a flux valve. In this
way, a directional gyro can be given direction-
seeking tendencies.
spider: The framework around which the three
pick-up coils of a flux valve are wound. The
highly permeable material of which the spider
is made accepts the lines of flux from the
earth's magnetic field.
stagnation point: The point on the leading edge
of an airfoil where the airflow separates,
some going over the surface and some below.
stator: The stationary part of an electrical
machine such as a motor or alternator.
synchro: A form of synchronous device in which
a movable element is caused to follow a similar
element in a master unit or transmitter.
tachometer: An instrument for measuring the
rotational speed of an engine. It is calibrated
in revolutions per minute (RPM).
torroidal-wound coll: An electrical coil wound
around a ring- or doughnut-shaped core.
75
total pressure: The pressure a moving fluid
would have if it were stopped. No losses
are considered.
transponder [radar beacon transponder]: A
radar transmitter-receiver which transmits
a coded signal every time it is interrogated
by a ground radar facility.
tumble limit: The number of degrees of pitch or
roll a gyro will tolerate before it reaches its
gimbal stops. Beyond this point the gyro
will tumble.
turbine discharge pressure [PT 7 ]: The total
pressure at the discharge of the low-pressure
turbine in a dual axial flow engine.
turn and slip indicator: A flight instrument
consisting of a rate gyro, to indicate the rate
of yaw, and a curved glass clinometer, to indi-
cate the relationship between gravity and
centrifugal force. It indicates the relationship
between angle of bank and rate of yaw.
VOR: Very high frequency omnirange naviga-
tion system. The common system of
navigation used in the contiguous United
States. It is a phase-comparison form of radio
navigation.
vacuum: A negative pressure, or one below
atmospheric pressure. In aviation use,
vacuum is usually measured in inches of
mercury.
I
variation: A compass error caused by the I
~ i:I
I
compass magnet aligning with magnetic poles I
and the aeronautical charts and maps oriented
to the geographic poles. Variation is deter- ~~
mined by the geographic location of the
airplane and is not affected by the airplane's
heading.
venturi: A specially shaped restrictor placed in a
fluid flow which speeds up the flow of fluid and
decreases its pressure at the point of
maximum velocity.
Wheatstone bridge: An elel;trical. measuring
circuit in which the current through the
indicator is determined by the ratio of the
resistances of the four resistors which form the
legs of the bridge.
 AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Answers To Study Questions

1. Zero pressure or a vacuum. 17. The rate of pressure change.

2. Existing atmospheric pressure. 18. Accelerometer actuated dashpots.

3. Gage pressure. 19. A sealed bulb, capillary, and bourdon tube is

filled with a liquid having a high vapor
4. It may be opened so atmospheric pressure pressure. The pressure inside the sealed
can force any water which has condensed in system varies with the temperature of the
the line into the engine. bulb.
5. The pressure ratio between the compressor 20. Most of them increase.
inlet total pressure and the turbine discharge
pressure. 21. It would indicate infinite resistance,
therefore an off-scale high-temperature
6. Indicated altitude. indication.
7. Pressure altitude. 22. copper-constantan and iron-constantan.
8. Pressure altitude is corrected for nonstan- 23. ChromeI and alumel.
dard temperature.
24. Two and eight ohms.
9. There is not enough torque from the aneroid
mechanism to drive some of the more 25. Short the terminals together by wrapping
complex drum altitude displays. In these them with uninsulated wire.
instruments, the aneroid drives only a low
inertia rotary pick-off. The signal from this 26. The positive terminal is larger than the
pick-off is amplified and drives a servo negative terminal.
motor which moves the drums and pointer.

10. It provides a code for the transponder which
indicates to the ground station the altitude of
airplane in 100 foot increments.
11. Every twenty-four calendar months.
27. The pointer is mounted on a bimetallic
thermometer that measures cockpit tem-
perature. This mechanical change compen-
sates for the electrical change in the
instrument.

12. Ram, or pitot, pressure and static, or still air, 28. Iron and constantan.
pressure.
29. Iron is magnetic, and constantan is not.
13. Increases.
30. Parallel.
14. An altimeter mechanism.
31. 'Chromel and alumel.
15. Correction for altitude and temperature.
32. The load factor, or the effect of gravity on
16. The ratio of the speed of the airplane to the an object.
speed of sound in the same atmospheric
conditions. 33. Zero Gs.
76
34. The rotor. 53. Either a special demagnetizing tool or a
growler.
35. A coil wound on a ring-shaped core.

36. The permeability of the core of the coil. 54. Be sure to remove the demagnetizer before
When it is saturated, it will reject lines of turning off the power.
flux from the permanent magnet, but when
not saturated, it will accept them. 55. The direction-sensing portion of the compass
is installed in a part of the airplane where the
37. They are more economically replaced than magnetic interference is least.
repaired.
56. The bearing of the nose of the airplane from
38. Generators for reciprocating engines have magnetic north, and from one or more radio
four poles, while those for turbine engines stations.
have two.
57. a. Area of the plates.
39. It is frequency-sensitive. b. Distance between the plates.
c. Dielectric constant of the material
40. The difference in RPM between two engines between the plates.
by measuring the difference in frequency of
the two tachometer generator outputs. 58. In this way, the quantity of fuel indicated is
not affected by the attitude of the airplane.
41. From a special set of breaker points in one of
the magnetos. 59. When the test switch is depressed, a portion
42. Rigidity in space, and precession. of one of the inductors in the bridge is
shorted out so it will drive the indicator
43. It will spin. toward Empty.

44. The erection mechanism (pendulum valves), 60. Coaxial cable.

has been acted on by gravity in the bank, and
when the airplane rolls out level, a 61.
precessive force will cause the gyro to
momentarily indicate a pitch.
62.
45. A turn of three degrees per second.
It would give an indication of high rate of
flow.
An airplane can stall at almost any airspeed,
but it will stall at only one angle of attack.

46. So the gyro will remain upright with respect 63. It informs the servo that something is not as
to the earth, in a banked turn. the autopilot is programmed and corrective
action should be taken.
~

4 7. The relationship between the force of gravity

and centrifugal force. 64. Roll and yaw.

48. A tum indicator which deflects one needle
width for a half standard rate turn. It has a
''dog house'' one needle-width away from
center that,indicates a standard rate tum.
\ mode was engaged. Altitude Select allows
49. A tum coordinator senses rotation about
both the roll and yaw axes with its canted
rotor, while a tum and slip indicator with its
upright rotor senses rotation about only the
vertical, or yaw, axis.
50. Roll and yaw.
65. Airspeed and pitch acceleration.
66. Altitude Hold will maintain the airplane at
the same pressure level it was when this
the pilot to select a pressure level to which
the airplane will fly and maintain.
67. In the aileron control system.
68. It stops the control surface when sufficient
movement has been made.

51. Deviation. 69. The rate at which the airplane deviated from
its previous flight condition.
52. The date the compass was swung and the
name and certificate number of the mechanic 70. To minimize the chance of the skin cracking
doing the work. from the vibrations of the venturi.
77
71. To remove the oil which has been used to 83. Only enough to cause the altimeter to change
lubricate the wet vacuum pump from the air 100 feet in one minute.
being pumped overboard.
84. a. Gyro Horizon.
72. The airflow will be restricted so the gyro can b. Directional gyro.
not attain its required speed. c. Altimeter.
d. Airspeed indicator.
73. Some aspect of the installation, the mount-
, , ing, or the airflow through the instrument. 85. Turn and slip indicator. airspeed indicator,
and clock.
74. Weak shock mounts could allow the panel to
sag and, when the pilot attempts to fly with 86. It must be made at the instrument to
the sagged panel level, the airplane will have determine if the voltage drop in the wiring
to be flown with the controls crossed. is excessive.

75. Every twentyfour calendar months. 8 7. Phase rotation.

76. Airspeed indicator, altimeter, and rate of 88. The airplane may be operated in this speed
dim b indicator. range with the flaps down.

77. Only long enough to determine that the 89. Flaps-up stall speed.
heater is operating.
90. Best single-engine rate of climb speed.
78. Airspeed indicator.
91. Temperature range in which ice is likely to
79. To average the pressure on the two sides of be encountered.
the airplane so the instrument will not be
affected by a slip or a skid. 92. Maximum permissable temperature for
continuous operation.
80. The alternate source valve may be opened to
admit air into the static system in case the 93. Maximum pressure for continuous operation
regular static source ices over. to maximum permissable pressure.

81. Always from the instrument panel outward. 94. Restricted ranges of operation.

82. Enough negative pressure to cause the alti- 95. One tachometer is for the engine and the
meter to change 1,000 feet. This is about other is for the main rotor.
one inch of mercury, or approximately
one-half psi.

78
 ---- ---------------------------------
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Fina I Examination
STUDENT----------------------

GRADE------------------------ 6. What should an accelerometer read when it

Place a circle around the letter for the correct is properly installed in an instrument panel?
answer to each of the following questions: A. Zero.
B. Minus one.
1. How much may a static system leak before C. Plus one.
it is considered unairworthy?
D. Off scale.
A. One psi in one minute.
B. One hundred feet on the altimeter in 7. What provides the signal for an electronic
one minute. tachometer?
C. One thousand feet on the altimeter in A. The retard points in one of the
one minute. magnetos.
D. One inch of mercury in one minute. B. A three-phase AC tachometer
generator.
2. To what piece of electronic equipment is an
C. A special set of tachometer points in one
encoding altimeter connected?
of the magnetos.
A. The nav~comm transmitter. D. A special DC tachometer generator.
B. The VOR receiver.
C. The DME. 8. Where does a slaved directional gyro get its
D. The transponder. directional signal?
A. From the magnetic compass.
3. What is the purpose of the dashpot in an B. From the air data sensor.
Instantaneous Vertical Speed Indicator?
C. From the autopilot.
A. It provides an instantaneous indication D. From the flux valve.
of pitch.
B. It dampens oscillation caused by rough 9. Which statement is true about a tum
air. coordinator?
C. Prevents damage to the diaphragm A. It senses rotation about the roll and
from too rapid pressure changes. yaw axes.
D. It stabilizes the air pressure in the case B. It senses rotation about the roll and
of the instrument. pitch axes.
C. It senses rotation about the pitch and
4. What is the relationship between the yaw axes.
resistance of an electric carburetor air tem- D. It senses rotation about only the yaw
perature bulb and the temperature? axis.
A. Resistance decreases with temperature.
B. Resistance increases with temperature. 10. What is adjusted in a magnetic compass to
C. There is no change of resistance with correct for deviation?
temperature. A. The strength of the compass magnets
is varied.
5. Which metal is magnetic in a turbine engine B. The compass magnets are moved either
thermocouple? closer together or further apart.
A. Iron. C. Compensating magnets are rotated to
B. Constantan. cancel the interfering magnetic field.
C. Chrome!. D. The compass card is moved relative
D. Alumel. to the magnets.

79
 11. Which variable does not affect the capacity
of a capacitor?
A. Separation of the plates.
B. Material of which the plates are made.
C. Area of the plates.
D. Dielectric constant of the material
between the plates.
~ 12. What does a vane-type stall warning indi-
cator measure to warn of an impending stall?
A. Speed of the air over the wing.
B. Movement of the stagnation point on
the leading edge of the wing.
C. Speed of the air under the wing.
D. The angle of incidence.
13. Where is a single servo placed in an auto-
pilot which senses roll and yaw?
A. In the rudder control.
B. In the elevator control.
C. In the aileron control.
D. In both the elevator and aileron
controls.
14. What is the purpose of an oil separator in a
gyro pneumatic system?
A. It returns oil from the gyros into the
engine crankcase.
B. It returns oil from the vacuum pump
into the engine crankcase.
C. It separates oil from the vacuum in the
vacuum pump.
D. It separates oil from the air in the gyro
housing.
15. Which instrument does not connect into the
static system?
A. Altimeter.
B. Vacuum gage.
C. Airspeed Indicator.
D. Vertical Speed Indicator.
80
16. Which instrument should be placed in the
center of a T instrument arrangement?
A. Altimeter.
B. Airspeed Indicator.
C. Directional Gyro.
D. Gyro Horizon.
17. What should be checked when deterinining
the correct installation of a thr.ee-phase AC
power supply?
A. Voltage, frequency, phase rotation.
B. Voltage, frequency, current.
C. Current, wattage, frequency.
D. Frequency, voltage, and wattage.
18. What is the significance of the yellow arc
in an airspeed indicator?
A. Flap operating range.
B. Never exceed range.
C. Structural warning range.
D. Normal operating range.
19. How much pressure is used to test a static
system for leaks?
A. One hundred psi shop air supply.
B. One inch of mercury positive pressure.
C. Enough negative pressure to cause the
altimeter to increase 1,000 feet.
D. One psi negative pressure.
20. What type of voltage is used to operate a
thermocouple-type cylinder head tempera-
ture gage?
A. Only the voltage generated by the
thermocouples.
B. 115 volt, 400 Hz AC.
C. 12 or 24 volts DC, depending on the
installation.
D. 26 volt, 400 Hz AC.
J
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
Answers to Final
Examination
1. B
2. D

3. A

4. B

5. D

6. c
7. c
8. D

9. A

10. c
11. B

12. B

13. c
14. B

15. B

16. D

17. A

18. c
19. c
20. A

81