Soil Mechanics I

CE - 222
Lecture 12

Water in soil: Seepage and flow nets

Mazhar Iqbal Arshad

MCE
Contact : +92-331-3958522
1
Email: miarshd@gmail.com
 Course outline
Lecture Sections Covered/Reading Assignment
No
1 Introduction
2 Soil Formation and Nature of Soil constituents Assignment-1
3 Index Properties of Coarse and Fine grained Soil Quiz -1
4 Phase Relationships (Soil Indices) Assignment-2
5 Soil Classification Systems & Field Identification & PBL-1
6 Theory of Compaction, Introduction & Lab Tests Quiz -2
7 Soil Compaction: Field Density Determination
8 Field Compaction Equipment & PBL-2 Assignment-3
OHT - 1
9 Ground Water Flow through Soil -Basics
10 Permeability of Soil & lab determination Quiz -3
11 Seepage and Flow Nets Assignment-4
12 Seepage Examples and introduction to SEEPW
13 Concept of Effective Stress and in-situ Stresses & PBL-3
OHT - 2
14 Soil Exploration Techniques Quiz -4
15 Main In-Situ Test Types & Their interpretation Assignment-5
16 PBL-4
18 End Semester Exam 2
 Piezometer 3

Clay
What will happen?
1. Water will flow in Pressure head
tube
Sand
2. Water level will rise to
A
pressure head at A
3. Water level will Elevation head
Clay
stabilize

Datum
Piezometer 4
 One dimensional Flow 5

1. Containment is release at point A

2. Drinking Well is at B
3. Calculate the time for containment to flow from A to B

H1
Impermeable

H2

Reservoir A
Sand
10 m Reservoir B
A B 2000 m

Impermeable

Datum
LAB = 50m; h= 20 m; K=10-4 m/s; e=0.5
 Seepage Forces 6

Hydraulic Potential vs Hydraulic Head

0 1 2
= + + =+
2

Soil particles oppose water flow

Force by soil particles on water = force by water on soil
particles
Seepage force = force by water on soil particles
Where does the energy required to keep water flowing comes
from?
How can we calculate seepage force
 Seepage Forces 7

Hydraulic Potential vs Hydraulic Head

0 1 2
= + + =+
2

Soil particles oppose water flow

Where does the energy required to keep water flowing comes
from?
How can we calculate seepage force
 Seepage Forces 8

Energy loss dE during flow along dL

=
Volume of water(m3)
Head drop (m) Unit weight of water(kN/m3)

Energy drop per unit volume of water =

Work done dW by seepage force to overcome the resistance to
flow by soil

=
Distance travelled by
water along path L (m)
Force per unit volume of (m)
volume of water (m3)
 Seepage Forces 9

By requiring that Energy loss dE = Work done dw

= =

= =

Force of water in soil Hydraulic gradient

Upward Flow the seepage force effect?

Downward Flow the seepage force effect?
 Force Equilibrium 10

= = =

= o

=

=
What is value of for soils?

Factor of Safety
= 1

= 2

 Principal of Effective Stress 11

Saturated soil element subject to a

normal stress

Total = Effective + Pore pressure

= force carried by soil skeleton

divided by the gross area of the soil
u = pore water pressure
Principal of Effective Stress 12

..\GE videos\The Effect of Water on Soil

Strength.mp4
 Stresses in soil with seepage 13

Case1- No seepage

Total stress at pts a, b, c Pore water pressure

a H w w ua H w w
b H w w z sat
ub ( H w z ) w
c H w w H s sat
uc ( H w H s ) w
Effective stress at pts a,b,c
u
a 0
b ( sat w ) z
c ( sat w ) H s
 Stresses in soil with seepage 14

Case-II Downward seepage

Hydraulic gradient with head loss h

h
Hydraulic head at point b i
Hs
Pore water pressure hb H w z iz

Total stress

ua H w w
ub ( H w z iz ) w
uc ( H w H s h) w
 Stresses in soil with seepage 15

Pore water pressure Total stress

ua H w w
ub ( H w z iz ) w
uc ( H w H s h) w

Effective stress
a 0
b ( sat w ) z iz w z sub iz w
c H s sub h w

Downward seepage increases the effective stress

 Stresses in soil with seepage 16

Case-III Upward seepage

Hydraulic gradient :
h
Head at pt b: i
Hs
Pore pressure:

hb H w z (iz) H w z iz
ua H w w
ub ( H w z iz ) w
uc ( H w H s h) w
 Stresses in soil with seepage 17

Pore pressure: Total stress

ua H w w
ub ( H w z iz ) w
uc ( H w H s h) w
Effective stress
a 0
b z sub iz w
c H s sub h w
Upward seepage decreases the effective stress
 Critical Hydraulic Gradient 18

Consider a soil element

iz w A
b 0
z sub A iz w A 0
z
z sub A
z sub A z sub A
iz w A
sub ( sat w ) sat
icritical 1 No Seepage
Downward Seepage Upward Seepage
w w w

sat
Gs e w
1 e
For sand of Gs =2.68

icritical
Gs e
1
Gs 1 e= 0.5 1.0
1 e 1 e icr= 0.84 1.12
 Applications 19

Slope Stability Problems

 Applications 20

Base of Excavation - Piping

..\Seepage Video\Piping Failures at Dams.mp4

 Applications 21

Dam Failures
Overtopping
Erosion (Piping)
Distribution of Pore Pressures
Rate of Flow

Teton Dam Failure

..\Seepage Video\Teton Dam Disaster.mp4
 Teton dam failure sequence 22

Newly completed Teton Dam as it appeared in mid May 1976, as the reservoir was
filling at the rate of 3 feet per day. The rate of filling is usually limited to no more
than 1 foot per day. This view is looking towards right abutment.

Mid May 1976

Newly completed Teton Dam
 Teton dam failure sequence 23

Leakage was initially noted around 7:00 AM on Saturday June 5, 1976. This view shows
a dozer being sent down to fill in the hole at elevation 5200 around 10:45 AM

June 5, 1976
10:45 am
 Teton dam failure sequence 24

The dozer is lost in the expanding hole, around 11:20 AM on June 5th. Note
turbid nature of outflow along the abutment.

June 5, 1976
11:20 am
 Teton dam failure sequence 25

Rapidly deteriorating situation as it appeared around 11:30 AM. A massive hole has
developed in the downstream face of the embankment and is migrating upward.

June 5, 1976
11:30 am
 Teton dam failure sequence 26

The hole continues to enlarge and rise toward the crest of the right abutment. This
is about 11:50 AM.

June 5, 1976
11:50 am
 Teton dam failure sequence 27

Dam crest beginning to breach at 11:55 AM on Saturday June 5, 1976. Note

increasing discharge.

June 5, 1976
11:55 am
 Teton dam failure sequence 28

Maximum flood discharge emanating from gap in dams right abutment, just after noon on
June 5th , 1976.

June 5, 1976
After noon
Present day Teton dam site 29
Deriving groundwater flow equation 30

Principle of mass Darcy's Law

conservation

Groundwater flow equation

(Laplaces equation of continuity)
 Groundwater flow equation 31

Single-row sheet pile driven into permeable layer

See next
slide for
flow at A
Groundwater flow equation 32

Flow at point A
 Groundwater flow equation 33

Rate of inflow in horizontal direction vx Area vx dydz

Rate of inflow in vertical direction vz Area vz dxdy

z
x

Inflow Outflow
 Groundwater flow equation 34

vx
Rate of outflow in horizontal direction vx dx dydz
x
vz
Rate of outflow in vertical direction vz dz dxdy
x

z
x

Inflow Outflow
 Groundwater flow equation 35

Assuming that water is incompressible and that no volume change

in the soil mass occurs, then total rate of inflow should equal the
total rate of outflow, thus

vx vz
vx x dx dydz vz z dz dxdy vx dydz vz dxdy 0

vx vz
0 (i)
x z

With Darcys law, the discharge velocities can be expressed as

h h
v x k x ix k x and v z k z iz k z (ii)
x z
 Groundwater flow equation 36

vx vz
0 (i)
x z
h
v x k x ix k x
x
(ii)
h
v z k z iz k z
z
From equation (i) and (ii), we can write

2h 2h
kx 2 kz 2 0
x z
If soil is isotropic w.r.t hydraulic conductivity, i.e., kx = kz, then
2h 2h
2 0 Laplaces Equation of Continuity
x 2
z
 Flow net 37

A Flow Net is graphical representation of flow pattern in soil domain,

consists of two groups of curves:
Flow lines: Flow lines (aka stream lines) represent the path that a particle
of water takes as it travels through the soil mass.
Equipotential lines: Equipotential lines are lines that pass through points
of equal head.

Equipotential lines

Flow lines
 Flow net 38

..\Seepage Video\Flow Nets.mp4

 Flow net Equipotential lines 39

The space between two adjacent equipotential lines

represents a drop in head.
The space between two adjacent equipotential lines is called
an equipotential space.
 Flow net Flow lines 40

The space between two adjacent flow lines is called a flow

path

Flow lines
 Flow net 41

An equipotential line means potential head at all points is equal (i.e.

total head is constant).
Water in a piezometer (placed at different points along an
equipotential line) will rise to the same elevation.

h
h
Flow net Calculating Flow Rate 42
Flow net Calculating Flow Rate 43
Flow net Calculating Flow Rate 44
Flow net Calculating Flow Rate 45
Flow net Calculating Flow Rate 46
 Flow net 47

Impounded water

An equipotential line
means potential head Tail water
at all points is equal
(i.e. total head is
constant).

Water in a piezometer
(placed at different
points along an
equipotential line) will
rise to the same
elevation.
 Flow net 48

A combination of flow lines & equipotential lines is called flow net

Tail water
Impounded water
 Flow net 49

A combination of flow lines & equipotential lines is called flow net

 Flow net under a dam 50

Impounded
water Tail water
Flow net under a dam with toe filter 51
Flow net under a dam with sheet pile 52
Seepage and flow net through dam 53
 10 m 20 m 10 m
54
Head: 10 m

Seepage analysis using SEEP/W

10 m
Kx = 1.0 e -005 m/sec
kx = ky

Head: 1 m
30 21

29 22

28 23

3.3377e-005
20 m

24
27

26

25

40 m
 10 m 20 m 10 m
55
Head: 10 m

Seepage analysis using SEEP/W

10 m
Kx = 1.0 e -005 m /sec
Kx = Ky

Head: 1 m
30 21

29
22

2.4766e-005
28
20 m

23
27

24
26

25

40 m
Sample flow nets 56
Sample flow nets 57
Sample flow nets 58
 59

Construction of Flow Nets

Flownet Construction 60
61
62
63
64
 65

Curvilinear square

Breadth = Length

Circle inscribed in it touches all four sides.

As s = n so, each equipotential space must represent an

equal drop in head.
 66

The flow lines and equipotential lines are smooth

 Construction of flow nets 67

Equipotential lines intersect flow lines at right angles (there is

no flow along an equipotential line, therefore, all of the flow
must be at 90 to it)
Just like contour lines, flow lines cannot cross other flow lines &
equipotential lines cannot cross other equipotential lines.

The flow elements form an

approximate curvilinear square .
Although the sides may curve, a
curvilinear square is as broad as it is
long, so that a circle inscribed in it
touches all four sides.
Hence, each equipotential space must
represent an equal drop in head.
 Construction of flow net-Steps 68

Draw cross-section to scale

Identify Boundary Conditions
Select a integer value for flow lines Nf First 2-3 flow channels
are sufficient more Nf more precision but more effort
Sketch the initial flow lines Use soft pencil to sketch bcoz a
trial & error process
Add equipotential lines Follow the rules intersect at right
angle curvilinear square
Check the initial flow net for major errors
Adjust and correct initial flow net
Refine the Flow net
69
70
71
72
Calculating Pore Pressure from Flow Nets 73
(Example)

50m 100m

150m A
B
 Example 74

A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles in a permeable soil
layer is shown. Given that kx = kz = k = 4.2 106 cm/sec, determine
1) How high (above the ground surface) the water will rise if piezometers
are placed at points a, b, c, and d.

2) The rate of seepage through flow channel II per unit length

(perpendicular to the section shown.
Uplift pressure 75
 76
Uplift pressure Importance in Hydraulic Structures

15 m
1 15
2 14
40 m 21 13
3 10 11 12
45 9
4 6 78
5

1 16
1
2 2 15
3 14
5 6 7 8 9
4 101112 13

5
 77
Uplift pressure Importance in Hydraulic Structures

15 m
1
1 2
3 9
40 m 2 8
3 4 5 6 7
5

1
1 2
20
3
2 19
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
5
Final Lecture

78
 Flow nets in anisotropic soil 79

2h 2h
kx 2 kz 2 0
x z
For anisotropic soils, kx kz. In this case, the equation represents two
families of curves that do not meet at 90o. However, we can rewrite
2h 2h
2 0
k z k x x z
2

Substituting x
kz kx x

2h 2h
2 0
x z
2
 Flow nets in anisotropic soil 80

2h 2h H
2 0 q kxkz Nf
x z
2
Nd
To construct the flow net, use the following procedure:

1. Adopt a vert. scale for drawing the cross section.

2. Adopt a horiz. scale such that horiz. scale k z k x vert. scale.

3. With scales adopted in steps 1 & 2, plot the vertical section

through permeable layer parallel to the direction of flow.

4. Draw the flow net for permeable layer on the section obtained
from step 3, with flow lines intersecting equipotential lines at
right angles and elements as approx. squares.
 81

Transformed
section

True section
Seepage Through Earth Dam

82
Seepage through an earth dam 83
on an impervious base

Dupuit 1863

Casagrande (1932)
 Seepage through an earth dam 84
on an impervious base
A step-by-step procedure to obtain the seepage rate q (per unit
length of the dam) is as follows:

1. Obtain .
2. Calculate (see
figure below) and
then 0.3 .
3. Calculate d.
4. With known values
of and d, calculate
L.
5. With known values
of L, calculate q. q kL sin 2
 Seepage through an earth dam with toe filter 85
on an impervious base
900
Bo B
Toe Drain
Ingress condition

H Basic Parabola
y

0.3 x a0=y0/2

d
1. Obtain . Basic Parabola

2. Calculate and then 0.3 and locate Bo. Egress condition

3. Calculate d and then y0 y0 Discharge slope

c c0

4. Calculate value of y for different value of

x.
A
5. Plot basic parabola and locate point C0 a0
 Seepage through an earth dam with toe filter 86
on an impervious base
900
Bo B
Toe Drain
Ingress condition

H Basic Parabola
y

0.3 x a0=y0/2

d
6. Determine C0 = a + a. Basic Parabola

7. Determine value of a from plot (on next Egress condition

page). y0 Discharge slope
c c0
8. Plot point C

9. Draw Ingress and Egress conditions
A
10. Calculate q = kyo a0
Seepage through an earth dam with toe filter 87
on an impervious base
Basic Parabola

Egress condition

y0 Discharge slope
c c0

A
a0
 Seepage through an earth dam with Horizontal 88
Drain
900
Bo B
Ingress condition

h Basic Parabola
y y0 C

0.3 x Horizontal Drain

a=a0=y0/2
d

1. Calculate and then 0.3 and locate Bo.

2. Calculate d and then y0 0 = 2 + 2

3. Plot C as a=a0=y0/2
4. Calculate value of y for different value of x. = 20 x + 0 2

5. Plot basic parabola and sketch ingress condition

q ky 0
6. Calculate q
 Flow Net Through Homogenous Earth Dams 89

1. Draw line of seepage.

2. Select h by dividing h
into number of Nd
3. Draw equipotential lines
4. Draw flow lines.
5. Pressure can be calculated
at any point within the
line of seepage
6. Stability analysis can be
performed manually
 Example-Flow Net Through Homogenous Earth Dams 90

Nf = 4 Nd = 10

k = 1.5x 10-7 m/s

2
30 m
3

4
In situ/Geostatic Stress

91
 Insitu/geostatic stress 92

Geostatic stresses are caused by gravity acting on the

soil or rock, so the direction result is a vertical
normal stress z.
This stress has a significant impact on the
engineering behavior of soil, and is needed to be
computed.
This vertical stress indirectly produces horizontal
normal stress and shear stresses, which are
important to geotechnical engineer.
 Insitu/geostatic stress 93

Vertical stresses
Ground surface
Consider a column of soil that extends
Area = A
from ground surface down to a point
where we wish to compute z. Its
H1
weight is 1st stratum
=1
W 1H1dxdy 2 H 2 dxdy 3 H 3dxdy
H2
2nd stratum
W dxdy H =2

The geostatic stress, z at bottom of H3

column is 3rd stratum
=3
W dxdy H
z H
A dxdy dy dx
 Insitu/geostatic stress 94

Ground surface
Area = A

The total vertical stress at any H1

1st stratum
point in the soil mass is due =1
solely to the weight of soil
H2
and water above it. 2nd stratum
=2

H3
3rd stratum
=3

dy dx
 Total and effective stress 95

In saturated conditions, the normal stress is

carried partially by the solid particles and partially by
the pore water present in voids.
It is called the total stress because it is sum of the
stresses carried by two phases in the soil:
The effective stress , which is the portion carried by the
solid particles, and

The pore water pressure, u, which is the portion carried by

the pore water.

Karl Terzaghi was first to recognize the importance of

effective stress.
 Submerged sphere analogy 96

To understand the physics of soil particles under groundwater table

and difference between total and effective stresses, consider the
sphere resting on a scale as shown below. Buoyancy force FB on the
sphere in water tank is F V
B w
= (0.1 m3)(9.8 kN/m3)
The contact force between = 0.98 kN
sphere and scale is reduced
to
F = 2.60 kN 0.98 kN
= 1.62 kN Volume
0.1 m3
The weight of sphere has not Scale
Scale
changed, but is now 2.60 kN 1.62 kN
supported partially by scale
and partially by water.
 Principal of Effective Stress 97

Saturated soil element subject to a

normal stress

Total = Effective + Pore pressure

= force carried by soil skeleton

divided by the gross area of the soil
u = pore water pressure
Principal of Effective Stress 98
Principal of Effective Stress 99
Principal of Effective Stress 100
 Example - 1 101

Compute total vertical stress, pore water pressure, effective vertical stress at mid
height of clay layer.

sat = 19.62 kN/m3

sat = 18.36 kN/m3

 Example - 1 102

Compute total vertical stress, pore water pressure, effective vertical stress at mid
height of clay layer.

Solution:

Total stress
= S.H
= (18.363.66/2) + (19.627.92) + (9.813.05) = 218.9 kN/m2
Pore water pressure is due to total water column above the midpoint

u = Sw.H
= (9.813.66/2) + (9.817.92) +
(9.813.05)
= 125.6 kN/m2

Effective stress
= u sat = 19.62 kN/m3
= 218.9 125.6
= 93.3 kN/m2

sat = 18.36 kN/m3

 Example - 2 103

Calculate the total stress, pore pressure, and effective stresses at A, B, C, and D.

A Dry sand
6m dry = 16.5 kN/m3
B

C Clay
13 m
sat = 19.25 kN/m3

Impermeable layer
 Example - 2 104

Calculate the total stress, pore pressure, and effective stresses at A, B, C, and D.
Solution:
At point A A
A = 0, u A= 0, A = 0
3m B Dry sand
At point B dry = 16.5 kN/m3
3m C
B = 3x16.5 = 49.5 kN/m2
u B= 0,
B = 49.5 - 0 = 49.5 kN/m2
13 m Clay
At point C
sat = 19.25 kN/m3
C = 6x16.5 = 99 kN/m2
u C= 0
C = 99 - 0 = 99 kN/m2 D
Impermeable layer
At point D
D = (6x16.5) + (13x19.25) = 349.25 kN/m2
u D= 13x9.81 = 127.53 kN/m2
D = 349.25 127.53 = 221.72 kN/m2
 Example - 2 105

Total stress Pore pressure Effective stress A

B Dry sand
dry = 16.5 kN/m3
99.0 0.0 99.0 C

Clay
sat = 19.25 kN/m3

349.25 127.53 221.72 D

Impermeable layer

Z (m) Z (m) Z (m)

 Example - 3 106

The soil profile shown in Figure 1 consists of a clay (saturated unit weight
17 kN/m3) layer overlain by a 8m-thick sand (saturated unit weight 22
kN/m3) layer. Calculate vertical effective stress at points A, B, C and D.
Granular Filters

107
 Flow Nets Piping Failure Along Sheetpile 108

Average Uplift Pressure in Heave Zone:

1
U= ha w D
2

Submerged unit weight of Prism aocd:

1
Wb = b D 2
2
FOS against piping:
Wb b D
FOS =
U ha w

Flow lines
 Filter Criteria - Basic 109

Soil Filter Requirements

More pervious than base
material
Void of in place filter to be
small enough to prevent
clogging
Layer thickness to be
adequate to provide good
distribution of all particles of
filter material
Filter materials to be
prevented for movement into
drainage pipes slot size &
additional coarse filter Flow lines
 Filter Criteria - Basic 110

Soil Filter Requirements

More pervious than base
material
Void of in place filter to be
small enough to prevent
clogging
Layer thickness to be
adequate to provide good
distribution of all particles of
filter material D15
Filter materials to be
Retention criteria : 4
d 85
prevented for movement into
drainage pipes slot size & D15
Permeability criteria : 4
additional coarse filter d15 lines
Flow
 Filter Criteria - Basic 111

Soil Filter Criteria

The D15 of filter material D15
Retention criteria : 4
must be less than 4 times d85 d85
of the protected soil This
ratio is called piping ratio
The D15 of filter material D15
Permeability criteria : 20 4
should be at least 4 times d15 d15
of the protected soil But
not more than 20 times
The D50 of filter material D50
Addl Requirement : 25
should be less than 25 times d5 0
d50 of the protected soil
Flow lines
 Filter Criteria - Basic 112

D15 D15
Retention criteria : 4 Permeability criteria : 4
d 85 d15

Flow lines
Example 113
Example 114