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2P P P
P
stress 2A A A
A 2
normal strain L 2L L 2-2
L
Stress-Strain Test
2-3
Stress-Strain Diagram: Ductile Materials
2-4
Stress-Strain Diagram: Brittle Materials
Brittle materials, which comprise cast iron, glass, and stone, are characterized by
the fact that rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change in the rate of
elongation.
For brittle materials, there is no difference between the ultimate strength and the
breaking strength. Also, the strain at the time of rupture is much smaller for
brittle than for ductile materials.
There is no any necking of the specimen in the case of a brittle material & nor-
mal stresses are primarily responsible for its failure.
2-5
Hookes Law: Modulus of Elasticity
E
E Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
NB:-When the strain does not return to zero after the stress is removed, the
material is said to behave plastically. 2-7
Fatigue
when loadings are repeated thousands or millions of times, rupture will occur
at a stress much lower than the static breaking strength; this phenomenon is
known as fatigue.
For example, a beam supporting an industrial crane loaded as many as 2
million times in 25 years, an automobile crankshaft will be loaded about 0.5
billion times if the automobile is driven 200,000 miles, and an individual
turbine blade may be loaded several 100 billion times during its lifetime.
Fatigue properties are shown on S-N diagrams.
A member may fail due to fatigue at stress
levels significantly below the ultimate
strength if subjected to many loading cycles.
When the stress is reduced below the
endurance limit, fatigue failures do not
occur for any number of cycles.
The endurance limit is the stress for which
failure does not occur, even for an
indefinitely large number of loading cycles.
Fatigue failure decrease as the number of
loading cycles is increased.
2-8
Deformations Under Axial Loading
From Hookes Law:
P
E
E AE
From the definition of strain:
L
Equating and solving for the deformation, for
homogeneous cross section &material properties.
PL
AE
2-9
Sample Problem
SOLUTION:
Apply a free-body analysis to the bar
BDE to find the forces exerted by
links AB and DC.
Evaluate the deformation of links AB
The rigid bar BDE is supported by two and DC or the displacements of B
links AB and CD. and D.
2 - 10
Cont.
SOLUTION: Displacement of B:
PL
Free body: Bar BDE B
AE
60 10 3 N 0 . 3 m
500 10 - 6 m 2 70 10 9 Pa
6
514 10 m
B 0 . 514 mm
MB 0
Displacement of D:
0 30 kN 0 . 6 m F CD 0 . 2 m
PL
D
F CD 90 kN tension AE
M D 0
90 10 3 N 0 . 4 m
0 30 kN 0 . 4 m F AB 0 . 2 m 600 10
-6
m 200 10 Pa
2 9
F AB 60 kN compressio n 300 10
6
m
D 0 . 300 mm
2 - 11
Cont.
Displacement of D:
BB BH
DD HD
0 . 514 mm 200 mm x
0.300 mm x
x 73 . 7 mm
EE HE
DD HD
E 400 73 . 7 mm
0 . 300 mm 73 . 7 mm
E 1 . 928 mm
E 1 . 928 mm
2 - 12
Static Indeterminacy
Structures for which internal forces and reactions
cannot be determined from statics alone are said
to be statically indeterminate.
2 - 13
Example
Determine the reactions at A and B for the steel
bar and loading shown, assuming a close fit at
both supports before the loads are applied.
SOLUTION:
Consider the reaction at B as redundant, release
the bar from that support, and solve for the
displacement at B due to the applied loads.
6 2 6 2
A1 A 2 400 10 m A 3 A 4 250 10 m
L1 L 2 L 3 L 4 0 . 150 m
9
Pi L i 1 . 125 10
L
i Ai E i E
6 2 6 2
A1 400 10 m A 2 250 10 m
L1 L 2 0 . 300 m
R
Pi L i
1 . 95 10 R B
3
i Ai E i E
2 - 15
Cont.
Require that the displacements due to the loads and due to
the redundant reaction be compatible,
L R 0
1 . 125 10
9
1 . 95 10 R B
3
0
E E
3
R B 577 10 N 577 kN
R A 323 kN
R A 323 kN
R B 577 kN
2 - 16
Thermal Stresses
A temperature change results in a change in length or
thermal strain. There is no stress associated with the
thermal strain unless the elongation is restrained by
the supports.
Treat the additional support as redundant and apply
the principle of superposition.
PL
T T L P
AE
thermal expansion coef.
2 - 17
Poissons Ratio
For a homogeneous slender bar subjected to axial loading, the resulting stress
and strain satisfy Hookes law.
x
x
y z 0
E
y z 0
lateral strain y
z
axial strain x x
2 - 18
Multi axial loading & Generalized Hookes Law
For an element subjected to multi-axial loading, the
normal strain components resulting from the stress
components may be determined from the principle of
superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small
y
x
x
z
E E E
y
x
y
z
E E E
y
x
z
z
E E E
2 - 19
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus
x
y
z
1 2
x
y
z
E
The quantity e represents the change in
volu me per unit volum e dilatation
For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,
P, each of the stress components is equal to P & :
3 1 2 p
e p
E k
E
k bulk modulus /modulus of compressio n of the material.
3 1 2
xy f xy
2 - 21