Stewart Postharvest Review

An international journal for reviews in postharvest biology and technology

Changes in colour during high pressure processing of fruits and vegetables

Jasim Ahmed and Hosahalli S Ramaswamy

Department of Food Science & Agricultural Chemistry, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Ste
Anne de Bellevue H9X 3V9, Canada.

Abstract
Purpose of review: High pressure processing (HPP) is one of the innovative processing technologies applied to food materials for
inactivating microorganisms and retaining quality at the highest level. HPP has been commercially used for some premium foods and
the process is gradually gaining momentum in the food industry. Food quality and consumer acceptance remain the key issues for the
success of any process and it applies to HPP as well. Colour is the first quality attribute of processed food and, therefore, this paper
critically reviews the information available on colour changes in high-pressure processed fruits and vegetables and their products.
Main findings: HPP has been established as a processing technology with better quality retention for fruit and vegetable products.
Generally, pigments are not affected by HPP, while the visual colour is most predominantly affected for foods rich in proteins and car-
bohydrates. The colour pigments (especially chlorophyll) in some green vegetables are affected by HPP in a similar way as with ther-
mal processing, although other products show good retention of colour. However, colour-degrading enzymes in fruits and vegetables
can be activated or inactivated by HPP, which may affect product colour. Products at a high pH require elevated temperature (60
70oC) in addition to high pressure (400800 MPa) for complete inactivation of enzymes and microbial spores, in order to achieve shelf-
stability and retain good colour.
Directions for future research: Synergistic effects among pressure, temperature and other variables on fruit and vegetable products
should be evaluated to ensure product safety and stabilise product quality. Future research should focus on inactivation of enzymes in
fruits and vegetables, which is a challenge to fruit and vegetable industry. In addition, emphasis should be placed on product safety
with minimum quality losses in order for HPP to be recognised as one of the best emerging technologies and substitutes to thermal
processing. High pressure extraction could be another technique for separation of heat-sensitive pigments and flavonoids from plants
and herbs.

Keywords: High pressure processing; colour; pigments; fruits and vegetables; storage

Abbreviations Introduction
BI Browning Index From processors to consumers, food safety is a major con-
cern throughout the world. Sensory characteristics (eg, col-
CIE The Commision Internationale de lEclairage our, flavour and texture) are the most important quality at-
HPP High Pressure Processing tributes of food products. A food manufacturers goal is to
develop and implement processing technologies that retain
desirable sensory qualities or minimise undesirable changes
Correspondence to: Jasim Ahmed or Hosahalli S Ramas- in food during processing. Conventional thermal processing
wamy, Department of Food Science & Agricultural Chemis- has made food safer however, quality losses (nutrients and
try, Macdonald Campus of McGill University, 21111 Lake- colour) are significantly high. In addition, thermal process-
shore Road, Ste Anne de Bellevue H9X 3V9, Canada. Tele- ing involves extensive, slow heat penetration to the centre
phone: 514-398-7919; Fax: 514-398-7977; (cold point) of the product and subsequent slow cooling.
email: jasim.ahmed@mcgill.ca Various novel technologies (high pressure, pulsed electric
email: hosahalli.ramaswamy@mcgill.ca field, ohmic heating, high electric field, ultrasound, etc)
have been developed and evaluated by food scientists for
Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9 their potential to substitute thermal processing. Among
Published online 01 October 2006 these, high pressure processing (HPP) has emerged as one of
doi: 10.2212/spr.2006.5.9 the best technologies with a lot of potential for commerciali-

2006 Stewart Postharvest Solutions (UK) Ltd.

Ahmed and Ramaswamy / Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9
sation. In the recent Institute of Food Technology meeting in
Orlando in June 2006, individuals from food-related fields
showed overwhelming interest in HPP. The use of HPP as a
food preservation technique has gained momentum through-
out the world as an alternative to traditional heat-based proc-
essing methods. The major limitation of the technology is
cost and, therefore, the technology is predominantly found in
developed countries.
Bert Hite started HPP a century ago to pasteurise milk and
other beverages. In 1899, Hite reported that treatment at pres-
sures of 450 MPa or greater could improve the keeping qual-
ity of milk [1]. However, its application and potential have
only recently been widely recognised. In Japan, the technical
and scientific knowledge about the technology improved
significantly, leading to the commercial application of the
technology for the preservation of products such as fruit
juices, salad dressings, sauces, seafood, jams and jellies [2*].
Interestingly, the first high-pressure processed food marketed
in Japan was fruit jam. Presently, various pressure-treated
foods are available in the European and the North American
markets including fruit juices, jams, vegetables, milk, yogurt,
cheese, fish, pork and beef products. Non-thermal pasteurisa-
tion using high pressure is thought to extend shelf-life, guar-
antee safety and maintain fresh quality [3].
During the last decade, numerous articles have been pub-
lished on the principle, mechanism and applications of HPP.
Much of the research regarding the use of HPP for food pres-
ervation has concerned the inactivation of micro-organisms
and pressure stability of food enzymes. However, modifica-
tion of food constituents (protein and starches) are now also
beginning to attract increasing attention from processors.
Enzyme inactivation during high pressure treatment is mainly
due to the denaturation of proteins. It is now established that
HPP is capable of pasteurising food products. Although some
studies have reported the use of high pressure to achieve ste-
rility in low-acid foods (using repeated processes of pressuri-
sation and depressurisation), the major challenge to food sci-
entists today is food sterilisation through the application of
HPP, alone or in combination with other techniques [2*, 4].
In this review, emphasis is given to the effect of HPP on the
colour and pigments of fruit and vegetable products. In a
recent review [5**], we have described the principle and
changes in quality attributes of fruits and vegetables during
HPP.
High pressure treatment of food
The food product to be treated at high pressure is packaged in
a flexible container and placed inside a pressure vessel sub-
merged in liquid medium (mostly water), which transmits the
pressure. The effect of HPP are uniform and nearly instanta-
neous throughout the food and, thus, independent of food
geometry and equipment size. Once the desired pressure is
achieved, the pump or piston is stopped, the valves are closed
and the pressure can be maintained without further energy
input. After the required hold time has elapsed, the system is
depressurised, the vessel opened and the product taken out.
During pressurisation, the temperature of the product in-
creases by about 3oC/100 MPa due to compression heat. The
total time for pressurisation, holding and depressurisation is
termed the cycle time or pulse.
Importance of colour and pigment
Colour is an important quality attribute of food products. It is
perceived as part of the total appearance, which is the visual
recognition and assessment of the surface and subsurface
properties of the object. A good colour represents freshness
of a fruit or vegetable, while discoloration is undesirable to
consumers. From a consumer point of view, colour and fla-
vour are interrelated whereas, these two quality attributes are
dissimilar. Colour may be influenced by several factors in-
cluding handling, transportation, processing, storage, packag-
ing, etc. The colour of processed fruits and vegetables such
as tomato ketchup or canned pineapple has been shown to be
influenced by process temperature, time and pH, and signifi-
cantly by added ingredients. It is desirable to maintain uni-
form process parameters and ingredients in order to obtain
manufacture uniform quality.
The colour/pigment of fruits and vegetables
The colour of most green fruits and vegetables is due to the
presence of the pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll pigments
have been the subject of extensive research because of their
prominent function in plant physiology, and reviews on the
distribution, chemistry and synthesis of chlorophyll are avail-
able in literature. Both chlorophyll a and b are the derivatives
of dihydroporphyrin chelated with a centrally located magne-
sium atom and they occur in an approximate ratio of 3:1 [6*].
Structurally, the only difference between chlorophyll a and b
is in the C-3 atom where the former contains a methyl group
and the later contains a formyl group. Both pigments contain
an isocyclic ring, but differ in perceived colour and thermal
stability. The central magnesium atom is easily replaced by
hydrogen, forming pheophytins under various conditions.
Chlorophyll degradation involves the loss of phytol to form
chlorophyllide, loss of Mg2+ to form pheophytin, loss of Mg2+
and phytol to form pheophorbide, and the loss of Mg2+ and
the carbomethoxy group to form pyropheophytin [7*]. The
most common change that occurs in green vegetables during
processing is the conversion of chlorophyll to pheophytins,
causing a colour change from bright green to olive-brown
that is undesirable for consumer acceptability [8*9].
The colour of many fruits and vegetables varies from yellow
to orange or reddish-orange. The pigments responsible for the
attractive colour are the carotenoids. Carotenoids are com-
prised of two structural groups, hydrocarbon carotenes and
oxygenated xanthophylls. The basic carotenoid structural
backbone consists of isoprene units linked covalently to cre-
ate a symmetrical molecule. The red or yellow colour of
fruits and vegetables is due to the presence of various pig-
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Ahmed and Ramaswamy / Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9
ments like -carotene, -carotene, cryptoxanthin, cryotoxan-
thin monoepoxide, lycopene, and an unresolved mixture of
pigments. Carotenoids are heat stable in systems with mini-
mum oxygen content. The attractive red colour of tomato is
contributed by lycopene, a water-insoluble carotenoid, has
studied extensively due to high consumption of tomato prod-
ucts, especially ketchup.
Anthocyanin, another important natural pigment, is responsi-
ble for most of the orange, red and blue colours of flowers,
fruits and vegetables. The colour of anthocyanin-containing
media depends on the structure and concentration of the pig-
ment, pH, temperature, light, co-pigments, enzymes, oxygen,
metallic ions, sulphur dioxide, sugar, etc. The hydroxyl group
at C-3 is highly significant because it shifts the colour from
yellow-orange to red.
Colour/pigment measurement
Colour measurement is generally done by visually and varies
widely. An instrumental measurement records the physical
stimuli in terms of how the eye sees the colour. The measure-
ment can be carried out by spectrophotometry, tristimulus
colourimetry and visual colourimetry. Instrumental measure-
ments are carried out with a standard or different arrange-
ment of standard source, test sample and photo-detector.
Tristimulus colourimetry has been accepted as the best and
simplest instrumental method for specifying visual percep-
tion of food products. The Munsell colour disc was the first
one to measure food colour using three-dimensional specifi-
cations based on hue [red (R), green (G) and blue (B)],
L value (lightness or darkness) and chroma (purity or inten-
sity of colour). In 1931, the Commision Internationale de
lEclairage (CIE) decided that three unreal primary tristimu-
lus values (X, Y and Z) should be used for the description of
colour. Another common set of scales was developed by
Hunter in 1942 and is widely used for specifying the food
colour more precisely. All conversions of Hunter colour val-
ues and CIE scales are calculated within the instruments, so
that direct read-outs are obtained. Hunter colour values are
represented in terms of L, a and b values and these values are
easy to convert to the CIE scale. The axes L, a, b are mutu-
ally perpendicular. The L value signifies the lightness (100
for white and 0 for black), the a value represents greenness
and redness (80 for green and 100 for red) while b value
signifies change from blueness to yellowness (80 for blue
and 70 for yellow). An increase in magnitude of the negative
value of a represents an increase in the green component of a
colour, while an increase in the positive a value reflects an
increase in the red component. An increase in magnitude of
the negative b value corresponds to an increase in blue com-
ponent and an increase in the positive b value corresponds to
an increase in the yellow component. Similarly, a decrease in
the L value signifies darkening of the food materials. Neutral
colours are represented by a = b = 0.
A numerical total colour difference (E) technique has also
been used to represent the colour of food products during
processing and storage. E is the square root of the sum of
the squares of the differences in each axis and is represented
as:
E = [(L-Lref)2 + (a-aref)2 + (b-bref)2 ]0.5
Controls are considered as the reference samples. E gener-
ates a single value that can sometimes be helpful to compare
the products and its acceptability.
Tristimulus colourimetry has been widely used in the food
processing industry due to its simplicity, easy handling, re-
peatability and instant colour measurement. It also guides the
quality controller to make consistent products. Tristimulus
colour values represent colour in three parameters, and proc-
essors can choose the scale in terms of a/b, a or b values,
depending on the colour of the product and pigments. For
example orange, tomato and paprika processing industries
prefer use the a/b value. Various combinations of L, a and b
such Lab, ab, La/b, a, etc have been used to predict colour
changes and degradation kinetics during processing of fruit
and vegetable puree [10**, 11*13*]. The colour data col-
lected is very important, provided the necessary steps have
been taken to ensure the numbers are repeatable. A sound
colour measurement program must be documented and fol-
lowed properly. To make it precise various factors must be
controlled. These factors include light source, angle of meas-
urement, the direction of light which falls on the sample, the
spacing of sample and light source, the colour standard and
the observer's personal aptitude.
Effects of high pressure on the colour/pigment
of fruit and vegetable products
HPP has been commercially applied to a wide range of fruit
and vegetable products. The main applications are for fruit
and vegetable juices, jams, fruit sauce, jelly and smoothies
[14]. The effect of high pressure on colour and pigment
changes in various fruits and vegetables have been reported
in literature. However, little information is available with
regard to pigments or colour as a function of pressure or time
(pressure kinetics). Since HPP can change the colour of dia-
mond, colour change of food materials in a high pressure
system is expected [15]. Most of the studies reported were as
a part of quality assessment studies of pressure treated fruits,
and vegetable puree or juice. High pressure treatment was
found to be less detrimental than thermal processes to low
molecular weight food compounds like pigments, as covalent
bonds are not affected by pressure [16]. Major findings of
colour/pigment changes during HPP of fruits and vegetables
are presented in two separate sections below.
Fruits
Majority of the studies on the colour/pigment of fruits has
demonstrated that insignificant changes occur during HPP,
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Ahmed and Ramaswamy / Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9

Table 1. Effect of high pressure on the colour/pigment of some selected fruit products.

Commodity Colour and Pressure/temperature Major observation Reference

Pigment and time

Banana puree Colour 500700 MPa, 21oC, High pressure treatment preserved the initial colour of banana [17]
10 min purees; pressure at 689 MPa reduced browning rate signifi-
cantly.

Orange, carrot and Carotenoids 1400 MPa Slight increase of carotenoids in mixed juice and insignificant [18]
lemon mixed juice decrease in tomato juice.

Destoned lychee Colour 200600 MPa, L value of pressurised lychee increased with pressure while [19]
2060oC, 1020 min greenness (a) increased and b value decreased

Fresh mango pulp Colour 100400 MPa, 20oC, Quality parameters remained almost constant indicating minimal [20]
1530 min effect on pigments. Total colour difference (E) decreased with
pressure intensity, while treatment time had no effect

Strawberry juice Colour 300700 MPa, 65oC, A maximum increase of 8.8% in La/b parameter was found for [21]
60 min strawberry samples under combined thermal and high pressure
treatment

Guava puree Colour of juice 400600 MPa, 25oC, Pressurised guava puree appeared with the original colour simi- [22]
stored at 4oC 15 min lar to freshly extracted puree

Strawberry jam Anthocyanin 400 MPa, 25oC, An increase in pectin concentration and decreased [23]
during storage 5 min anthocyanin content during storage

Orange juice Colour 600 MPa, 40oC, High pressure treatment led to lower rates of colour change [24]
4 min compared with thermal pasteurisation at all storage temperatures
studied, except at 30oC

Orange juice Colour of 400 MPa, 25oC, (L and a) for both single strength and concentrated juices [26]
stored juice 15 min showed insignificant difference during storage at 4oC for
56 days

whereas a decrease in colour/pigment is reported during stor-
age. A brief summary of colour changes of selected fruits
during HPP is presented in Table 1.
Palou et al. [17] studied the colour of high pressure treated
banana puree and found that treatment preserved the initial
colour of the puree. Butz et al. [18*] reported the ultra high
pressure treatment or various fruit juices individually and in
combination (oranges, apples, peaches, mixed citrus juices,
carrots, tomatoes, and frozen raspberries) and found that
there were no significant differences in carotenoid content
between the pressure-treated and the control samples. How-
ever, there are some studies which report some interesting
changes. Phunchaisri and Apichartsrangkoon [19*] evaluated
the possibility of using high pressure as an alternative to can-
ning for lychee preservation. With respect to colour, it is in-
teresting to note that when applied at 20oC for 20 min, pres-
sures of up to 600 MPa had an insignificant effect. The L
value increased from 53.9 in the untreated sample to 58.2 in
samples treated at 600 MPa. At 60oC, the L value increased
significantly even at 200 MPa (to 62.2) but then changed
little (to 68.0) on further increasing the pressure. However,
no significant difference was observed between treatment
times of 10 min and 20 min. Increasing the pressure, at both
20oC and 60oC caused a decrease in the colour a value, indi-
cating that pressure may be an effective means of minimising
the pink discoloration commonly observed in lychees. The
colour b value in the pressurised samples changed insignifi-
cantly when treated at mild temperatures (2060oC) and high
pressures (200600 MPa) for 20 min, although treatment at
60oC increased the value. This study reveals that, compared
with thermal processing, high pressure treatment causes
minimum loss of colour in both fresh and syrup lychees.
Ahmed et al. [20*] observed that the tristimulus colour pa-
rameters (L, a and b) of mango pulp did not change signifi-
cantly during HPP. The quality parameters (a/b), chroma, and
hue remained almost constant indicating the minimal effect
of HPP on pigments. Chroma is represented by:
C = a2 + b2
Hue is represented by:
h = tan 1 (b / a)
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Ahmed and Ramaswamy / Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9
The total colour difference (E), which takes into account the
evolution of the three colour parameters, decreased slightly
with an increase in pressure intensity with fresh pulp. Higher
pressures decreased the magnitude of E, while the treatment
time had no effect.
A combination of high hydrostatic pressure (300700 MPa)
and thermal treatment (at 65oC for 60 min) have been applied
to strawberry juice and it was found that colour combination
values (La/b) insignificantly differed from each other at pH
2.5 and up to 700 MPa [21]. However, pH-modified (3.7 and
5) strawberry samples exhibited significant degradation of
colour combination values even at 300500 MPa. These dif-
ferences are mainly attributed to colour a parameter that
changes significantly with pressure.
Changes in high pressure-treated fruit products during
storage
Storage of products treated with high pressure predicts the
stability of the food at selected temperatures. Under-
processed foods commonly show colour/pigment losses that
finally lead products to unacceptable to the consumers. Thus,
stability of colour/pigment during storage plays a significant
role in determining the acceptability of the process. Yen and
Lin [22] studied the changes in colour parameters of guava
puree (prepared with HPP treatments) during storage at 4oC.
The results indicated that pressurised guava puree has a col-
our similar to the freshly extracted puree. Puree samples
treated with 600 MPa were more stable in terms of Hunter L,
a and b values with a lower chlorophyll degradation rate dur-
ing storage.
HPP has been applied to the manufacture strawberry jam
[23*]. Samples were studied with respect to their colour pa-
rameters to establish a correlation between pectin content and
colour during 7 weeks of storage. Pectin contents varied from
0.1% to 10% (w/w) while processing parameters (400 MPa
for 5 min at 25oC) remained constant throughout the process.
Colour measurement was carried out on the basis of the red
pigment anthocyanin. After 3 weeks of producing strawberry
jams, a significant difference in absorbance was noticed in
the samples. Jam containing 0.1% pectin exhibited minimum
loss in colour, indicating that anthocyanins were not de-
graded rapidly, while jam containing 0.5% pectin showed
higher loss of colour. With a further increase in pectin con-
centration (2.5% w/w), a significant decrease in absorbance
was noticed. This could be explained on the basis that there is
interaction between pectin and colour pigments of straw-
berry, since there was a positive relationship between colour
loss and an increase in pectin concentration. A small increase
in absorbance of jam in the 4th week storage indicated po-
lymerisation or co-pigmentation of anthocyanins with them-
selves and other co-pigments.
Polydera et al. [24] compared the colour (in terms of chroma
value C) between high pressure treated and thermally pas-
teurised orange juice as a function of storage temperature
030oC. The change of colour during storage was found to
follow first-order kinetics for both treatments. At all storage
temperatures studied, excepting at 30oC, HPP treatment led
to a lower rate of colour change compared with thermal pas-
teurisation. Increasing the storage temperature resulted in
higher rates of browning of orange juice. The effect of stor-
age temperature on the browning rate was described ade-
quately by Arrhenius kinetics for both high pressure treated
and thermally treated orange juice. The respective activation
energy values were determined as 78.6 kJ/mol and 62.4 kJ/
mol, respectively. The high activation energy for high
pressure-treated juice indicated greater temperature sensitiv-
ity of the browning rate compared with that of thermally pas-
teurised juice. The percent colour change of both high pres-
sure treated and thermally treated orange juice at different
temperature and time storage conditions was found to corre-
late linearly with the corresponding percent ascorbic acid
loss.
Bull et al. [25] compared the colour of high pressure-
processed Valencia and Navel orange juices with that of fresh
and thermally pasteurised juices. It was found that the colour
of the juices was not significantly affected by HPP, while
others methods affected the colour significantly. Basak [26]
also studied colour change of high pressure-treated
(400 MPa) single strength and concentrated orange juice
stored at selected temperatures. The study revealed that tris-
timulus colour values (L and a) for both single strength and
concentrated juices stored at 4oC up to 56 days were insig-
nificantly different.
The colour values of high pressure-treated fresh mango juices
during storage (at 4oC, 12oC and 20oC) for 60 days indicated
that rate constants associated with colour parameters in-
creased with an increase in storage temperature [27*]. A
pressure level of 550 MPa produced shelf-stable products
after 60 days storage and the colour parameters were found to
be independent of storage temperature.
Colour change of high pressure-treated banana puree during
storage was presented in terms of browning index (BI) which
was calculated as the difference between the initial BI and
the BI at selected times during storage [17*]. For BI changes
in blanched-HPP treated banana purees during storage at
25C, the induction period (BI> 0) was found to depend on
blanching time and application of HPP treatment. After the
induction period, BI was linear with a positive slope, until BI
was 4647. Considering the linear portion of increasing BI, a
linear regression of BI versus time was performed for each
treatment to calculate browning rates (BI/day). The colour
changes during storage of banana purees confirmed that re-
sidual polyphenol oxidase activity results in enzymatic
browning of banana puree. High-pressure treatment at
689 MPa for 10 min reduced banana puree browning rates
significantly (P<0.05) compared with high-pressure treat-
ments at 517 MPa for 10 min, or no pressure treatment.
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Table 2. Effect of high pressure on the colour/pigment of some selected vegetable products.

Commodity Colour and pigment Pressure/ Major observation Reference

temperature and
time

Tomato juice Carotenoids 1400 MPa An insignificant decrease in the colour of tomato juice [24]

Broccoli juice Colour 800 MPa, 50C, A pressure treatment that only resulted in about 10% [29]
50 min greenness loss

Carrot juice Pigment (carotenoids) 300 MPa, 50oC Highest stability of carotenes: 68.9% of - and 49.0% [34]
of -carotene

Carambola slices Colour value 800 MPa, <40oC, Maintained the best colour (highest L) of all samples [35]
3 min
Tomato puree Colour values and 300700 MPa, High pressure and high temperature tristimulus a value [36]
lycopene content 2090oC exhibited highest magnitude, whereas an increase in
lycopene content was observed

Green beans Colour values 1000 MPa, 75oC, Colour values L and b decreased while a value in- [32]
80 s, second pulse creased significantly during HP treatment. More in-
at 1000 MPa tense green colour on the surface

Potato cubes Digital picture and 250 MPa, Pressure-shift freezing showed the lowest extent of [37]
colour values 27oC, 24 h browning. Freezing and thawing at 320 MPa showed a
slightly decreased browning compared with conven-
tional freezing and thawing

Tomato puree Colour 300700 MPa, No colour degradation of tomato appeared under com- [21]
60 min, 65oC bined thermal and high pressure treatment

Vegetables slightly accelerated by an increase in pressure. At higher deg-

Table 2 shows colour and pigment changes of some vegeta-
bles after HPP. Weemeas et al. [28] studied the effects of
pressure and temperature on chlorophyll degradation in a
broccoli-extract. The authors found a significant reductions
of chlorophyll when pressure was combined with tempera-
tures higher than 50oC. In another study, Weemeas et al.
[29**] investigated pressure-temperature degradation kinet-
ics of broccoli juice greenness (both colour and chlorophyll).
The pressure and temperature used in the study were
0.1850 MPa and 3090C, respectively. No significant re-
duction of green colour was observed at pressures of
800 MPa and at temperature ranges of 3040C. At room
temperature, chlorophyll was pressure stable, as has been
noted for carotene, annato, anthocyanins and hibiscus extract
[30]. Application of pressure at elevated temperatures
(5060C) led to degradation of green colour.
Green colour degradation of broccoli juice was described by
a two-step kinetic model. The degradation rate constants for
the second degradation step (k2) were near zero, indicating
that at these temperatures, pyropheophytinisation was negli-
gible. At higher temperatures (7080C) in combination with
pressure (0.1 to 850 MPa), pheophytin as well as subsequent
pyropheophytin formation occurred. The degradation rate
constants at atmospheric and elevated pressures indicated that
the conversion of chlorophyll to pheophytin at 70C was
radation temperatures, a distinct increase of the pheophytin
formation rate constant with increasing pressure was ob-
served. However, a pressure increase above 500 MPa did not
seem to result in further enhancement of the rate constant for
pheophytin formation. Pyropheophytin formation was ob-
served at pressures of 300500 MPa, while degradation of
pheophytin was noticed at higher pressures. It was concluded
from the pressure-temperature kinetic data for pheophytin
degradation and chlorophyll to pheophytin conversion that
the degradation steps were influenced by pressure in different
ways.
Fernandez-Garcia et al. [31] studied high pressure-assisted
carotenoid extraction of tomato puree. HPP of tomato ho-
mogenate did not lead to changes in the absolute concentra-
tion of the measured carotenoids. However, pressure applica-
tion resulted in reduced extractability of the carotenoids, pos-
sibly due to higher exposure to hydrophilic surroundings that
result from pressure-induced structural changes in the matrix,
thus, forming a barrier around carotenoid-containing materi-
als. These structural changes also resulted in enhanced bind-
ing of hydrophilic substances (like water or glucose).
Krebbers et al. [32*] studied the colour changes (tristimulus
colour L, a and b values) of green beans after high pressure
treatment and during storage (colour a value) and compared
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Ahmed and Ramaswamy / Stewart Postharvest Review 2006, 5:9
the results with conventional treatment. This study shows that
Hunter L, a and b values of HPP were similar in mildly heat-
treated beans. Application of high pressures (100800 MPa)
causes permeabilisation of plant and microbial cells [33*],
which damages the chloroplasts and results in leakage of
chlorophyll into the intercellular space. This phenomenon is
probably the cause of the (initial) more intense bright green
colour on the surface of the high pressure-treated beans.
Rodrigo et al. [21] studied the effect of a combined high hy-
drostatic pressure (300700 MPa) and thermal treatment
(65oC for 60 min) on tomato puree. No significant differ-
ences (P>0.05) were observed in the colour combination
value La/b between the control (sample after equilibration
period) and those treated at 700 MPa.
Changes in high pressure-treated vegetable products dur-
ing storage
Storage of high pressure-treated green beans significantly
affected colour values. The green colour (a value) of both
raw and high pressure-treated beans gradually decreased and
turned into a pale yellow/green colour during storage [32].
High pressure-treated beans were more uniformly discol-
oured compared with raw beans, but had an unacceptable
appearance after 1 month of storage at 6oC. Negative effects
on the colour after high pressure treatment were probably
induced by residual activity of enzymes such as lipoxy-
genase, peroxidase or chlorophyllase.
During shelf-life studies of high pressure-processed carrot
juice, Park et al. [38] reported that the HPP conditions at
400 MPa and 25C for 5 min were the best for industrial use.
The colour parameters of carrot juice showed statistically
insignificant changes during 4 weeks of storage at 4C.
Enzymes, HPP and colour changes of fruits and
vegetables
This review remains incomplete without mentioning the role
of enzymes that cause colour changes in fruits and vegeta-
bles. Enzymes play a major role in colour changes in fruit
and vegetable products during processing and storage. Appli-
cation of pressure and a combination of pressure and tem-
perature have been applied to inactivate enzymes (pectin
methyl esterase, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, lipoxy-
genase, etc) that affect product colour. However, HPP studies
on enzymes indicate notable reductions in initial enzyme
activity in a few cases, whereas some reports are available on
enhancement of enzyme activity after pressurisation. These
studies led to mixed reports of colour/pigment and browning
of high pressure-treated fruit and vegetable products.
The effects of HPP on enzymes depend on type of enzyme,
nature of substrates, pressure, temperature and time of proc-
essing, whereas the pressure requirement strongly depends on
the enzyme. Some enzymes can be deactivated at room tem-
perature by a few hundred MPa, while others can remain
unaffected at 1,000 MPa. Because of the extreme pressure
stability of some food quality enzymes, combined processes
(pressure and temperature) might be necessary for enzyme
inactivation at industrially relevant pressures. There is no
scope in this review to elaborate on enzyme inactivation lead-
ing to colour change/browning of fruits and vegetables. The
effect of HPP on enzymes related to food quality has been
well reviewed by Hendrickx et al. [39*]. Enzyme inactiva-
tion kinetics by HPP and HPP/temperature was studied in
terms of pressure and temperature. From isobaric or isother-
mal inactivation experiments, inactivation rate constants were
determined for various combinations and predicted possible
synergistic and antagonistic effects of pressure and tempera-
ture on enzymes related to colour or browning. Most of the
kinetic data was calculated based on the first-order fractional
conversion technique:
A = A + ( Ao A ) exp(kt )
Where Ao and A are the enzyme activities at time zero and t,
respectively, and A represents enzyme concentration at
equilibrium.
Conclusions
In conclusion, HPP has proven to be an effective technology
to retain fruit and vegetable colour/pigment during process-
ing and storage, which is contrary to conventional thermal
processing. The effect of high pressure sterilisation on colour
is strongly product dependent. The process is very effective
for retaining the colour/pigment of fruit products during
processing and storage. However, some chlorophyll-
containing green products are affected in a similar way as
with retort and, therefore, more research is needed to focus
on minimising colour/pigment losses of green vegetables,
especially at higher pressure levels that are also desirable for
inactivation of enzymes. Furthermore, combination of other
systems and process parameters could reduce degradation of
green pigments.
Today, high pressure food processing is being used on an
ever-increasing commercial basis. Opportunities clearly exist
for innovative applications and new food product develop-
ment. There are more opportunities to exploit the technology
for fruit and vegetable processing, especially extraction of
heat-sensitive essential components (colour and flavour) of
plants and herbs. Herbal extracts may be used as drugs, as
well as ingredients in food and cosmetics which also increase
economic feasibility of expensive HPP equipments.
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