ChE 2412

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY I

FLUID MECHANICS LAB MANUAL

WINTER 2017

Chibante
Experiment 1: Fluid Flow Meters

Purpose

To determine the loss coefficients (K) for a venturi and orifice meter.
To determine how the loss coefficients (K) vary with Reynolds number for the
venturi and orifice meter.
To demonstrate the use of and how to calibrate a rotameter.
To compare the three methods of flow measurement.

Theory

The orifice meter, venturi and rotameter are all common devices for measuring flow rate
through a pipe. For the venture and orifice meters, a flow restriction in the pipe causes
increased friction losses and an enhanced pressure drop, which is easily measureable.
With known dimensions of the pipe and the restriction, the pressure drop may be related
to the flow rate in the pipe through the continuity equation and the energy equation.

continuity equation: 1v1A1 2v 2 A 2

p1 v2 p v2
energy equation: z1 1 2 z2 2 hL
1g 2g 2g 2g

The rotameter operates on a different principle. The flow area changes as a float is
carried by the force of the fluid in the meter while the pressure drop remains constant.
The position of the float in the tube is calibrated to be a direct indication of the flow rate
through the system.

In general, the best flow measurement device is one which results in an accurate
measurement of flow rate with a small loss of energy (pressure drop).

Venturi Meter

A venturi is pipe restriction with a known, gradual taper to a minimum flow area
followed by a gradual expansion back to the original pipe diameter. Pressure taps are
used to measure the pressure difference between the upstream and the neck of the device.
Applying the energy and continuity equations to this situation leads to the theoretical
discharge equation for a venturi meter:
 2g h1 h2
Q K A2
1 A 2 A1
2

where: Q = volumetric flowrate (m3/s)

K = venturi meter discharge coefficient
A1, A2 = area upstream and at the throat of the venturi (m2)
h1, h2 = pressure heads upstream and at the throat of the venturi (m)

Orifice Meter

An orifice meter uses a restriction of known diameter (area) in the pipe, which induces a
pressure loss due to fluid friction. Pressure taps on the upstream and downstream side of
the orifice are used to measure the pressure differential and the continuity and energy
equations are applied in a similar manner to the venturi meter. The pressure taps are
generally located in one of two possible arrangements, which will give a different value
of the loss coefficient (K):

Flange taps these are located on the flange and are tapped just upstream and
downstream of the orifice.
Vena-contracta taps these are typically located one pipe diameter upstream and
a half pipe diameter downstream of the orifice.

2g h1 h2
Q K A0
1 A 0 A1
2

where: Q = volumetric flowrate (m3/s)

K = orifice meter discharge coefficient
A0, A1 = area of the orifice opening and the upstream pipe (m2)
h1, h2 = pressure heads upstream and at the throat of the venturi (m)

Rotameter

The rotameter consists of a float in a slightly conical conduit. As the fluid flow rate
increases, the float rises in the conduit until the dynamic force of the fluid balances the
gravitational force acting on the float. The height of the float in the conduit is directly
related to the fluid flow rate.
Apparatus

A venturi meter, orifice and rotameter are all connected in series. Water is held in a
reservoir, pumped through the system and collected in a cantilever catch basin. Pressure
taps are located at various locations in the circuit and are connected to a common header
so act as manometers.

Procedure

1. Sketch the apparatus with all pertinent dimensions. Identify all pressure taps.
2. Start the pump to initiate flow through the flow meters. Remove all the air from
the piezometers by opening the valve at the top of the manifold.
3. Allow the maximum flow to take place with a reading on the rotameter of around
27 cm.
4. Record the height for each of the first eight piezometers for conditions of steady
flow.
5. Read the scale on the rotameter corresponding with the top of the float.
6. Determine the temperature of the water in the reservoir.
7. Determine the time for a given quantity of water to pass through the system via
the cantilever weight system.
8. Repeat the above procedure for a series of flow rates making about 75% of the
flow rates below 10 cm on the rotameter.

Reports

1. Provide a diagram of each of the measuring devices.

2. Report all data collected in appropriate figures or tables.
3. Determine the actual flow rate for each trial based on the bucket-&-stopwatch
technique.
4. Calculate the ideal flow rate measured from the venturi and orifice meters.
5. Calculate the loss coefficients for the venturi and orifice meters.
6. Calculate the approach Reynolds number for the venturi and orifice meters.
7. Plot the loss coefficients as a function of Reynolds number for the venturi and
orifice meter. Note: Re is usually presented on a logarithmic scale.
8. Plot the calibration curve for the rotameter.
9. Discuss your results and give appropriate conclusions.
Experiment 2: Pump Characteristics

Purpose

To determine and compare the head versus flow characteristics, the water and break
horsepower and the efficiency for centrifugal pumps operating alone, in series and in
parallel.

Theory

The chemical process industry makes extensive use of pumps and piping networks for
fluid transportation. The selection of a suitable type of pump for a particular application
requires knowledge of its head-flow characteristics. Although the centrifugal pump is
widely used, other pumps may be better suited for a particular application, depending on
the in-service requirements. The characteristic curve or pump curve is an illustrative
way of selecting and sizing a pump for the application at hand.

Ideally, the power required to pump a fluid is given by the product of the fluid flow rate
and the pressure differential (head) between the suction and discharge of the pump.

Pideal Q p g H Q

Where: Pideal = ideal power required (water horsepower) (Watts)

Q = fluid volumetric flow rate (m3/s)
= fluid density (kg/m3)
H = pressure differential (head) across the pump (m)

For incompressible liquids, the effect of pressure on the fluids density is small, thus we
would expect an inverse relationship between head and flow rate. So, for a constant
power input to the pump, the flow rate of fluid delivered will be inversely proportional to
the pressure head that it is pumping against (ie. if the pressure head goes up, the flow rate
goes down).

In reality, fluid friction and turbulence in the pump cause head/flow losses and the entire
electrical energy delivered to the pumps motor can not be converted to energy in the
fluid. Pump efficiency is defined as the ratio of the ideal power required to pump a given
amount of fluid against a specific pressure head (water horsepower) to the actual power
required (break horsepower).

Pideal

Pactual
Procedure

Single Pump:
1. Inspect the rig and prepare a diagram showing the pumps, flow meters, valves and
pipe work.
2. Inspect the instrumentation. Note the connections of the pressure gauges and the
pressure taps arrangement.
3. Select the pump A and an operating speed of 1750 rpm.

4. At each of 6 flow rates record:

i) the Venturi differential (mm Hg)
ii) the discharge pressure head (m)
iii) the suction pressure head (m)
iv) the brake load (digital readout) (N)
v) the pump speed (rpm)
The flow rate can be calculating using the equation:

Q 3.625 *10 4 hV m3/s

where hV = Venturi head differential (in mm of Hg)

Pumps in Parallel or Series:

5. Configure the apparatus such that the two pumps are in parallel and running at
1750 rpm.

6. Compare the static head readings for both the suction and discharge on the two
pumps and calculate the flow rate. Compare this flow rate to your single pump
data with the same static head difference.

7. Configure the pumps such that they are in series and running at 1750 RPM.

8. Add the head across both pumps and compare to the head measured of the single
pump operating at the same flow rate.

Reports

1. Provide a flow diagram of the apparatus.

2. Calculate the total pump head, water horsepower, brake horsepower and pump
efficiency as a function of flow rate.
3. Plot your data on graphs for head, break horsepower and efficiency versus flow
rate. Combine into one diagram.
4. On separated diagrams, plot the effect on system head and flow when using
pumps in series or parallel and provide a discussion on the results.
 2rFN
Brake hp = Shaft Power=
60(1000)

where,
r= 0.1603 m
F= dynamometer load, N
N= Pump speed, rpm
Experiment 3: Pressure Drop in Pipes and Fittings

Purpose

1. To determine the friction factor (f) for inch (nominal) copper tubing and
inch (nominal) galvanized steel tubing under a number of different flow rates.
2. To estimate the absolute roughness, , for each of the tubes.
3. To determine the loss coefficients, k, for various valves and fittings
4. To determine the equivalent length of straight pipe, Le, for various valves and
fittings.

Theory

Fluid flow in a pipe will inevitably lead to friction loss due to pipe roughness and
turbulence through the pipe, in bends, elbows, valves and other restrictions in the flow.
These friction losses are visible through a pressure loss or drop in the pipe network and
are shown in the energy equation (manipulated to units of pressure):

p1 gz1 21 v12 p2 gz2 21 v 22 p

The head loss (pressure drop) in the equation is generally proportional to the momentum
pressure, v2, where v is the nominal velocity in the section of straight pipe.

For straight pipes:

L
p f
D
1
2
v 2
Where: f = friction factor
D = inside diameter of the pipe (m)
L = pipe length over which p occurs (m)

In general, the friction factor, f, is a function of Reynolds number, Re, and relative
roughness, /D, and is usually presented graphically on a Moody Diagram.

Pressure losses in valves and fittings may be expressed in one two ways; by using a loss
coefficient, k, or equating the fitting to an equivalent length of straight pipe.

L
p k 1
2
v 2 or p f e
D
1
2
v 2
where k is the loss coefficient for the valve or fitting and Le is the equivalent length of
straight pipe that would have the same pressure drop as the valve or fitting. Typical
values of k and Le for common valves and fittings are shown below.

Fitting k Le/D
Globe valve, wide open 10 350
Angle valve, wide open 5 175
Close-return bend 2.2 75
T, through side outlet 1.8 67
Short-radius elbow 0.9 32
Medium-radius elbow 0.75 27
Long-radius elbow 0.60 20
o
45 elbow 0.42 15
Gate valve, wide open 0.19 7
Gate valve, half open 2.06 72
(pg. 239 Daugherty, Franzini & Finnemore, 8th edition).

Friction Factor (f)

The pressure loss is directly related to the friction factor which is dependent on the
turbulence in the fluid flow (Reynolds number, Re) and the relative roughness of the pipe
(/D). The Reynolds number measures the relative importance of inertial effects over
viscous effects in the fluid. The relative roughness is a measure of the ratio of the
absolute roughness () of the surface of the pipe to the pipes internal diameter.

These parameters are all displayed on the Moody diagram where several distinct regions
can be seen:

For laminar flow conditions where the Reynolds number is below 500, the friction
factor is a linear relation with the inverse Reynolds number and is simply given
by f = 64/Re. In this laminar flow regime, the friction factor is independent of
pipe roughness.

For very turbulent flow conditions when the Reynolds number is large, the
friction factor becomes independent of Re and solely dependent on the relative
roughness of the pipe.

In between these two regimes is a region where the friction factor is dependent on
both the Reynolds number and the relative roughness.
Apparatus

A fluid friction apparatus (HM122, supplied by GUNT) consisting of three lengths of

straight pipe, a variety of fittings including bends and reductions, and five commercial
valves.

Differential pressures may be determined using a manometer or an electronic differential

pressure transducer. A thermometer is positioned to measure the water temperature and
two rotameters allow for measurement of flow rate.

Procedure

1. Make a sketch of the system showing all distances between the pressure taps to be
used in the experiment.
2. Start the pump and set to the maximum flow rate attainable by adjusting the
valves on the bottom of the rotameters.
3. Ensure the manometer is connected to the gate valve.
4. Allow several minutes for the flow to stabilize and record the height differential
on the manometer. Record the flow rate from the rotameter being used. Record
the water temperature.
5. By adjusting (closing) the valve just before the rotameter to adjust flow rate,
perform the above procedure for eight to ten additional flow rates.
6. Perform steps 1 through five for the globe valve, the 1/2" copper pipe, the 1/2
galvanized pipe and two elbows fittings. You may need to use the differential
pressure transducer if the manometer goes off scale.
Note for the valves use low flow rates between 100 L/hr and 500 L/hr.

Reports

1. Provide a sketch of the apparatus and report all collected data.

2. Calculate the Reynolds number and the friction factors in the copper pipe and
galvanized steel pipe for each of the runs. Show these values on a Moody
diagram.
3. From the Moody diagram, estimate the relative roughness and the absolute
roughness for each of the pipes. Compare your findings to expected values.
4. Determine the loss coefficients for each of the valves and fittings available in the
test rig. This is easily done by plotting p against the momentum pressure (v2)
and evaluating the trend. Compare with the values given above from Daugherty,
Franzini and Finnemore.
5. Discuss the results and give overall conclusions and recommendations.