Kidney

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found on the left and right sides of
the body in vertebrates. They filter the blood in order to make urine, to
release and retain water, and to remove waste (The excretory system). They
also control the ion concentrations and acid-base balance of the blood. Each
kidney feeds urine into the bladder by means of a tube known as the ureter.
They are roughly 11 centimeters (4.3 in) in length.

The kidneys regulate the balance of ions known as electrolytes in the blood,
along with maintaining acid base homeostasis. They also move waste
products out of the blood and into the urine, such as nitrogen-containing
urea and ammonium. Kidneys also regulate fluid balance and blood pressure.
They are also responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino
acids. The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol and
erythropoietin. The kidneys also make an important enzyme, renin, which
affects blood pressure through negative feedback. Located at the rear of the
abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneal space, the kidneys receive blood from
the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins.

Renal physiology is the study of kidney function, while nephrology is the

medical specialty concerned with kidney diseases. Diseases of the kidney are
diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic
clinical features. Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the
nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, renal cysts, acute kidney injury, chronic
kidney disease, urinary tract infection, kidney stones, and urinary tract
obstruction.[1] Various cancers of the kidney exist. The most common adult
renal cancer is renal cell carcinoma. Cancers, cysts, and some other renal
conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney. This is known as
nephrectomy. When renal function, measured by the glomerular filtration
rate, is persistently poor, dialysis and kidney transplantation may be
treatment options. Although they are not normally harmful, kidney stones
can be extremely painful.
Vein
Veins serve to return blood from organs to the heart. Veins are also called
"capacitance vessels" because most of the blood volume (60%) is contained
within veins. In systemic circulation oxygenated blood is pumped by the left
ventricle through the arteries to the muscles and organs of the body, where
its nutrients and gases are exchanged at capillaries. After taking up cellular
waste and carbon dioxide in capillaries, blood is channeled through vessels
that converge with one another to form venules, which continue to converge
and form the larger veins. The de-oxygenated blood is taken by veins to the
right atrium of the heart, which transfers the blood to the right ventricle,
where it is then pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs. In
pulmonary circulation the pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium, which empties into the left ventricle, completing the
cycle of blood circulation.

The return of blood to the heart is assisted by the action of the muscle pump,
and by the thoracic pump action of breathing during respiration. Standing or
sitting for a prolonged period of time can cause low venous return from
venous pooling (vascular) shock. Fainting can occur but usually
baroreceptors within the aortic sinuses initiate a baroreflex such angiotensin
II and norepinephrine stimulate vasoconstriction and heart rate increases to
return blood flow. Neurogenic and hypovolaemic shock can also cause
fainting. In these cases, the smooth muscles surrounding the veins become
slack and the veins fill with the majority of the blood in the body, keeping
blood away from the brain and causing unconsciousness. Jet pilots wear
pressurized suits to help maintain their venous return and blood pressure.

The arteries are perceived as carrying oxygenated blood to the tissues, while
veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. This is true of the
systemic circulation, by far the larger of the two circuits of blood in the body,
which transports oxygen from the heart to the tissues of the body. However,
in pulmonary circulation, the arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the
heart to the lungs, and veins return blood from the lungs to the heart. The
difference between veins and arteries is their direction of flow (out of the
heart by arteries, returning to the heart for veins), not their oxygen content.
In addition, deoxygenated blood that is carried from the tissues back to the
heart for reoxygenation in systemic circulation still carries some oxygen,
though it is considerably less than that carried by the systemic arteries or
pulmonary veins.

Although most veins take blood back to the heart, there is an exception.
Portal veins carry blood between capillary beds. For example, the hepatic
portal vein takes blood from the capillary beds in the digestive tract and
transports it to the capillary beds in the liver. The blood is then drained in the
gastrointestinal tract and spleen, where it is taken up by the hepatic veins,
and blood is taken back into the heart. Since this is an important function in
mammals,

Artery
Arteries form part of the circulatory system. They carry blood that is oxygenated
after it has been pumped from the heart. Arteries also aid the heart in pumping
blood. Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues, except
for pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation. veins and
pulmonary veins (present in lungs)carry deoxygenated blood.)[3] There are two
unique arteries. The pulmonary artery carries blood from the heart to the lungs,
where it receives oxygen. It is unique because the blood in it is not "oxygenated", as
it has not yet passed through the lungs. The other unique artery is the umbilical
artery, which carries deoxygenated blood from a fetus to its mother.

Arteries have a higher blood pressure than other parts of the circulatory system.
The pressure in arteries varies during the cardiac cycle. It is highest when the heart
contracts and lowest when heart relaxes. The variation in pressure produces a
pulse, which can be felt in different areas of the body, such as the radial pulse.
Arterioles have the greatest collective influence on both local blood flow and on
overall blood pressure. They are the primary "adjustable nozzles" in the blood
system, across which the greatest pressure drop occurs. The combination of heart
output (cardiac output) and systemic vascular resistance, which refers to the
collective resistance of all of the body's arterioles, are the principal determinants of
arterial blood pressure at any given moment.

Systemic arteries are the arteries (including the peripheral arteries), of the systemic
circulation, which is the part of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated
blood away from the heart, to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to
the heart. Systemic arteries can be subdivided into two types - muscular and elastic
- according to the relative compositions of elastic and muscle tissue in their tunica
media as well as their size and the makeup of the internal and external elastic
lamina. The larger arteries (>10 mm diameter) are generally elastic and the smaller
ones (0.110 mm) tend to be muscular. Systemic arteries deliver blood to the
arterioles, and then to the capillaries, where nutrients and gases are exchanged.
After travelling from the aorta, blood travels through peripheral arteries into smaller
arteries called arterioles, and eventually to capillaries. Arterioles help in regulating
blood pressure by the variable contraction of the smooth muscle of their walls, and
deliver blood to the capillaries.

Ureter

The ureter is a tube that carries urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
There are two ureters, one attached to each kidney. The upper half of the
ureter is located in the abdomen and the lower half is located in the pelvic
area.

The ureter is about 10 to 12 inches long in the average adult. The tube has
thick walls composed of a fibrous, a muscular, and a mucus coat, which are
able to contract.

Duplication of the ureter: a congenital (from birth) condition in which two

ureters form on the same kidney.Ureteropelvic junction obstruction: this
occurs when the connection between the kidney and ureter is blocked,
preventing urine from exiting the kidney. Ureterovesical junction obstruction:
When the connection between the ureter and bladder is blocked.

If any of these disorders occur, the passage of urine is blocked and can cause
pyelonephritis (inflammation of the kidney due to infection), loss of renal
function, or renal calculi (kidney stones). Treatment is possible through
insertion of a catheter (a special tube), a stent (a support to keep vessels or
tubes open), or through surgery. If an infection is found, antibiotics are often
prescribed.
 Bladder
The urinary bladder is a muscular sac in the pelvis, just above and
behind the pubic bone. When empty, the bladder is about the size and shape
of a pear. Urine is made in the kidneys, and travels down two tubes called
ureters to the bladder. The bladder stores urine, allowing urination to be
infrequent and voluntary. The bladder is lined by layers of muscle tissue that
stretch to accommodate urine. The normal capacity of the bladder is 400 to
600 mL.

During urination, the bladder muscles contract, and two sphincters

(valves) open to allow urine to flow out. Urine exits the bladder into the
urethra, which carries urine out of the body. Because it passes through the
penis, the urethra is longer in men (8 inches) than in women (1.5 inches).

Bladder Conditions

Cystitis: Inflammation or infection of the bladder causing acute or

chronic pain or discomfort or urinary frequency or hesitancy.

Urinary stones: Stones (calculi) may form in the kidney and travel
down to the bladder. If calculi block urine flow to or from the bladder, they
can cause severe pain.
 Bladder cancer: A tumor in the bladder is usually discovered after
blood is noticed in the urine. Cigarette smoking and workplace chemical
exposures cause most cases of bladder cancer.

Urinary incontinence: Involuntary urination, which may be chronic.

Urinary incontinence can result from a variety of causes.

Overactive bladder: The bladder muscle (detrusor) contracts

involuntarily, causing some urine to leak out. Detrusor overactivity is a
common cause of urinary incontinence.

Hematuria: Blood in the urine. Hematuria may be benign, or may be

caused by infection or a serious condition like bladder cancer.

Urinary retention: Urine does not exit the bladder normally due to
obstruction or suppressed bladder muscle activity. The bladder may swell to
hold more than a quart of urine.

Cystocele: Weakened pelvic muscles (usually from childbirth) allow the

bladder to press on the vagina. Problems with urination can result.

Bed-wetting (nocturnal enuresis): Bed-wetting is defined as a child age

5 or older who wets the bed at least one or two times a week over at least
three months.

Uretra

Because of the differences between male and female genitals, the

urethra is slightly different in each gender. The female urethra is much
shorter than its male counterpart. The opening is between the clitoris and
the vagina in a woman. Infection is more common in a female urethra than a
male urethra. Viral and bacterial infections tend to cause urethritis, which is
marked by inflammation and painful urination.

Once a man's bladder is full, the urethra carries urine to the penis and
out the meatus, which is located at the tip of the penis. The male urethra
also carries semen and sperm out of the body during sexual acts. The male
urethra is much longer than that of the female. The tube is not solely
responsible for moving urine and semen, however. The urethral sphincter
controls voluntary and involuntary urination. Those muscles include the
internal and external sphincter muscles of the urethra. The male urethra is
made of four main parts: the preprostatic urethra, the prostatic urethra, the
membranous urethra and the spongy urethra.