English Language

3/31/2017 EnglishlanguageWikipedia
Englishlanguage
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
English i /l/isaWestGermaniclanguagethatwasfirst
spokeninearlymedievalEnglandandisnowthegloballingua English
franca.[4][5]NamedaftertheAngles,oneoftheGermanictribes Pronunciation /l/[1]
thatmigratedtoEngland,itultimatelyderivesitsnamefromthe Region OriginallyEngland
Anglia(Angeln)peninsulaintheBalticSea.Itismostclosely nowworldwide(seeGeographical
relatedtotheFrisianlanguages,althoughitsvocabularyhasbeen distribution,below)
significantlyinfluencedbyotherGermaniclanguagesinthe
earlymedievalperiod,andlaterbyRomancelanguages,
Native 360400million(2006)[2]
speakers L2speakers:400million
particularlyFrench.[6]Englishiseithertheofficiallanguageor
asaforeignlanguage:600
oneoftheofficiallanguagesinalmost60sovereignstates.Itis
themostcommonlyspokenlanguageintheUnitedKingdom,the 700million[2]
UnitedStates,Canada,Australia,Ireland,andNewZealand,and Language IndoEuropean
iswidelyspokeninsomeareasoftheCaribbean,Africa,and family
Germanic
SouthAsia.[7]Itisthethirdmostcommonnativelanguageinthe WestGermanic
AngloFrisian
world,afterMandarinandSpanish.[8]Itisthemostwidely Anglic
learnedsecondlanguageandanofficiallanguageoftheUnited English
Nations,oftheEuropeanUnion,andofmanyotherworldand
regionalinternationalorganisations.Itisthemostwidelyspoken Earlyforms OldEnglish
Germaniclanguage,accountingforatleast70%ofspeakersof
MiddleEnglish
thisIndoEuropeanbranch. EarlyModernEnglish
Englishhasdevelopedoverthecourseofmorethan1,400years. Writing Latinscript(English

TheearliestformsofEnglish,asetofAngloFrisiandialects system alphabet)
broughttoGreatBritainbyAngloSaxonsettlersinthefifth EnglishBraille,Unified
century,arecalledOldEnglish.MiddleEnglishbeganinthelate EnglishBraille
11thcenturywiththeNormanconquestofEngland,andwasa
Signedforms ManuallycodedEnglish
periodinwhichthelanguagewasinfluencedbyFrench.[9]Early (multiplesystems)
ModernEnglishbeganinthelate15thcenturywiththe
introductionoftheprintingpresstoLondonandtheKingJames Officialstatus
Bible,andthestartoftheGreatVowelShift.[10]Throughthe Official 67countries

worldwideinfluenceoftheBritishEmpire,modernEnglish languagein 27nonsovereignentities
spreadaroundtheworldfromthe17thtomid20thcenturies. Variousorganisations
Throughalltypesofprintedandelectronicmedia,aswellasthe UnitedNations
emergenceoftheUnitedStatesasaglobalsuperpower,English EuropeanUnion
hasbecometheleadinglanguageofinternationaldiscourseand Commonwealthof
thelinguafrancainmanyregionsandinprofessionalcontexts Nations
suchasscience,navigation,andlaw.[11] CouncilofEurope
ICC
ModernEnglishhaslittleinflectioncomparedwithmanyother IOC
languages,andreliesmoreonauxiliaryverbsandwordorderfor ISO
theexpressionofcomplextenses,aspectandmood,aswellas NATO
passiveconstructions,interrogativesandsomenegation.Despite WTO
noticeablevariationamongtheaccentsanddialectsofEnglish NAFTA
usedindifferentcountriesandregionsintermsofphonetics OAS
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language 1/38
andphonology,andsometimesalsovocabulary,grammarand OECD
spellingEnglishspeakersfromaroundtheworldareableto OIC
communicatewithoneanotherwithrelativeease. OPEC
GUAM
Organizationfor
Contents Democracyand
Economic
Development*PIF
1 Classification
UKUSAAgreement
2 History
ASEAN
2.1 ProtoGermanictoOldEnglish
2.2 MiddleEnglish ASEANEconomic
2.3 EarlyModernEnglish Community
2.4 SpreadofModernEnglish SAARC
3 Geographicaldistribution TurkicCouncil
3.1 ThreecirclesofEnglishspeakingcountries ECO
3.2 PluricentricEnglish Languagecodes
3.3 Englishasagloballanguage
4 Phonology ISO6391 en
4.1 Consonants ISO6392 eng

4.2 Vowels ISO6393 eng
4.3 Phonotactics
4.4 Stress,rhythmandintonation Glottolog stan1293(http://glottolog.org/
4.5 Regionalvariation resource/languoid/id/stan1293)[3]
5 Grammar
Linguasphere 52ABA
5.1 Nounsandnounphrases
5.1.1 Adjectives
5.1.2 Pronouns,caseandperson
5.1.3 Prepositions
5.2 Verbsandverbphrases
5.2.1 Tense,aspectandmood
5.2.2 Phrasalverbs
5.2.3 Adverbs CountriesoftheworldwhereEnglishisa
5.3 Syntax
majoritynativelanguage
5.3.1 Basicconstituentorder
5.3.2 Clausesyntax CountrieswhereEnglishisofficialbutnota
5.3.3 Auxiliaryverbconstructions majoritynativelanguage
5.3.4 Questions
5.3.5 Discourselevelsyntax
6 Vocabulary
6.1 Wordformationprocesses
6.2 Wordorigins
6.3 Englishloanwordsandcalquesinother
languages
7 Writingsystem
8 Dialects,accents,andvarieties
8.1 UKandIreland
8.2 NorthAmerica
8.3 AustraliaandNewZealand
8.4 Africa,theCaribbean,andSouthAsia
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 Externallinks
Classification
EnglishisanIndoEuropean
language,andbelongstotheWest
GermanicgroupoftheGermanic
languages.[12]Mostcloselyrelated
toEnglisharetheFrisianlanguages,
andEnglishandFrisianformthe
AngloFrisiansubgroupwithinWest
Phylogenetictreeshowingthe Germanic.OldSaxonandits
historicalrelationsbetweenthe descendentLowGermanlanguages
languagesoftheWestGermanic arealsocloselyrelated,and
branchoftheGermaniclanguages sometimesLowGerman,English,
andFrisianaregroupedtogetheras
theIngvaeonicorNorthSeaGermaniclanguages.[13]ModernEnglish
descendsfromMiddleEnglish,whichinturndescendsfromOld TheGermaniclanguagesinEurope
English.[14]ParticulardialectsofOldandMiddleEnglishalsodeveloped
intoanumberofotherEnglish(Anglic)languages,includingScots[15]andthe
extinctFingallianandForthandBargy(Yola)dialectsofIreland.[16]
EnglishisclassifiedasaGermaniclanguagebecauseitsharesnewlanguage
features(differentfromotherIndoEuropeanlanguages)withotherGermanic
languagessuchasDutch,German,andSwedish.[17]Thesesharedinnovationsshow
thatthelanguageshavedescendedfromasinglecommonancestor,whichlinguists
callProtoGermanic.SomesharedfeaturesofGermaniclanguagesaretheuseof
modalverbs,thedivisionofverbsintostrongandweakclasses,andthesound
changesaffectingProtoIndoEuropeanconsonants,knownasGrimm'sandVerner's "EN"isthecommon
laws.ThroughGrimm'slaw,thewordforfootbeginswith/f/inGermanic languagecodeforEnglish
languages,butitscognatesinotherIndoEuropeanlanguagesbeginwith/p/. (byISO6391standard)
EnglishisclassifiedasanAngloFrisianlanguagebecauseFrisianandEnglish
shareotherfeatures,suchasthepalatalisationofconsonantsthatwerevelar
consonantsinProtoGermanic(seePhonologicalhistoryofOldEnglishPalatalization).[18]
Englishsing,sang,sungDutchzingen,zong,gezongenGermansingen,sang,gesungen(strongverb)
Englishlaugh,laughedDutchandGermanlachen,lachte(weakverb)
Englishfoot,Dutchvoet,GermanFu,NorwegianandSwedishfot(initial/f/derivedfromProtoIndo
European*pthroughGrimm'slaw)
Latinpes,stempedModernGreekpdiRussianpodSanskrit pd(originalProtoIndo
European*p)
Englishcheese,Frisiantsiis(chandtsfrompalatalisation)
GermanKseandDutchkaas(kwithoutpalatalisation)
English,liketheotherinsularGermaniclanguages,IcelandicandFaroese,developedindependentlyofthe
continentalGermaniclanguagesandtheirinfluences.Englishisthusnotmutuallyintelligiblewithanycontinental
Germaniclanguage,differinginvocabulary,syntax,andphonology,althoughsome,suchasDutch,doshowstrong
affinitieswithEnglish,especiallywithitsearlierstages.[19]
BecauseEnglishthroughitshistoryhaschangedconsiderablyinresponsetocontactwithotherlanguages,
particularlyOldNorseandNormanFrench,somescholarshavearguedthatEnglishcanbeconsideredamixed
languageoracreoleatheorycalledtheMiddleEnglishcreolehypothesis.Althoughthehighdegreeofinfluence
fromtheselanguagesonthevocabularyandgrammarofModernEnglishiswidelyacknowledged,mostspecialists
inlanguagecontactdonotconsiderEnglishtobeatruemixedlanguage.[20][21]
History
ProtoGermanictoOldEnglish
TheearliestformofEnglishiscalledOldEnglishorAngloSaxon(c.550
1066CE).OldEnglishdevelopedfromasetofNorthSeaGermanic
dialectsoriginallyspokenalongthecoastsofFrisia,LowerSaxony,Jutland,
andSouthernSwedenbyGermanictribesknownastheAngles,Saxons,and
Jutes.Inthefifthcentury,theAngloSaxonssettledBritainandtheRomans
withdrewfromBritain.Bytheseventhcentury,theGermaniclanguageof
theAngloSaxonsbecamedominantinBritain,replacingthelanguagesof
RomanBritain(43409CE):CommonBrittonic,aCelticlanguage,and
Latin,broughttoBritainbytheRomanoccupation.[22][23][24]Englandand
English(originallyEnglalandandEnglisc)arenamedaftertheAngles.[25]
OldEnglishwasdividedintofourdialects:theAngliandialects,Mercian
andNorthumbrian,andtheSaxondialects,KentishandWestSaxon.[26]
ThroughtheeducationalreformsofKingAlfredintheninthcenturyandthe
influenceofthekingdomofWessex,theWestSaxondialectbecamethe
standardwrittenvariety.[27]TheepicpoemBeowulfiswritteninWest
Saxon,andtheearliestEnglishpoem,Cdmon'sHymn,iswrittenin
Northumbrian.[28]ModernEnglishdevelopedmainlyfromMercian,butthe
ScotslanguagedevelopedfromNorthumbrian.Afewshortinscriptions
fromtheearlyperiodofOldEnglishwerewrittenusingarunicscript.[29] TheopeningtotheOldEnglishepic
Bythesixthcentury,aLatinalphabetwasadopted,writtenwithhalfuncial poemBeowulf,handwritteninhalf
letterforms.Itincludedtherunicletterswynnandthorn,andthe uncialscript:
modifiedLatinletterseth,andash.[29][30] HtGrde/naingardagum
odcyninga/rymgefrunon...
OldEnglishisverydifferentfromModernEnglishanddifficultfor21st "Listen!WeoftheSpearDanesfrom
centuryEnglishspeakerstounderstand.Itsgrammarwassimilartothatof daysofyorehaveheardoftheglory
modernGerman,anditsclosestrelativeisOldFrisian.Nouns,adjectives, ofthefolkkings..."
pronouns,andverbshadmanymoreinflectionalendingsandforms,and
wordorderwasmuchfreerthaninModernEnglish.ModernEnglishhas
caseformsinpronouns(he,him,his)andafewverbendings(Ihave,hehas),butOldEnglishhadcaseendingsin
nounsaswell,andverbshadmorepersonandnumberendings.[31][32][33]
ThetranslationofMatthew8:20from1000CEshowsexamplesofcaseendings(nominativeplural,accusative
plural,genitivesingular)andaverbending(presentplural):
Foxashabbaholuandheofonanfuglasnest
Foxashabbaholuandheofonanfuglasnest
foxNOM.PLhavePRS.PLholeACC.PLandheavenGEN.SGbirdNOM.PLnestACC.PL
"Foxeshaveholesandthebirdsofheavennests"[34]
MiddleEnglish
Intheperiodfromthe8thtothe12thcentury,OldEnglish
graduallytransformedthroughlanguagecontactintoMiddle
English.MiddleEnglishisoftenarbitrarilydefinedas
Englischmeneyzhyhaddeframe
bygynnyngremannerspeche,Soueron,
beginningwiththeconquestofEnglandbyWilliamthe Northeron,andMyddelspecheine
Conquerorin1066,butitdevelopedfurtherintheperiodfrom myddelofelond,Noelesby
12001450. comyxstionandmellyng,furstwiDanes,
andafterwardwiNormans,inmenyee
contraylongageysasperyed,andsomvse
First,thewavesofNorsecolonisationofnorthernpartsofthe
strangewlaffyng,chyteryng,harryng,and
BritishIslesinthe8thand9thcenturiesputOldEnglishinto garrynggrisbytting.
intensecontactwithOldNorse,aNorthGermaniclanguage.
NorseinfluencewasstrongestintheNortheasternvarietiesof Although,fromthebeginning,
OldEnglishspokenintheDanelawareaaroundYork,which Englishmenhadthreemannersof
wasthecentreofNorsecolonisationtodaythesefeaturesare speaking,southern,northernandmidlands
speechinthemiddleofthecountry,
stillparticularlypresentinScotsandNorthernEnglish. Nevertheless,throughinterminglingand
HoweverthecentreofnorsifiedEnglishseemstohavebeenin mixing,firstwithDanesandthenwith
theMidlandsaroundLindsey,andafter920CEwhenLindsey Normans,amongstmanythecountry
wasreincorporatedintotheAngloSaxonpolity,Norsefeatures languagehasarisen,andsomeusestrange
spreadfromthereintoEnglishvarietiesthathadnotbeenin stammering,chattering,snarling,and
gratinggnashing.
intensecontactwithNorsespeakers.SomeelementsofNorse
influencethatpersistinallEnglishvarietiestodayarethe JohnofTrevisa,ca.1385[35]
pronounsbeginningwithth(they,them,their)whichreplaced
theAngloSaxonpronounswithh(hie,him,hera).[36]
WiththeNormanconquestofEnglandin1066,thenownorsifiedOldEnglishlanguagewassubjecttocontactwith
theOldNormanlanguage,aRomancelanguagecloselyrelatedtoModernFrench.TheNormanlanguagein
EnglandeventuallydevelopedintoAngloNorman.BecauseNormanwasspokenprimarilybytheelitesand
nobles,whilethelowerclassescontinuedspeakingAngloSaxon,theinfluenceofNormanconsistedofintroducing
awiderangeofloanwordsrelatedtopolitics,legislationandprestigioussocialdomains.[37]MiddleEnglishalso
greatlysimplifiedtheinflectionalsystem,probablyinordertoreconcileOldNorseandOldEnglish,whichwere
inflectionallydifferentbutmorphologicallysimilar.Thedistinctionbetweennominativeandaccusativecasewas
lostexceptinpersonalpronouns,theinstrumentalcasewasdropped,andtheuseofthegenitivecasewaslimitedto
describingpossession.Theinflectionalsystemregularisedmanyirregularinflectionalforms,[38]andgradually
simplifiedthesystemofagreement,makingwordorderlessflexible.[39]BytheWycliffeBibleofthe1380s,the
passageMatthew8:20waswritten
Foxishandennes,andbriddisofheuenehannestis[40]
Herethepluralsuffixnontheverbhaveisstillretained,butnoneofthecaseendingsonthenounsarepresent.
Bythe12thcenturyMiddleEnglishwasfullydeveloped,integratingbothNorseandNormanfeaturesitcontinued
tobespokenuntilthetransitiontoearlyModernEnglisharound1500.MiddleEnglishliteratureincludesGeoffrey
Chaucer'sTheCanterburyTales,andMalory'sLeMorted'Arthur.IntheMiddleEnglishperiodtheuseofregional
dialectsinwritingproliferated,anddialecttraitswereevenusedforeffectbyauthorssuchasChaucer.
EarlyModernEnglish
ThenextperiodinthehistoryofEnglishwasEarlyModernEnglish(15001700).EarlyModernEnglishwas
characterisedbytheGreatVowelShift(13501700),inflectionalsimplification,andlinguisticstandardisation.
TheGreatVowelShiftaffectedthestressedlongvowelsof
MiddleEnglish.Itwasachainshift,meaningthateachshift
triggeredasubsequentshiftinthevowelsystem.Midandopen
vowelswereraised,andclosevowelswerebrokeninto
diphthongs.Forexample,thewordbitewasoriginally
pronouncedasthewordbeetistoday,andthesecondvowelin
thewordaboutwaspronouncedasthewordbootistoday.The
GreatVowelShiftexplainsmanyirregularitiesinspelling,
sinceEnglishretainsmanyspellingsfromMiddleEnglish,and
italsoexplainswhyEnglishvowellettershaveverydifferent
GraphicrepresentationoftheGreatVowelShift,
pronunciationsfromthesamelettersinotherlanguages.[41][42]
showinghowthepronunciationofthelongvowels
EnglishbegantoriseinprestigeduringthereignofHenryV. graduallyshifted,withthehighvowelsi:andu:
Around1430,theCourtofChanceryinWestminsterbegan breakingintodiphthongsandthelowervowelseach
usingEnglishinitsofficialdocuments,andanewstandard shiftingtheirpronunciationuponelevel
formofMiddleEnglish,knownasChanceryStandard,
developedfromthedialectsofLondonandtheEastMidlands.In1476,WilliamCaxtonintroducedtheprinting
presstoEnglandandbeganpublishingthefirstprintedbooksinLondon,expandingtheinfluenceofthisformof
English.[43]LiteraturefromtheEarlyModernperiodincludestheworksofWilliamShakespeareandthetranslation
oftheBiblecommissionedbyKingJamesI.Evenafterthevowelshiftthelanguagestillsoundeddifferentfrom
ModernEnglish:forexample,theconsonantclusters/knnsw/inknight,gnat,andswordwerestillpronounced.
ManyofthegrammaticalfeaturesthatamodernreaderofShakespearemightfindquaintorarchaicrepresentthe
distinctcharacteristicsofEarlyModernEnglish.[44]
Inthe1611KingJamesVersionoftheBible,writteninEarlyModernEnglish,Matthew8:20says:
TheFoxeshaueholesandthebirdsoftheayrehauenests[34]
Thisexemplifiesthelossofcaseanditseffectsonsentencestructure(replacementwithSubjectVerbObjectword
order,andtheuseofofinsteadofthenonpossessivegenitive),andtheintroductionofloanwordsfromFrench
(ayre)andwordreplacements(birdoriginallymeaning"nestling"hadreplacedOEfugol).
SpreadofModernEnglish
Bythelate18thcentury,theBritishEmpirehadfacilitatedthespreadofEnglishthroughitscoloniesand
geopoliticaldominance.Commerce,scienceandtechnology,diplomacy,art,andformaleducationallcontributedto
Englishbecomingthefirsttrulygloballanguage.Englishalsofacilitatedworldwideinternational
communication.[45][46]AsEnglandcontinuedtoformnewcolonies,theseinturnbecameindependentand
developedtheirownnormsforhowtospeakandwritethelanguage.EnglishwasadoptedinNorthAmerica,India,
partsofAfrica,Australasia,andmanyotherregions.Inthepostcolonialperiod,someofthenewlycreatednations
thathadmultipleindigenouslanguagesoptedtocontinueusingEnglishastheofficiallanguagetoavoidthe
politicaldifficultiesinherentinpromotinganyoneindigenouslanguageabovetheothers.[47][48][49]Inthe20th
centurythegrowingeconomicandculturalinfluenceoftheUnitedStatesanditsstatusasasuperpowerfollowing
theSecondWorldWarhas,alongwithworldwidebroadcastinginEnglishbytheBBC[50]andotherbroadcasters,
significantlyacceleratedthespreadofthelanguageacrosstheplanet.[51][52]Bythe21stcentury,Englishwasmore
widelyspokenandwrittenthananylanguagehaseverbeen.[53]
AmajorfeatureintheearlydevelopmentofModernEnglishwasthecodificationofexplicitnormsforstandard
usage,andtheirdisseminationthroughofficialmediasuchaspubliceducationandstatesponsoredpublications.In
1755SamuelJohnsonpublishedhisADictionaryoftheEnglishLanguagewhichintroducedastandardsetof
spellingconventionsandusagenorms.In1828,NoahWebsterpublishedtheAmericanDictionaryoftheEnglish
languageinanefforttoestablishanormforspeakingandwritingAmericanEnglishthatwasindependentfromthe
Britishstandard.WithinBritain,nonstandardorlowerclassdialectfeatureswereincreasinglystigmatised,leading
tothequickspreadoftheprestigevarietiesamongthemiddleclasses.[54]
Intermsofgrammaticalevolution,ModernEnglishhasnowreachedastagewherethelossofcaseisalmost
complete(caseisnowonlyfoundinpronouns,suchasheandhim,sheandher,whoandwhom),andwhereSVO
wordorderismostlyfixed.[54]Somechanges,suchastheuseofdosupporthavebecomeuniversalised.(Earlier
Englishdidnotusetheword"do"asageneralauxiliaryasModernEnglishdoesatfirstitwasonlyusedin
questionconstructionswhereitwasnotobligatory.[55]Now,dosupportwiththeverbhaveisbecoming
increasinglystandardised.)Theuseofprogressiveformsining,appearstobespreadingtonewconstructions,and
formssuchashadbeenbeingbuiltarebecomingmorecommon.Regularisationofirregularformsalsoslowly
continues(e.g.dreamedinsteadofdreamt),andanalyticalalternativestoinflectionalformsarebecomingmore
common(e.g.morepoliteinsteadofpoliter).BritishEnglishisalsoundergoingchangeundertheinfluenceof
AmericanEnglish,fuelledbythestrongpresenceofAmericanEnglishinthemediaandtheprestigeassociated
withtheUSasaworldpower.[56][57][58]
Geographicaldistribution
Asof2016,400millionpeoplespokeEnglishastheirfirstlanguage,
and1.1billionspokeitasasecondarylanguage.[59]Englishisprobably
thethirdlargestlanguagebynumberofnativespeakers,afterMandarin
andSpanish.[8]However,whencombiningnativeandnonnative
speakersitmay,dependingontheestimateused,bethemost
commonlyspokenlanguageintheworld.[53][60][61][62]Englishis
spokenbycommunitiesoneverycontinentandonoceanicislandsin
PercentageofEnglishspeakersbycountry.
allthemajoroceans.[63]ThecountriesinwhichEnglishisspokencan
begroupedintodifferentcategoriesbyhowEnglishisusedineach 80 40 020%
country.The"innercircle"[64]countrieswithmanynativespeakersof 100% 60% Not

EnglishshareaninternationalstandardofwrittenEnglishandjointly 6080% 20 available
influencespeechnormsofEnglisharoundtheworld.Englishdoesnot 40%
belongtojustonecountry,anditdoesnotbelongsolelytodescendants
ofEnglishsettlers.Englishisanofficiallanguageofcountries
populatedbyfewdescendantsofnativespeakersofEnglish.Ithasalsobecomebyfarthemostimportantlanguage
ofinternationalcommunicationwhenpeoplewhosharenonativelanguagemeetanywhereintheworld.
ThreecirclesofEnglishspeakingcountries
BrajKachrudistinguishescountrieswhereEnglishisspokenwithathreecirclesmodel.[64]Inhismodel,the"inner
circle"countriesarecountrieswithlargecommunitiesofnativespeakersofEnglish,"outercircle"countrieshave
smallcommunitiesofnativespeakersofEnglishbutwidespreaduseofEnglishasasecondlanguageineducation
orbroadcastingorforlocalofficialpurposes,and"expandingcircle"countriesarecountrieswheremanylearners
learnEnglishasaforeignlanguage.KachrubaseshismodelonthehistoryofhowEnglishspreadindifferent
countries,howusersacquireEnglish,andtherangeofusesEnglishhasineachcountry.Thethreecircleschange
membershipovertime.[65]
CountrieswithlargecommunitiesofnativespeakersofEnglish(theinnercircle)includeBritain,theUnitedStates,
Australia,Canada,Ireland,andNewZealand,wherethemajorityspeaksEnglish,andSouthAfrica,wherea
significantminorityspeaksEnglish.ThecountrieswiththemostnativeEnglishspeakersare,indescendingorder,
theUnitedStates(atleast231million),[66]theUnitedKingdom
(60million),[67][68][69]Canada(19million),[70]Australia(atleast
17million),[71]SouthAfrica(4.8million),[72]Ireland(4.2million),and
NewZealand(3.7million).[73]Inthesecountries,childrenofnative
speakerslearnEnglishfromtheirparents,andlocalpeoplewhospeakother
languagesornewimmigrantslearnEnglishtocommunicateintheir
neighbourhoodsandworkplaces.[74]Theinnercirclecountriesprovidethe
basefromwhichEnglishspreadstoothercountriesintheworld.[65]
EstimatesofthenumberofEnglishspeakerswhoaresecondlanguageand
foreignlanguagespeakersvarygreatlyfrom470milliontomorethan1,000
milliondependingonhowproficiencyisdefined.[7]LinguistDavidCrystal
estimatesthatnonnativespeakersnowoutnumbernativespeakersbya BrajKachru'sThreeCirclesof
English.
ratioof3to1.[60]InKachru'sthreecirclesmodel,the"outercircle"
countriesarecountriessuchasthePhilippines,[75]Jamaica,[76]India,
Pakistan,Singapore,[77]andNigeria[78][79]withamuchsmallerproportionofnativespeakersofEnglishbutmuch
useofEnglishasasecondlanguageforeducation,government,ordomesticbusiness,andwhereEnglishis
routinelyusedforschoolinstructionandofficialinteractionswiththegovernment.[80]Thosecountrieshave
millionsofnativespeakersofdialectcontinuarangingfromanEnglishbasedcreoletoamorestandardversionof
English.TheyhavemanymorespeakersofEnglishwhoacquireEnglishintheprocessofgrowingupthroughday
bydayuseandlisteningtobroadcasting,especiallyiftheyattendschoolswhereEnglishisthemediumof
instruction.VarietiesofEnglishlearnedbyspeakerswhoarenotnativespeakersborntoEnglishspeakingparents
maybeinfluenced,especiallyintheirgrammar,bytheotherlanguagesspokenbythoselearners.[74]Mostofthose
varietiesofEnglishincludewordslittleusedbynativespeakersofEnglishintheinnercirclecountries,[74]andthey
mayhavegrammaticalandphonologicaldifferencesfrominnercirclevarietiesaswell.ThestandardEnglishofthe
innercirclecountriesisoftentakenasanormforuseofEnglishintheoutercirclecountries.[74]
Inthethreecirclesmodel,countriessuchasPoland,China,Brazil,Germany,Japan,Indonesia,Egypt,andother
countrieswhereEnglishistaughtasaforeignlanguagemakeupthe"expandingcircle".[81]Thedistinctions
betweenEnglishasafirstlanguage,asasecondlanguage,andasaforeignlanguageareoftendebatableandmay
changeinparticularcountriesovertime.[80]Forexample,intheNetherlandsandsomeothercountriesofEurope,
knowledgeofEnglishasasecondlanguageisnearlyuniversal,withover80percentofthepopulationabletouse
it,[82]andthusEnglishisroutinelyusedtocommunicatewithforeignersandofteninhighereducation.Inthese
countries,althoughEnglishisnotusedforgovernmentbusiness,thewidespreaduseofEnglishinthesecountries
putsthemattheboundarybetweenthe"outercircle"and"expandingcircle".Englishisunusualamongworld
languagesinhowmanyofitsusersarenotnativespeakersbutspeakersofEnglishasasecondorforeign
language.[83]ManyusersofEnglishintheexpandingcircleuseittocommunicatewithotherpeoplefromthe
expandingcircle,sothatinteractionwithnativespeakersofEnglishplaysnopartintheirdecisiontouse
English.[84]NonnativevarietiesofEnglisharewidelyusedforinternationalcommunication,andspeakersofone
suchvarietyoftenencounterfeaturesofothervarieties.[85]VeryoftentodayaconversationinEnglishanywherein
theworldmayincludenonativespeakersofEnglishatall,evenwhileincludingspeakersfromseveraldifferent
countries.[86]
PluricentricEnglish
Englishisapluricentriclanguage,whichmeansthatnoonenationalauthority
setsthestandardforuseofthelanguage.[87][88][89][90]ButEnglishisnota
dividedlanguage,[91]despitealongstandingjokeoriginallyattributedto
GeorgeBernardShawthattheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStatesare"two
countriesseparatedbyacommonlanguage".[92]SpokenEnglish,forexample
Englishusedinbroadcasting,generallyfollowsnationalpronunciation
standardsthatarealsoestablishedbycustomratherthanbyregulation.
Internationalbroadcastersareusuallyidentifiableascomingfromonecountry
ratherthananotherthroughtheiraccents,[93]butnewsreaderscriptsarealso
composedlargelyininternationalstandardwrittenEnglish.Thenormsof
standardwrittenEnglisharemaintainedpurelybytheconsensusofeducated
Englishspeakersaroundtheworld,withoutanyoversightbyanygovernment Piechartshowingthepercentage
orinternationalorganisation.[94]Americanlistenersgenerallyreadily ofnativeEnglishspeakersliving
in"innercircle"Englishspeaking
understandmostBritishbroadcasting,andBritishlistenersreadilyunderstand
countries.Nativespeakersare
mostAmericanbroadcasting.MostEnglishspeakersaroundtheworldcan nowsubstantiallyoutnumbered
understandradioprogrammes,televisionprogrammes,andfilmsfrommany worldwidebysecondlanguage
partsoftheEnglishspeakingworld.[95]Bothstandardandnonstandard speakersofEnglish(notcounted
inthischart).
varietiesofEnglishcanincludebothformalorinformalstyles,distinguishedby
wordchoiceandsyntaxandusebothtechnicalandnontechnicalregisters.[96] US(64.3%)
UK(16.7%)
ThesettlementhistoryoftheEnglishspeakinginnercirclecountriesoutside
BritainhelpedleveldialectdistinctionsandproducekoineisedformsofEnglish Canada(5.3%)
inSouthAfrica,Australia,andNewZealand.[97]Themajorityofimmigrantsto Australia(4.7%)
theUnitedStateswithoutBritishancestryrapidlyadoptedEnglishafterarrival. SouthAfrica(1.3%)
NowthemajorityoftheUnitedStatespopulationaremonolingualEnglish
Ireland(1.1%)
speakers,[98][66]althoughEnglishhasbeengivenofficialstatusbyonly30of
NewZealand(1%)
the50stategovernmentsoftheUS.[99][100]
Other(5.6%)
Englishasagloballanguage
Englishhasceasedtobean"Englishlanguage"inthesenseofbelongingonlytopeoplewhoareethnically
English.[101][102]UseofEnglishisgrowingcountrybycountryinternallyandforinternationalcommunication.
MostpeoplelearnEnglishforpracticalratherthanideologicalreasons.[103]ManyspeakersofEnglishinAfrica
havebecomepartofan"AfroSaxon"languagecommunitythatunitesAfricansfromdifferentcountries.[104]
AsdecolonisationproceededthroughouttheBritishEmpireinthe1950sand1960s,formercoloniesoftendidnot
rejectEnglishbutrathercontinuedtouseitasindependentcountriessettingtheirownlanguagepolicies.[48][49][105]
Forexample,theviewoftheEnglishlanguageamongmanyIndianshasgonefromassociatingitwithcolonialism
toassociatingitwitheconomicprogress,andEnglishcontinuestobeanofficiallanguageofIndia.[106]Englishis
alsowidelyusedinmediaandliterature,andthenumberofEnglishlanguagebookspublishedannuallyinIndiais
thethirdlargestintheworldaftertheUSandUK.[107]HoweverEnglishisrarelyspokenasafirstlanguage,
numberingonlyaroundacouplehundredthousandpeople,andlessthan5%ofthepopulationspeakfluentEnglish
inIndia.[108][109]DavidCrystalclaimedin2004that,combiningnativeandnonnativespeakers,Indianowhas
morepeoplewhospeakorunderstandEnglishthananyothercountryintheworld,[110]butthenumberofEnglish
speakersinIndiaisveryuncertain,withmostscholarsconcludingthattheUnitedStatesstillhasmorespeakersof
EnglishthanIndia.[111]
ModernEnglish,sometimesdescribedasthefirstgloballinguafranca,[51][112]isalsoregardedasthefirstworld
language.[113][114]Englishistheworld'smostwidelyusedlanguageinnewspaperpublishing,bookpublishing,
internationaltelecommunications,scientificpublishing,internationaltrade,massentertainment,anddiplomacy.[114]
Englishis,byinternationaltreaty,thebasisfortherequiredcontrollednaturallanguages[115]Seaspeakand
Airspeak,usedasinternationallanguagesofseafaring[116]andaviation.[117]EnglishusedtohaveparitywithFrench
&Germaninscientificresearch,butnowitdominatesthatfield.[118]ItachievedparitywithFrenchasalanguage
ofdiplomacyattheTreatyofVersaillesnegotiationsin1919.[119]BythetimeofthefoundationoftheUnited
NationsattheendofWorldWarII,Englishhadbecomepreeminent[120]andisnowthemainworldwidelanguage
ofdiplomacyandinternationalrelations.[121]ItisoneofsixofficiallanguagesoftheUnitedNations.[122]Many
otherworldwideinternationalorganisations,includingtheInternationalOlympicCommittee,specifyEnglishasa
workinglanguageorofficiallanguageoftheorganisation.
ManyregionalinternationalorganisationssuchastheEuropeanFreeTradeAssociation,AssociationofSoutheast
AsianNations(ASEAN),[52]andAsiaPacificEconomicCooperation(APEC)setEnglishastheirorganisation's
soleworkinglanguageeventhoughmostmembersarenotcountrieswithamajorityofnativeEnglishspeakers.
WhiletheEuropeanUnion(EU)allowsmemberstatestodesignateanyofthenationallanguagesasanofficial
languageoftheUnion,inpracticeEnglishisthemainworkinglanguageofEUorganisations.[123]
AlthoughinmostcountriesEnglishisnotanofficiallanguage,itiscurrentlythelanguagemostoftentaughtasa
foreignlanguage.[51][52]InthecountriesoftheEU,Englishisthemostwidelyspokenforeignlanguageinnineteen
ofthetwentyfivememberstateswhereitisnotanofficiallanguage(thatis,thecountriesotherthantheUK,
IrelandandMalta).Ina2012officialEurobarometerpoll,38percentoftheEUrespondentsoutsidethecountries
whereEnglishisanofficiallanguagesaidtheycouldspeakEnglishwellenoughtohaveaconversationinthat
language.Thenextmostcommonlymentionedforeignlanguage,French(whichisthemostwidelyknownforeign
languageintheUKandIreland),couldbeusedinconversationby12percentofrespondents.[124]
AworkingknowledgeofEnglishhasbecomearequirementinanumberofoccupationsandprofessionssuchas
medicine[125]andcomputing.Englishhasbecomesoimportantinscientificpublishingthatmorethan80percentof
allscientificjournalarticlesindexedbyChemicalAbstractsin1998werewritteninEnglish,aswere90percentof
allarticlesinnaturalsciencepublicationsby1996and82percentofarticlesinhumanitiespublicationsby
1995.[126]
SpecialisedsubsetsofEnglisharisespontaneouslyininternationalcommunities,forexample,amonginternational
businesspeople,asanauxiliarylanguage.ThishasledsomescholarstodevelopthestudyofEnglishasan
auxiliarylanguages.GlobishusesarelativelysmallsubsetofEnglishvocabulary(about1500wordswithhighest
useininternationalbusinessEnglish)incombinationwiththestandardEnglishgrammar.Otherexamplesinclude
SimpleEnglish.
TheincreaseduseoftheEnglishlanguagegloballyhashadaneffectonotherlanguages,leadingtosomeEnglish
wordsbeingassimilatedintothevocabulariesofotherlanguages.ThisinfluenceofEnglishhasledtoconcerns
aboutlanguagedeath,[127]andtoclaimsoflinguisticimperialism,[128]andhasprovokedresistancetothespreadof
Englishhoweverthenumberofspeakerscontinuestoincreasebecausemanypeoplearoundtheworldthinkthat
Englishprovidesthemwithopportunitiesforbetteremploymentandimprovedlives.[129]
AlthoughsomescholarsmentionapossibilityoffuturedivergenceofEnglishdialectsintomutuallyunintelligible
languages,mostthinkamorelikelyoutcomeisthatEnglishwillcontinuetofunctionasakoineisedlanguagein
whichthestandardformunifiesspeakersfromaroundtheworld.[130]Englishisusedasthelanguageforwider
communicationincountriesaroundtheworld.[131]ThusEnglishhasgrowninworldwideusemuchmorethanany
constructedlanguageproposedasaninternationalauxiliarylanguage,includingEsperanto.[132][133]
Phonology
ThephoneticsandphonologyofEnglishdifferbetweendialects,usuallywithoutinterferingwithmutual
communication.Phonologicalvariationaffectstheinventoryofphonemes(speechsoundsthatdistinguish
meaning),andphoneticvariationisdifferencesinpronunciationofthephonemes.[134]Thisoverviewmainly
describesthestandardpronunciationsoftheUnitedKingdomandtheUnitedStates:ReceivedPronunciation(RP)
andGeneralAmerican(GA)(SeeSectionbelowon"Dialects,accentsandvarieties").Thephoneticsymbolsused
belowarefromtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).[135][136][137]
Consonants
MostEnglishdialectssharethesame24consonantphonemes.Theconsonantinventoryshownbelowisvalidfor
CalifornianAmericanEnglish,[138]andforRP.[139]
Consonantphonemes
Post
Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal
alveolar
Nasal m n
Stop p b t d k
Affricate t d
Fricative f v s z h
Approximant * j w
Lateral l
*Conventionallytranscribed/r/.
Inthetable,whenobstruents(stops,affricates,andfricatives)appearinpairs,suchas/pb/,/td/,and/sz/,the
firstisfortis(strong)andthesecondislenis(weak).Fortisobstruents,suchas/pts/arepronouncedwithmore
musculartensionandbreathforcethanlenisconsonants,suchas/bdz/,andarealwaysvoiceless.Lenis
consonantsarepartlyvoicedatthebeginningandendofutterances,andfullyvoicedbetweenvowels.Fortisstops
suchas/p/haveadditionalarticulatoryoracousticfeaturesinmostdialects:theyareaspirated[p]whentheyoccur
aloneatthebeginningofastressedsyllable,oftenunaspiratedinothercases,andoftenunreleased[p]orpre
glottalised[p]attheendofasyllable.Inasinglesyllableword,avowelbeforeafortisstopisshortened:thusnip
hasanoticeablyshortervowel(phonetically,butnotphonemically)thannib[np](seebelow).[140]
lenisstops:bin[bn],about[bat],nib[nb]
fortisstops:pin[pn],spin[spn],happy[hpi],nip[nip]or[nip]
InRP,thelateralapproximant/l/,hastwomainallophones(pronunciationvariants):theclearorplain[l],asin
light,andthedarkorvelarised[],asinfull.[141]GAhasdarklinmostcases.[142]
clearl:RPlight[lat]
darkl:RPandGAfull[f],GAlight[at]
Allsonorants(liquids/l,r/andnasals/m,n,/)devoicewhenfollowingavoicelessobstruent,andtheyaresyllabic
whenfollowingaconsonantattheendofaword.[143]
voicelesssonorants:clay[kl ]andsnow[sno]
syllabicsonorants:paddle[pad.l ],andbutton[bt.n]
Vowels
Thepronunciationofvowelsvariesagreatdealbetweendialectsandisoneofthemostdetectableaspectsofa
speaker'saccent.ThetablebelowliststhevowelphonemesinReceivedPronunciation(RP)andGeneralAmerican
(GA),withexamplesofwordsinwhichtheyoccurfromlexicalsetscompiledbylinguists.Thevowelsare
representedwithsymbolsfromtheInternationalPhoneticAlphabetthosegivenforRParestandardinBritish
dictionariesandotherpublications.
monophthongs monophthongs monophthongs diphthongs

RP GA word RP GA word RP GA word RP GA word
i i need () roses u u food e bay
bid comma good o road
e bed r bird paw a cry

back but cloth a cow

box boy

bra
InRP,vowellengthisphonemiclongvowelsaremarkedwithatriangularcoloninthetableabove,suchasthe
vowelofneed[nid]asopposedtobid[bd].GAdoesnothavelongvowels.
InbothRPandGA,vowelsarephoneticallyshortenedbeforefortisconsonantsinthesamesyllable,like/ttf/,but
notbeforelenisconsonantslike/ddv/orinopensyllables:thus,thevowelsofrich[r t],neat[nit],andsafe
[s f]arenoticeablyshorterthanthevowelsofridge[rd],need[nid],andsave[sev],andthevoweloflight[l t]
isshorterthanthatoflie[la].Becauselenisconsonantsarefrequentlyvoicelessattheendofasyllable,vowel
lengthisanimportantcueastowhetherthefollowingconsonantislenisorfortis.[144]
Thevowels//onlyoccurinunstressedsyllablesandarearesultofvowelreduction.Somedialectsdonot
distinguishthem,sothatrosesandcommaendinthesamevowel,adialectfeaturecalledweakvowelmerger.GA
hasanunstressedrcolouredschwa//,asinbutter[bt],whichinRPhasthesamevowelasthewordfinal
vowelincomma.
Phonotactics
AnEnglishsyllableincludesasyllablenucleusconsistingofavowelsound.Syllableonsetandcoda(startandend)
areoptional.Asyllablecanstartwithuptothreeconsonantsounds,asinsprint/sprnt/,andendwithuptofour,as
intexts/teksts/.ThisgivesanEnglishsyllablethefollowingstructure,(CCC)V(CCCC)whereCrepresentsa
consonantandVavowel.Theconsonantsthatmayappeartogetherinonsetsorcodasarerestricted,asistheorder
inwhichtheymayappear.Onsetscanonlyhavefourtypesofconsonantclusters:astopandapproximant,asin
playavoicelessfricativeandapproximant,asinflyorslysandavoicelessstop,asinstayands,avoicelessstop,
andanapproximant,asinstring.[145]Clustersofnasalandstopareonlyallowedincodas.Clustersofobstruents
alwaysagreeinvoicing,andclustersofsibilantsandofplosiveswiththesamepointofarticulationareprohibited.
Furthermore,severalconsonantshavelimiteddistributions:/h/canonlyoccurinsyllableinitialposition,and//
onlyinsyllablefinalposition.[146]
Stress,rhythmandintonation
StressplaysanimportantroleinEnglish.Certainsyllablesarestressed,whileothersareunstressed.Stressisa
combinationofduration,intensity,vowelquality,andsometimeschangesinpitch.Stressedsyllablesare
pronouncedlongerandlouderthanunstressedsyllables,andvowelsinunstressedsyllablesarefrequentlyreduced
whilevowelsinstressedsyllablesarenot.[147]Somewords,primarilyshortfunctionwordsbutalsosomemodal
verbssuchascan,haveweakandstrongformsdependingonwhethertheyoccurinstressedornonstressed
positionwithinasentence.
StressinEnglishisphonemic,andsomepairsofwordsaredistinguishedbystress.Forinstance,thewordcontract
isstressedonthefirstsyllable(/kntrkt/KONtrakt)whenusedasanoun,butonthelastsyllable(/kntrkt/kn
TRAKT)formostmeanings(forexample,"reduceinsize")whenusedasaverb.
[148][149][150]Herestressisconnected
tovowelreduction:inthenoun"contract"thefirstsyllableisstressedandhastheunreducedvowel//,butinthe
verb"contract"thefirstsyllableisunstressedanditsvowelisreducedto//.Stressisalsousedtodistinguish
betweenwordsandphrases,sothatacompoundwordreceivesasinglestressunit,butthecorrespondingphrase
hastwo:e.g.tobrnutversusabrnout,andahtdogversusahtdg.[151]
Intermsofrhythm,Englishisgenerallydescribedasastresstimedlanguage,meaningthattheamountoftime
betweenstressedsyllablestendstobeequal.Stressedsyllablesarepronouncedlonger,butunstressedsyllables
(syllablesbetweenstresses)areshortened.Vowelsinunstressedsyllablesareshortenedaswell,andvowel
shorteningcauseschangesinvowelquality:vowelreduction.
Regionalvariation
VarietiesofStandardEnglishandtheirfeatures[152]
Republic
Phonological United Northern South New
Canada of Scotland England Wales Australia
features States Ireland Africa Zealand
Ireland
fatherbother
yes yes
merger
//is
yes yes yes
unrounded
/r/is
pronounced yes yes yes yes
[]
cotcaught
possibly yes possibly yes yes
merger
foolfull
yes yes
merger
/td/flapping
(latterladder yes yes possibly often rarely rarely rarely rarely yes often
merger)
trapbathsplit possibly possibly yes yes yes often yes
nonrhotic(/r/
droppingafter yes yes yes yes yes
vowels)
closevowels
yes yes yes
for/,/
/l/canalways
bepronounced yes yes yes yes yes yes
[]
/r/isfronted possibly yes yes
VarietiesofEnglishvarythemostinpronunciationofvowels.
Thebestknownnationalvarietiesusedasstandardsfor Dialectsandlowvowels
educationinnonEnglishspeakingcountriesareBritish(BrE) word RP GA Can soundchange
andAmerican(AmE).CountriessuchasCanada,Australia, THOUGHT // cotcaughtmerger
Ireland,NewZealandandSouthAfricahavetheirown //or//
standardvarietieswhicharelessoftenusedasstandardsfor CLOTH lotclothsplit
// //
educationinternationally.Somedifferencesbetweenthe LOT
// fatherbothermerger
variousdialectsareshowninthetable"VarietiesofStandard PALM
Englishandtheirfeatures".[152] PLANT //
Englishhasundergonemanyhistoricalsoundchanges,some BATH // // trapbathsplit
ofthemaffectingallvarieties,andothersaffectingonlyafew. TRAP //
MoststandardvarietiesareaffectedbytheGreatVowelShift,
whichchangedthepronunciationoflongvowels,butafew
dialectshaveslightlydifferentresults.InNorthAmerica,anumberofchainshiftssuchastheNorthernCities
VowelShiftandCanadianShifthaveproducedverydifferentvowellandscapesinsomeregionalaccents.
Somedialectshavefewerormoreconsonantphonemesandphonesthanthestandardvarieties.Someconservative
varietieslikeScottishEnglishhaveavoiceless[]soundinwhinethatcontrastswiththevoiced[w]inwine,but
mostotherdialectspronouncebothwordswithvoiced[w],adialectfeaturecalledwinewhinemerger.The
unvoicedvelarfricativesound/x/isfoundinScottishEnglish,whichdistinguishesloch/lx/fromlock/lk/.
AccentslikeCockneywith"hdropping"lacktheglottalfricative/h/,anddialectswiththstoppingandthfronting
likeAfricanAmericanVernacularandEstuaryEnglishdonothavethedentalfricatives/,/,butreplacethem
withdentaloralveolarstops/t,d/orlabiodentalfricatives/f,v/.[153][154]Otherchangesaffectingthephonologyof
localvarietiesareprocessessuchasyoddropping,yodcoalescence,andreductionofconsonantclusters.
GeneralAmericanandReceivedPronunciationvaryintheirpronunciationofhistorical/r/afteravowelattheend
ofasyllable(inthesyllablecoda).GAisarhoticdialect,meaningthatitpronounces/r/attheendofasyllable,but
RPisnonrhotic,meaningthatitloses/r/inthatposition.Englishdialectsareclassifiedasrhoticornonrhotic
dependingonwhethertheyelide/r/likeRPorkeepitlikeGA.[155]
Thereiscomplexdialectalvariationinwordswiththeopenfrontandopenbackvowels//.Thesefour
vowelsareonlydistinguishedinRP,Australia,NewZealandandSouthAfrica.InGA,thesevowelsmergetothree
//,[156]andinCanadianEnglishtheymergetotwo//.[157]Inaddition,thewordsthathaveeachvowelvary
bydialect.Thetable"Dialectsandopenvowels"showsthisvariationwithlexicalsetsinwhichthesesoundsoccur.
Grammar
ModernEnglishgrammaristheresultofagradualchangefromatypicalIndoEuropeandependentmarkingpattern
witharichinflectionalmorphologyandrelativelyfreewordorder,toamostlyanalyticpatternwithlittleinflection,
afairlyfixedSVOwordorderandacomplexsyntax.[158]SometraitstypicalofGermaniclanguagespersistin
English,suchasthedistinctionbetweenirregularlyinflectedstrongstemsinflectedthroughablaut(i.e.changing
thevowelofthestem,asinthepairsspeak/spokeandfoot/feet)andweakstemsinflectedthroughaffixation(such
aslove/loved,hand/hands).Vestigesofthecaseandgendersystemarefoundinthepronounsystem(he/him,
who/whom)andintheinflectionofthecopulaverbtobe.AsistypicalofanIndoEuropeanlanguage,English
followsaccusativemorphosyntacticalignment.Englishdistinguishesatleastsevenmajorwordclasses:verbs,
nouns,adjectives,adverbs,determiners(i.e.articles),prepositions,andconjunctions.Someanalysesaddpronouns
asaclassseparatefromnouns,andsubdivideconjunctionsintosubordinatorsandcoordinators,andaddtheclassof
interjections.[159]Englishalsohasarichsetofauxiliaryverbs,suchashaveanddo,expressingthecategoriesof
moodandaspect.Questionsaremarkedbydosupport,whmovement(frontingofquestionwordsbeginningwith
wh)andwordorderinversionwithsomeverbs.
Thesevenwordclassesareexemplifiedinthissamplesentence:[160]
The chairman of the committee and the loquacious politician clashed violently when the meeting started
Det. Noun Prep. Det. Noun Conj. Det. Adj. Noun Verb Advb. Conj. Det. Noun Verb
Nounsandnounphrases
Englishnounsareonlyinflectedfornumberandpossession.Newnounscanbeformedthroughderivationor
compounding.Theyaresemanticallydividedintopropernouns(names)andcommonnouns.Commonnounsarein
turndividedintoconcreteandabstractnouns,andgrammaticallyintocountnounsandmassnouns.[161]
Mostcountnounsareinflectedforpluralnumberthroughtheuseofthepluralsuffixs,butafewnounshave
irregularpluralforms.Massnounscanonlybepluralisedthroughtheuseofacountnounclassifier,e.g.oneloafof
bread,twoloavesofbread.[162]
Regularpluralformation:
Singular:cat,dog
Plural:cats,dogs
Irregularpluralformation:
Singular:man,woman,foot,fish,ox,knife,mouse
Plural:men,women,feet,fish,oxen,knives,mice
Possessioncanbeexpressedeitherbythepossessiveenclitics(alsotraditionallycalledagenitivesuffix),orbythe
prepositionof.Historicallythespossessivehasbeenusedforanimatenouns,whereastheofpossessivehasbeen
reservedforinanimatenouns.Todaythisdistinctionislessclear,andmanyspeakersusesalsowithinanimates.
Orthographicallythepossessivesisseparatedfromthenounrootwithanapostrophe.
Possessiveconstructions:
Withs:Thewoman'shusband'schild
Withof:Thechildofthehusbandofthewoman
Nounscanformnounphrases(NPs)wheretheyarethesyntacticheadofthewordsthatdependonthemsuchas
determiners,quantifiers,conjunctionsoradjectives.[163]Nounphrasescanbeshort,suchastheman,composed
onlyofadeterminerandanoun.Theycanalsoincludemodifierssuchasadjectives(e.g.red,tall,all)and
specifierssuchasdeterminers(e.g.the,that).ButtheycanalsotietogetherseveralnounsintoasinglelongNP,
usingconjunctionssuchasand,orprepositionssuchaswith,e.g.thetallmanwiththelongredtrousersandhis
skinnywifewiththespectacles(thisNPusesconjunctions,prepositions,specifiersandmodifiers).Regardlessof
length,anNPfunctionsasasyntacticunit.Forexample,thepossessiveencliticcan,incaseswhichdonotleadto
ambiguity,followtheentirenounphrase,asinThePresidentofIndia'swife,wheretheencliticfollowsIndiaand
notPresident.
Theclassofdeterminersisusedtospecifythenountheyprecedeintermsofdefiniteness,wherethemarksa
definitenounandaorananindefiniteone.Adefinitenounisassumedbythespeakertobealreadyknownbythe
interlocutor,whereasanindefinitenounisnotspecifiedasbeingpreviouslyknown.Quantifiers,whichincludeone,
many,someandall,areusedtospecifythenounintermsofquantityornumber.Thenounmustagreewiththe
numberofthedeterminer,e.g.oneman(sg.)butallmen(pl.).Determinersarethefirstconstituentsinanoun
phrase.[164]
Adjectives
Adjectivesmodifyanounbyprovidingadditionalinformationabouttheirreferents.InEnglish,adjectivescome
beforethenounstheymodifyandafterdeterminers.[165]InModernEnglish,adjectivesarenotinflected,andthey
donotagreeinformwiththenountheymodify,asadjectivesinmostotherIndoEuropeanlanguagesdo.For
example,inthephrasestheslenderboy,andmanyslendergirls,theadjectiveslenderdoesnotchangeformto
agreewitheitherthenumberorgenderofthenoun.
Someadjectivesareinflectedfordegreeofcomparison,withthepositivedegreeunmarked,thesuffixermarking
thecomparative,andestmarkingthesuperlative:asmallboy,theboyissmallerthanthegirl,thatboyisthe
smallest.Someadjectiveshaveirregularcomparativeandsuperlativeforms,suchasgood,better,andbest.Other
adjectiveshavecomparativesformedbyperiphrasticconstructions,withtheadverbmoremarkingthecomparative,
andmostmarkingthesuperlative:happierormorehappy,thehappiestormosthappy.[166]Thereissomevariation
amongspeakersregardingwhichadjectivesuseinflectedorperiphrasticcomparison,andsomestudieshaveshown
atendencyfortheperiphrasticformstobecomemorecommonattheexpenseoftheinflectedform.[167]
Pronouns,caseandperson
Englishpronounsconservemanytraitsofcaseandgenderinflection.Thepersonalpronounsretainadifference
betweensubjectiveandobjectivecaseinmostpersons(I/me,he/him,she/her,we/us,they/them)aswellasagender
andanimatenessdistinctioninthethirdpersonsingular(distinguishinghe/she/it).Thesubjectivecasecorresponds
totheOldEnglishnominativecase,andtheobjectivecaseisusedbothinthesenseofthepreviousaccusativecase
(intheroleofpatient,ordirectobjectofatransitiveverb),andinthesenseoftheOldEnglishdativecase(inthe
roleofarecipientorindirectobjectofatransitiveverb).[168][169]Subjectivecaseisusedwhenthepronounisthe
subjectofafiniteclause,andotherwisetheobjectivecaseisused.[170]WhilegrammarianssuchasHenry
Sweet[171]andOttoJespersen[172]notedthattheEnglishcasesdidnotcorrespondtothetraditionalLatinbased
system,somecontemporarygrammars,forexampleHuddleston&Pullum(2002),retaintraditionallabelsforthe
cases,callingthemnominativeandaccusativecasesrespectively.
Possessivepronounsexistindependentandindependentformsthedependentformfunctionsasadeterminer
specifyinganoun(asinmychair),whiletheindependentformcanstandaloneasifitwereanoun(e.g.thechairis
mine).[173]TheEnglishsystemofgrammaticalpersonnolongerhasadistinctionbetweenformalandinformal
pronounsofaddress,andtheformsfor2ndpersonpluralandsingularareidenticalexceptinthereflexiveform.
Somedialectshaveintroducedinnovative2ndpersonpluralpronounssuchasy'allfoundinSouthernAmerican
EnglishandAfricanAmerican(Vernacular)EnglishoryouseandyefoundinIrishEnglish.
Englishpersonalpronouns
Subjective Objective Dependent Independent
Person Reflexive
case case possessive possessive
1stp.sg. I me my mine myself
2ndo.
you you your yours yourself
sg.
3rdp.sg. he/she/it him/her/it his/her/its his/hers/its himself/herself/itself
1stp.pl. we us our ours ourselves
2ndp.
you you your yours yourselves
pl.
3rdp.pl they them their theirs themselves
Pronounsareusedtorefertoentitiesdeicticallyoranaphorically.Adeicticpronounpointstosomepersonorobject
byidentifyingitrelativetothespeechsituationforexamplethepronounIidentifiesthespeaker,andthe
pronounyou,theaddressee.Anaphoricalpronounssuchasthatreferbacktoanentityalreadymentionedor
assumedbythespeakertobeknownbytheaudience,forexampleinthesentenceIalreadytoldyouthat.The
reflexivepronounsareusedwhentheobliqueargumentisidenticaltothesubjectofaphrase(e.g."hesentitto
himself"or"shebracedherselfforimpact").[174]
Prepositions
Prepositionalphrases(PP)arephrasescomposedofaprepositionandoneormorenouns,e.g.withthedog,formy
friend,toschool,inEngland.PrepositionshaveawiderangeofusesinEnglish.Theyareusedtodescribe
movement,place,andotherrelationsbetweendifferententities,buttheyalsohavemanysyntacticusessuchas
introducingcomplementclausesandobliqueargumentsofverbs.Forexample,inthephraseIgaveittohim,the
prepositiontomarkstherecipient,orIndirectObjectoftheverbtogive.Traditionallywordswereonlyconsidered
prepositionsiftheygovernedthecaseofthenountheypreceded,forexamplecausingthepronounstousethe
objectiveratherthansubjectiveform,"withher","tome","forus".Butsomecontemporarygrammarssuchasthat
ofHuddleston&Pullum(2002:598600)nolongerconsidergovernmentofcasetobethedefiningfeatureofthe
classofprepositions,ratherdefiningprepositionsaswordsthatcanfunctionastheheadsofprepositionalphrases.
Verbsandverbphrases
Englishverbsareinflectedfortenseandaspect,andmarkedforagreementwiththirdpersonsingularsubject.Only
thecopulaverbtobeisstillinflectedforagreementwiththepluralandfirstandsecondpersonsubjects.[166]
Auxiliaryverbssuchashaveandbearepairedwithverbsintheinfinitive,past,orprogressiveforms.Theyform
complextenses,aspects,andmoods.Auxiliaryverbsdifferfromotherverbsinthattheycanbefollowedbythe
negation,andinthattheycanoccurasthefirstconstituentinaquestionsentence.[175][176]
Mostverbshavesixinflectionalforms.Theprimaryformsareaplainpresent,athirdpersonsingularpresent,anda
preterite(past)form.Thesecondaryformsareaplainformusedfortheinfinitive,agerundparticipleandapast
participle.[177]Thecopulaverbtobeistheonlyverbtoretainsomeofitsoriginalconjugation,andtakesdifferent
inflectionalformsdependingonthesubject.Thefirstpersonpresenttenseformisam,thethirdpersonsingular
formisandtheformareisusedsecondpersonsingularandallthreeplurals.Theonlyverbpastparticipleisbeen
anditsgerundparticipleisbeing.
Englishinflectionalforms
Inflection Strong Regular
Plainpresent take love
3rdpersonsg.
takes loves
present
Preterite took loved
Plain(infinitive) take love
Gerundparticiple taking loving
Pastparticiple taken loved
Tense,aspectandmood
Englishhastwoprimarytenses,past(preterit)andnonpast.Thepreteritisinflectedbyusingthepreteritformof
theverb,whichfortheregularverbsincludesthesuffixed,andforthestrongverbseitherthesuffixtorachange
inthestemvowel.Thenonpastformisunmarkedexceptinthethirdpersonsingular,whichtakesthesuffixs.[175]
Present Preterite
Firstperson Irun Iran
Thirdperson Johnruns Johnran
Englishdoesnothaveamorphologisedfuturetense.[178]Futurityofactionisexpressedperiphrasticallywithoneof
theauxiliaryverbswillorshall.[179]Manyvarietiesalsouseanearfutureconstructedwiththephrasalverbbe
goingto.[180]
Future
Firstperson Iwillrun
Thirdperson Johnwillrun
Furtheraspectualdistinctionsareencodedbytheuseofauxiliaryverbs,primarilyhaveandbe,whichencodethe
contrastbetweenaperfectandnonperfectpasttense(Ihaverunvs.Iwasrunning),andcompoundtensessuchas
preteriteperfect(Ihadbeenrunning)andpresentperfect(Ihavebeenrunning).[181]
Fortheexpressionofmood,Englishusesanumberofmodalauxiliaries,suchascan,may,will,shallandthepast
tenseformscould,might,would,should.Thereisalsoasubjunctiveandanimperativemood,bothbasedonthe
plainformoftheverb(i.e.withoutthethirdpersonsingulars),andwhichisusedinsubordinateclauses(e.g.
subjunctive:ItisimportantthatheruneverydayimperativeRun!).[179]
Aninfinitiveform,thatusestheplainformoftheverbandtheprepositionto,isusedforverbalclausesthatare
syntacticallysubordinatetoafiniteverbalclause.Finiteverbalclausesarethosethatareformedaroundaverbin
thepresentorpreteritform.Inclauseswithauxiliaryverbstheyarethefiniteverbsandthemainverbistreatedasa
subordinateclause.Forexample,hehastogowhereonlytheauxiliaryverbhaveisinflectedfortimeandthemain
verbtogoisintheinfinitive,orinacomplementclausesuchasIsawhimleave,wherethemainverbistosee
whichisinapreteriteform,andleaveisintheinfinitive.
Phrasalverbs
Englishalsomakesfrequentuseofconstructionstraditionallycalledphrasalverbs,verbphrasesthataremadeupof
averbrootandaprepositionorparticlewhichfollowstheverb.Thephrasethenfunctionsasasinglepredicate.In
termsofintonationtheprepositionisfusedtotheverb,butinwritingitiswrittenasaseparateword.Examplesof
phrasalverbsaretogetup,toaskout,tobackup,togiveup,togettogether,tohangout,toputupwith,etc.The
phrasalverbfrequentlyhasahighlyidiomaticmeaningthatismorespecialisedandrestrictedthanwhatcanbe
simplyextrapolatedfromthecombinationofverbandprepositioncomplement(e.g.layoffmeaningterminate
someone'semployment).[182]Inspiteoftheidiomaticmeaning,somegrammarians,includingHuddleston&Pullum
(2002):274,donotconsiderthistypeofconstructiontoformasyntacticconstituentandhencerefrainfromusing
theterm"phrasalverb".Insteadtheyconsidertheconstructionsimplytobeaverbwithaprepositionalphraseasits
syntacticcomplement,i.e.hewokeupinthemorningandheranupinthemountainsaresyntacticallyequivalent.
Adverbs
Thefunctionofadverbsistomodifytheactionoreventdescribedbytheverbbyprovidingadditionalinformation
aboutthemannerinwhichitoccurs.Manyadverbsarederivedfromadjectiveswiththesuffixly,butnotall,and
manyspeakerstendtoomitthesuffixinthemostcommonlyusedadverbs.Forexample,inthephrasethewoman
walkedquicklytheadverbquicklyderivedfromtheadjectivequickdescribesthewoman'swayofwalking.Some
commonlyusedadjectiveshaveirregularadverbialforms,suchasgoodwhichhastheadverbialformwell.
Syntax
ModernEnglishsyntaxlanguageismoderatelyanalytic.[183]Ithasdevelopedfeaturessuchasmodalverbsand
wordorderasresourcesforconveyingmeaning.Auxiliaryverbsmarkconstructionssuchasquestions,negative
polarity,thepassivevoiceandprogressiveaspect.
Basicconstituentorder
EnglishwordorderhasmovedfromtheGermanicverbsecond(V2)wordordertobeingalmostexclusively
subjectverbobject(SVO).[184]ThecombinationofSVOorderanduseofauxiliaryverbsoftencreatesclustersof
twoormoreverbsatthecentreofthesentence,suchashehadhopedtotrytoopenit.
InmostsentencesEnglishonlymarksgrammaticalrelationsthroughword
order.[185]Thesubjectconstituentprecedestheverbandtheobject
constituentfollowsit.Theexamplebelowdemonstrateshowthe
grammaticalrolesofeachconstituentismarkedonlybytheposition
relativetotheverb:
Thedog bites theman

S V O
Theman bites thedog
S V O IntheEnglishsentenceThecatsaton
themat,thesubjectisthecat(aNP),
Anexceptionisfoundinsentenceswhereoneoftheconstituentsisa theverbissat,andonthematisa
pronoun,inwhichcaseitisdoublymarked,bothbywordorderandbycase prepositionalphrase(composedofan
inflection,wherethesubjectpronounprecedestheverbandtakesthe NPthemat,andheadedbythe
subjectivecaseform,andtheobjectpronounfollowstheverbandtakesthe prepositionon).Thetreedescribes
objectivecaseform.Theexamplebelowdemonstratesthisdoublemarking thestructureofthesentence.
inasentencewherebothobjectandsubjectisrepresentedwithathird
personsingularmasculinepronoun:
He hit him
S V O
Indirectobjects(IO)ofditransitiveverbscanbeplacedeitherasthefirstobjectinadoubleobjectconstruction(S
VIOO),suchasIgaveJanethebookorinaprepositionalphrase,suchasIgavethebooktoJane[186]
Clausesyntax
InEnglishasentencemaybecomposedofoneormoreclauses,thatmayinturnbecomposedofoneormore
phrases(e.g.NounPhrases,VerbPhrases,andPrepositionalPhrases).Aclauseisbuiltaroundaverb,andincludes
itsconstituents,suchasanyNPsandPPs.Withinasentenceoneclauseisalwaysthemainclause(ormatrixclause)
whereasotherclausesaresubordinatetoit.Subordinateclausesmayfunctionasargumentsoftheverbinthemain
clause.Forexample,inthephraseIthink(that)youarelying,themainclauseisheadedbytheverbthink,the
subjectisI,buttheobjectofthephraseisthesubordinateclause(that)youarelying.Thesubordinating
conjunctionthatshowsthattheclausethatfollowsisasubordinateclause,butitisoftenomitted.[187]Relative
clausesareclausesthatfunctionasamodifierorspecifiertosomeconstituentinthemainclause:Forexample,in
thesentenceIsawtheletterthatyoureceivedtoday,therelativeclausethatyoureceivedtodayspecifiesthe
meaningofthewordletter,theobjectofthemainclause.Relativeclausescanbeintroducedbythepronounswho,
whose,whomandwhichaswellasbythat(whichcanalsobeomitted.)[188]IncontrasttomanyotherGermanic
languagesthereisnomajordifferencesbetweenwordorderinmainandsubordinateclauses.[189]
Auxiliaryverbconstructions
Englishsyntaxreliesonauxiliaryverbsformanyfunctionsincludingtheexpressionoftense,aspectandmood.
Auxiliaryverbsformmainclauses,andthemainverbsfunctionasheadsofasubordinateclauseoftheauxiliary
verb.Forexample,inthesentencethedogdidnotfinditsbone,theclausefinditsboneisthecomplementofthe
negatedverbdidnot.Subjectauxiliaryinversionisusedinmanyconstructions,includingfocus,negation,and
interrogativeconstructions.
Theverbdocanbeusedasanauxiliaryeveninsimpledeclarativesentences,whereitusuallyservestoadd
emphasis,asin"Ididshutthefridge."However,inthenegatedandinvertedclausesreferredtoabove,itisused
becausetherulesofEnglishsyntaxpermittheseconstructionsonlywhenanauxiliaryispresent.ModernEnglish
doesnotallowtheadditionofthenegatingadverbnottoanordinaryfinitelexicalverb,asin*Iknownotitcan
onlybeaddedtoanauxiliary(orcopular)verb,henceifthereisnootherauxiliarypresentwhennegationis
required,theauxiliarydoisused,toproduceaformlikeIdonot(don't)know.Thesameappliesinclauses
requiringinversion,includingmostquestionsinversionmustinvolvethesubjectandanauxiliaryverb,soitisnot
possibletosay*Knowyouhim?grammaticalrulesrequireDoyouknowhim?[190]
Negationisdonewiththeadverbnot,whichprecedesthemainverbandfollowsanauxiliaryverb.Acontracted
formofnotn'tcanbeusedasanencliticattachingtoauxiliaryverbsandtothecopulaverbtobe.Justaswith
questions,manynegativeconstructionsrequirethenegationtooccurwithdosupport,thusinModernEnglishI
don'tknowhimisthecorrectanswertothequestionDoyouknowhim?,butnot*Iknowhimnot,althoughthis
constructionmaybefoundinolderEnglish.[191]
Passiveconstructionsalsouseauxiliaryverbs.Apassiveconstructionrephrasesanactiveconstructioninsucha
waythattheobjectoftheactivephrasebecomesthesubjectofthepassivephrase,andthesubjectoftheactive
phraseiseitheromittedordemotedtoaroleasanobliqueargumentintroducedinaprepositionalphrase.Theyare
formedbyusingthepastparticipleeitherwiththeauxiliaryverbtobeortoget,althoughnotallvarietiesof
Englishallowtheuseofpassiveswithget.Forexample,puttingthesentencesheseeshimintothepassivebecomes
heisseen(byher),orhegetsseen(byher).[192]
Questions
BothyesnoquestionsandwhquestionsinEnglisharemostlyformedusingsubjectauxiliaryinversion(AmI
goingtomorrow?,Wherecanweeat?),whichmayrequiredosupport(Doyoulikeher?,Wheredidhego?).In
mostcases,interrogativewords(whwordse.g.what,who,where,when,why,how)appearinafrontedposition.
Forexample,inthequestionWhatdidyousee?,thewordwhatappearsasthefirstconstituentdespitebeingthe
grammaticalobjectofthesentence.(Whenthewhwordisthesubjectorformspartofthesubject,noinversion
occurs:Whosawthecat?.)Prepositionalphrasescanalsobefrontedwhentheyarethequestion'stheme,e.g.To
whosehousedidyougolastnight?.Thepersonalinterrogativepronounwhoistheonlyinterrogativepronounto
stillshowinflectionforcase,withthevariantwhomservingastheobjectivecaseform,althoughthisformmaybe
goingoutofuseinmanycontexts.[193]
Discourselevelsyntax
AtthediscourselevelEnglishtendstouseatopiccommentstructure,wheretheknowninformation(topic)
precedesthenewinformation(comment).BecauseofthestrictSVOsyntax,thetopicofasentencegenerallyhasto
bethegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence.Incaseswherethetopicisnotthegrammaticalsubjectofthesentence,
frequentlythetopicispromotedtosubjectpositionthroughsyntacticmeans.Onewayofdoingthisisthrougha
passiveconstruction,thegirlwasstungbythebee.Anotherwayisthroughacleftsentencewherethemainclause
isdemotedtobeacomplementclauseofacopulasentencewithadummysubjectsuchasitorthere,e.g.itwasthe
girlthatthebeestung,therewasagirlwhowasstungbyabee.[194]Dummysubjectsarealsousedinconstructions
wherethereisnogrammaticalsubjectsuchaswithimpersonalverbs(e.g.,itisraining)orinexistentialclauses
(therearemanycarsonthestreet).Throughtheuseofthesecomplexsentenceconstructionswithinformationally
vacuoussubjects,EnglishisabletomaintainbothatopiccommentsentencestructureandaSVOsyntax.
Focusconstructionsemphasiseaparticularpieceofneworsalientinformationwithinasentence,generallythrough
allocatingthemainsentencelevelstressonthefocalconstituent.Forexample,thegirlwasstungbyabee
(emphasisingitwasabeeandnotforexampleawaspthatstungher),orThegirlwasstungbyabee(contrasting
withanotherpossibility,forexamplethatitwastheboy).[195]Topicandfocuscanalsobeestablishedthrough
syntacticdislocation,eitherpreposingorpostposingtheitemtobefocusedonrelativetothemainclause.For
example,Thatgirloverthere,shewasstungbyabee,emphasisesthegirlbypreposition,butasimilareffectcould
beachievedbypostposition,shewasstungbyabee,thatgirloverthere,wherereferencetothegirlisestablished
asan"afterthought".[196]
Cohesionbetweensentencesisachievedthroughtheuseofdeicticpronounsasanaphora(e.g.thatisexactlywhatI
meanwherethatreferstosomefactknowntobothinterlocutors,orthenusedtolocatethetimeofanarratedevent
relativetothetimeofapreviouslynarratedevent).[197]Discoursemarkerssuchasoh,soorwell,alsosignalthe
progressionofideasbetweensentencesandhelptocreatecohesion.Discoursemarkersareoftenthefirst
constituentsinsentences.Discoursemarkersarealsousedforstancetakinginwhichspeakerspositionthemselves
inaspecificattitudetowardswhatisbeingsaid,forexample,nowayisthattrue!(theidiomaticmarkernoway!
expressingdisbelief),orboy!I'mhungry(themarkerboyexpressingemphasis).Whilediscoursemarkersare
particularlycharacteristicofinformalandspokenregistersofEnglish,theyarealsousedinwrittenandformal
registers.[198]
Vocabulary
ThevocabularyofEnglishisvast,andcountingexactlyhowmanywordsEnglish(oranylanguage)hasis
impossible.[199][200][201]TheOxfordDictionariessuggestthatthereareatleastaquarterofamilliondistinct
Englishwords.[199]EarlystudiesofEnglishvocabularybylexicographers,thescholarswhoformallystudy
vocabulary,compiledictionaries,orboth,wereimpededbyalackofcomprehensivedataonactualvocabularyin
usefromgoodqualitylinguisticcorpora,[202]collectionsofactualwrittentextsandspokenpassages.Many
statementspublishedbeforetheendofthe20thcenturyaboutthegrowthofEnglishvocabularyovertime,thedates
offirstuseofvariouswordsinEnglish,andthesourcesofEnglishvocabularywillhavetobecorrectedasnew
computerisedanalysisoflinguisticcorpusdatabecomesavailable.[201][203]
Wordformationprocesses
Englishformsnewwordsfromexistingwordsorrootsinitsvocabularythroughavarietyofprocesses.Oneofthe
mostproductiveprocessesinEnglishisconversion,[204]usingawordwithadifferentgrammaticalrole,for
exampleusinganounasaverboraverbasanoun.Anotherproductivewordformationprocessisnominal
compounding,[201][203]producingcompoundwordssuchasbabysitteroricecreamorhomesick.[204]Aprocess
morecommoninOldEnglishthaninModernEnglish,butstillproductiveinModernEnglish,istheuseof
derivationalsuffixes(hood,ness,ing,ility)toderivenewwordsfromexistingwords(especiallythoseof
Germanicorigin)orstems(especiallyforwordsofLatinorGreekorigin).Formationofnewwords,called
neologisms,basedonGreekorLatinroots(forexampletelevisionoroptometry)isahighlyproductiveprocessin
EnglishandinmostmodernEuropeanlanguages,somuchsothatitisoftendifficulttodetermineinwhich
languageaneologismoriginated.Forthisreason,lexicographerPhilipGoveattributedmanysuchwordstothe
"internationalscientificvocabulary"(ISV)whencompilingWebster'sThirdNewInternationalDictionary(1961).
AnotheractivewordformationprocessinEnglishisacronyms,[205]wordsformedbypronouncingasasingleword
abbreviationsoflongerphrases(e.g.NATO,laser).
Wordorigins
English,besidesformingnewwordsfromexistingwordsandtheirroots,alsoborrowswordsfromotherlanguages.
Thisprocessofaddingwordsfromotherlanguagesiscommonplaceinmanyworldlanguages,butEnglishis
characterisedasbeingespeciallyopentoborrowingofforeignwordsthroughoutthelast1,000years.[207]Themost
commonlyusedwordsinEnglishareWestGermanic.[208]Thewordsin
Englishlearnedfirstbychildrenastheylearntospeak,particularlythe
grammaticalwordsthatdominatethewordcountofbothspokenand
writtentexts,aretheGermanicwordsinheritedfromtheearliestperiodsof
thedevelopmentofOldEnglish.[201]Butoneoftheconsequencesoflong
languagecontactbetweenFrenchandEnglishinallstagesoftheir
developmentisthatthevocabularyofEnglishhasaveryhighpercentageof
"Latinate"words(derivedfromFrench,especially,andalsofromLatinor
fromotherRomancelanguages).[209]Frenchwordsfromvariousperiodsof
thedevelopmentofFrenchnowmakeuponethirdofthevocabularyof
English.[210]
EnglishhasalsoborrowedmanywordsdirectlyfromLatin,theancestorof SourcelanguagesofEnglish
theRomancelanguages,duringallstagesofitsdevelopment.[203][201]Many vocabulary[6][206]
ofthesewordswereearlierborrowedintoLatinfromGreek.LatinorGreek
arestillhighlyproductivesourcesofstemsusedtoformvocabularyofsubjectslearnedinhighereducationsuchas
thesciences,philosophy,andmathematics.[211]Englishcontinuestogainnewloanwordsandcalques("loan
translations")fromlanguagesallovertheworld,andwordsfromlanguagesotherthantheancestralAngloSaxon
languagemakeupabout60percentofthevocabularyofEnglish.[212]Englishhasformalandinformalspeech
registers,andinformalregisters,includingchilddirectedspeech,tendtobemadeuppredominantlyofwordsof
AngloSaxonorigin,whilethepercentageofvocabularythatisofLatinateoriginishigherinlegal,scientific,and
academictexts.[213][214]
Englishloanwordsandcalquesinotherlanguages
Englishhasastronginfluenceonthevocabularyofotherlanguages.[210][215]TheinfluenceofEnglishcomesfrom
suchfactorsasopinionleadersinothercountriesknowingtheEnglishlanguage,theroleofEnglishasaworld
linguafranca,andthelargenumberofbooksandfilmsthataretranslatedfromEnglishintootherlanguages.[216]
ThatpervasiveuseofEnglishleadstoaconclusioninmanyplacesthatEnglishisanespeciallysuitablelanguage
forexpressingnewideasordescribingnewtechnologies.AmongvarietiesofEnglish,itisespeciallyAmerican
Englishthatinfluencesotherlanguages.[217]Somelanguages,suchasChinese,writewordsborrowedfromEnglish
mostlyascalques,whileothers,suchasJapanese,readilytakeinEnglishloanwordswritteninsoundindicating
script.[218]DubbedfilmsandtelevisionprogrammesareanespeciallyfruitfulsourceofEnglishinfluenceon
languagesinEurope.[218]
Writingsystem
Sincetheninthcentury,EnglishhasbeenwritteninaLatinalphabet(alsocalledRomanalphabet).EarlierOld
EnglishtextsinAngloSaxonrunesareonlyshortinscriptions.ThegreatmajorityofliteraryworksinOldEnglish
thatsurvivetotodayarewrittenintheRomanalphabet.[29]ThemodernEnglishalphabetcontains26lettersofthe
Latinscript:a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,i,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z(whichalsohavecapitalforms:A,B,C,
D,E,F,G,H,I,J,K,L,M,N,O,P,Q,R,S,T,U,V,W,X,Y,Z).
Thespellingsystem,ororthography,ofEnglishismultilayered,withelementsofFrench,Latin,andGreek
spellingontopofthenativeGermanicsystem.[219]Furthercomplicationshavearisenthroughsoundchangeswith
whichtheorthographyhasnotkeptpace.[41]ComparedtoEuropeanlanguagesforwhichofficialorganisations
havepromotedspellingreforms,Englishhasspellingthatisalessconsistentindicatorofpronunciationand
standardspellingsofwordsthataremoredifficulttoguessfromknowinghowawordispronounced.[220]Thereare
alsosystematicspellingdifferencesbetweenBritishandAmericanEnglish.Thesesituationshaveprompted
proposalsforspellingreforminEnglish.[221]
AlthoughlettersandspeechsoundsdonothaveaonetoonecorrespondenceinstandardEnglishspelling,spelling
rulesthattakeintoaccountsyllablestructure,phoneticchangesinderivedwords,andwordaccentarereliablefor
mostEnglishwords.[222]Moreover,standardEnglishspellingshowsetymologicalrelationshipsbetweenrelated
wordsthatwouldbeobscuredbyaclosercorrespondencebetweenpronunciationandspelling,forexamplethe
wordsphotograph,photography,andphotographic,[222]orthewordselectricityandelectrical.Whilefewscholars
agreewithChomskyandHalle(1968)thatconventionalEnglishorthographyis"nearoptimal",[219]thereisa
rationaleforcurrentEnglishspellingpatterns.[223]ThestandardorthographyofEnglishisthemostwidelyused
writingsystemintheworld.[224]StandardEnglishspellingisbasedonagraphomorphemicsegmentationofwords
intowrittencluesofwhatmeaningfulunitsmakeupeachword.[225]
ReadersofEnglishcangenerallyrelyonthecorrespondencebetweenspellingandpronunciationtobefairly
regularforlettersordigraphsusedtospellconsonantsounds.Thelettersb,d,f,h,j,k,l,m,n,p,r,s,t,v,w,y,z
represent,respectively,thephonemes/b,d,f,h,d,k,l,m,n,p,r,s,t,v,w,j,z/.Theletterscandgnormally
represent/k/and//,butthereisalsoasoftcpronounced/s/,andasoftgpronounced/d/.Thedifferencesinthe
pronunciationsoftheletterscandgareoftensignalledbythefollowinglettersinstandardEnglishspelling.
Digraphsusedtorepresentphonemesandphonemesequencesincludechfor/t/,shfor//,thfor//or//,ngfor/
/,qufor/kw/,andphfor/f/inGreekderivedwords.Thesingleletterxisgenerallypronouncedas/z/inword
initialpositionandas/ks/otherwise.Thereareexceptionstothesegeneralisations,oftentheresultofloanwords
beingspelledaccordingtothespellingpatternsoftheirlanguagesoforigin[222]orproposalsbypedanticscholarsin
theearlyperiodofModernEnglishtomistakenlyfollowthespellingpatternsofLatinforEnglishwordsof
Germanicorigin.[226]
ForthevowelsoundsoftheEnglishlanguage,however,correspondencesbetweenspellingandpronunciationare
moreirregular.TherearemanymorevowelphonemesinEnglishthantherearevowelletters(a,e,i,o,u,w,y).As
aresultofasmallersetofsinglelettersymbolsthanthesetofvowelphonemes,some"longvowels"areoften
indicatedbycombinationsofletters(liketheoainboat,theowinhow,andtheayinstay),orthehistoricallybased
silente(asinnoteandcake).[223]
TheconsequenceofthiscomplexorthographichistoryisthatlearningtoreadcanbechallenginginEnglish.Itcan
takelongerforschoolpupilstobecomeindependentlyfluentreadersofEnglishthanofmanyotherlanguages,
includingItalian,Spanish,orGerman.[227]Nonetheless,thereisanadvantageforlearnersofEnglishreadingin
learningthespecificsoundsymbolregularitiesthatoccurinthestandardEnglishspellingsofcommonlyused
words.[222]SuchinstructiongreatlyreducestheriskofchildrenexperiencingreadingdifficultiesinEnglish.[228][229]
MakingprimaryschoolteachersmoreawareoftheprimacyofmorphemerepresentationinEnglishmayhelp
learnerslearnmoreefficientlytoreadandwriteEnglish.[230]
Englishwritingalsoincludesasystemofpunctuationthatissimilartothesystemofpunctuationmarksusedin
mostalphabeticlanguagesaroundtheworld.Thepurposeofpunctuationistomarkmeaningfulgrammatical
relationshipsinsentencestoaidreadersinunderstandingatextandtoindicatefeaturesimportantforreadingatext
aloud.[231]
Dialects,accents,andvarieties
DialectologistsdistinguishbetweenEnglishdialects,regionalvarietiesthatdifferfromeachotherintermsof
grammarandvocabulary,andregionalaccents,distinguishedbydifferentpatternsofpronunciation.Themajor
nativedialectsofEnglishareoftendividedbylinguistsintothetwogeneralcategoriesoftheBritishdialects(BrE)
andthoseofNorthAmerica(AmE).[232]TherealsoexistsagroupingofmajornativevarietiesofEnglishinthe
southernhemisphere,themostprominentbeingAustralianandNewZealandEnglish.
UKandIreland
AstheplacewhereEnglishfirstevolved,theBritishIsles,andparticularly
England,arehometothemostvariegatedpatternofdialects.Withinthe
UnitedKingdom,theReceivedPronunciation(RP),aneducateddialectof
SouthEastEngland,istraditionallyusedasthebroadcaststandard,andis
consideredthemostprestigiousoftheBritishdialects.ThespreadofRP
(alsoknownasBBCEnglish)throughthemediahascausedmany
traditionaldialectsofruralEnglandtorecede,asyouthsadoptthetraitsof
theprestigevarietyinsteadoftraitsfromlocaldialects.Atthetimeofthe
SurveyofEnglishDialects,grammarandvocabularydifferedacrossthe
country,butaprocessoflexicalattritionhasledmostofthisvariationto
disappear.[233]Nonethelessthisattritionhasmostlyaffecteddialectal
variationingrammarandvocabulary,andinfactonly3percentofthe
EnglishpopulationactuallyspeakRP,theremainderspeakingregional
accentsanddialectswithvaryingdegreesofRPinfluence.[234]Thereisalso
variabilitywithinRP,particularlyalongclasslinesbetweenUpperand
MiddleclassRPspeakersandbetweennativeRPspeakersandspeakers
whoadoptRPlaterinlife.[235]WithinBritainthereisalsoconsiderable
Mapshowingthemaindialectregions
variationalonglinesofsocialclass,andsometraitsthoughexceedingly
intheUKandIreland
commonareconsidered"nonstandard"andareassociatedwithlowerclass
speakersandidentities.AnexampleofthisisHdropping,whichwas
historicallyafeatureoflowerclassLondonEnglish,particularlyCockney,butwhichtodayisthestandardinall
majorEnglishcitiesyetitremainslargelyabsentinbroadcastingandamongtheuppercrustofBritish
society.[236]
EnglishinEnglandcanbedividedintofourmajordialect
Speechexample
regions,SouthwestEnglish,SouthEastEnglish,Midlands
English,andNorthernEnglish.Withineachoftheseregions 0:00
severallocalsubdialectsexist:WithintheNorthernregion,there
AnexampleofanEssexmalewitha
isadivisionbetweentheYorkshiredialects,andtheGeordie workingclassEstuaryaccent
dialectspokeninNorthumbriaaroundNewcastle,andthe (entertainerRussellBrand)
LancashiredialectswithlocalurbandialectsinLiverpool
(Scouse)andManchester(Mancunian).Havingbeenthecentre Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
ofDanishoccupationduringtheVikingInvasions,Northern
Englishdialects,particularlytheYorkshiredialect,retainNorsefeaturesnotfoundinotherEnglishvarieties.[237]
Sincethe15thcentury,SoutheasternvarietiescentredaroundLondon,whichhasbeenthecentrefromwhich
dialectalinnovationshavespreadtootherdialects.InLondon,theCockneydialectwastraditionallyusedbythe
lowerclasses,anditwaslongasociallystigmatisedvariety.TodayalargeareaofSoutheasternEnglandhas
adoptedtraitsfromCockney,resultinginthesocalledEstuaryEnglishwhichspreadinareassouthandEastof
Londonbeginninginthe1980s.EstuaryEnglishisdistinguishedbytraitssuchastheuseofintrusiveR(drawingis
pronounceddrawring/drr/),tglottalisation(PotterispronouncedwithaglottalstopasPo'er/po/),andthe
pronunciationofthas/f/(thankspronouncedfanks)or/v/(botherpronouncedbover).[238]
ScotsistodayconsideredaseparatelanguagefromEnglish,but
ithasitsoriginsinearlyNorthernMiddleEnglish[239]and Speechexample
developedandchangedduringitshistorywithinfluencefrom 0:00
othersources,particularlyScotsGaelicandOldNorse.Scots
itselfhasanumberofregionaldialects.Andinadditionto AnexampleofaScottishmalewitha
middleclassRenfrewshireaccent
Scots,ScottishEnglisharethevarietiesofStandardEnglish
spokeninScotland,mostvarietiesareNorthernEnglishaccents,
Problemsplayingthisfile?Seemediahelp.
withsomeinfluencefromScots.[240]
InIreland,variousformsofEnglishhavebeenspokensincetheNormaninvasionsofthe11thcentury.InCounty
Wexford,intheareasurroundingDublin,twohighlyconservativedialectsknownasForthandBargyand
FingalliandevelopedasoffshootsfromEarlyMiddleEnglish,andwerespokenuntilthe19thcentury.Modern
HibernoEnglishhoweverhasitsrootsinEnglishcolonisationinthe17thcentury.TodayIrishEnglishisdivided
intoUlsterEnglish,adialectwithstronginfluencefromScots,andsouthernHibernoEnglish.LikeScotsand
NorthernEnglish,theIrishaccentspreservetherhoticitywhichhasbeenlostinmostdialectsinfluencedby
RP.[16][241]
NorthAmerica
AmericanEnglishisgenerallyconsideredfairlyhomogeneouscomparedto
theBritishvarieties.Today,Americanaccentvariationisinfact
increasing,[242]thoughmostAmericansstillspeakwithinaphonological
continuumofsimilaraccents,[243]knowncollectivelyasGeneralAmerican
(GA),withitsdifferingaccentshardlynoticedevenamongAmericans
themselves(suchasMidlandandWesternAmericanEnglish).[244][245][246]
SeparatefromGAareAmericanaccentswithclearlydistinctsound
systemsthishistoricallyincludesSouthernAmericanEnglish,Englishof
thecoastalNortheast(famouslyincludingEasternNewEnglandEnglish
andNewYorkCityEnglish),andAfricanAmericanVernacularEnglish.
CanadianEnglish,exceptfortheMaritimeprovinces,maybeclassified
underGAaswell,butitoftenshowsuniquevowelraising,aswellas
distinctnormsforwrittenandpronunciationstandards.[247]InGAand
CanadianEnglish,rhoticity(orrfulness)isdominant,withnonrhoticity(r
dropping)becomingassociatedwithlowerprestigeandsocialclass
especiallyafterWorldWarIIthiscontrastswiththesituationinEngland,
RhoticitydominatesinNorth wherenonrhoticityhasbecomethestandard.[248]
AmericanEnglish.TheAtlasofNorth
AmericanEnglishfoundover50%
InSouthernAmericanEnglish,thelargestAmerican"accentgroup"outside
ofGA,[249]rhoticitynowstronglyprevails,replacingtheregion'shistorical
nonrhoticity,though,inatleastone
localwhitespeakerineachU.S. nonrhoticprestige,[250]thoughsocialvariationmaystillapply.[251][252]
metropolitanareadesignatedhereby Southernaccentsarecolloquiallydescribedasa"drawl"or"twang,"[253]
areddot.NonrhoticAfrican beingrecognisedmostreadilybytheSouthernVowelShiftthatbeginswith
AmericanVernacularEnglish glidedeletinginthe/a/vowel(e.g.pronouncingspyalmostlikespa),the
pronunciationsmaybefoundamong "Southernbreaking"ofseveralfrontpurevowelsintoaglidingvowelor
AfricanAmericansregardlessof eventwosyllables(e.g.pronouncingtheword"press"almostlike"pray
location.
us"),[254]thepinpenmerger,andotherdistinctivephonologial,
grammatical,andlexicalfeatures,manyofwhichareactuallyrecent
developmentsofthe19thcenturyorlater.[255]
TodayspokenprimarilybyworkingandmiddleclassAfricanAmericans,AfricanAmericanVernacularEnglish
(AAVE)isalsolargelynonrhoticandlikelyoriginatedamongenslavedAfricansandAfricanAmericans
influencedprimarilybythenonrhotic,nonstandardEnglishspokenbywhitesintheOldSouth.Aminorityof
linguists,[256]contrarily,proposethatAAVEmostlytracesbacktoAfricanlanguagesspokenbytheslaveswhohad
todevelopapidginorCreoleEnglishtocommunicatewithslavesofotherethnicandlinguisticorigins.[257]AAVE
sharesimportantcommonalitieswitholderSouthernAmericanEnglishandsoprobablydevelopedtoahighly
coherentandhomogeneousvarietyinthe19thorearly20thcentury.AAVEiscommonlystigmatisedinNorth
Americaasaformof"broken"or"uneducated"English,alsocommonofmodernSouthernAmericanEnglish,but
linguiststodayrecognisebothasfullydevelopedvarietiesofEnglishwiththeirownnormssharedbyalarge
speechcommunity.[258][259]
AustraliaandNewZealand
Since1788EnglishhasbeenspokeninOceania,andthemajornativedialectofAustralianEnglishisspokenasa
firstlanguagebythevastmajorityoftheinhabitantsoftheAustraliancontinent,withGeneralAustralianservingas
thestandardaccent.TheEnglishofneighbouringNewZealandhastoalesserdegreebecomeaninfluential
standardvarietyofthelanguage.[260]AustralianandNewZealandEnglisharemostcloselyrelatedtoeachother,
followedbySouthAfricanEnglishandtheEnglishofsoutheasternEngland,andbothhavesimilarlynonrhotic
accents,asidefromsomeaccentsintheSouthIslandofNewZealand.Theystandoutfortheirinnovativevowels:
manyshortvowelsarefrontedorraised,whereasmanylongvowelshavediphthongised.AustralianEnglishalso
hasacontrastbetweenlongandshortvowels,notfoundinmostothervarieties.AustralianEnglishgrammardiffers
fromBritishandAmericanEnglishonlyinfewinstances,onedifferenceisthelackofverbalconcordwith
collectivepluralsubjects.[261][262]NewZealandEnglishdifferslittlefromAustralianEnglish,butafew
characteristicssetsitsaccentapart,suchastheuseof[]forwhanditsfrontvowelsbeingevencloserthanin
AustralianEnglish.[263][264][265]
Africa,theCaribbean,andSouthAsia
EnglishisspokenwidelyinSouthAfricaandisanofficialorcoofficiallanguageinseveralcountries.InSouth
Africa,Englishhasbeenspokensince1820,coexistingwithAfrikaansandvariousAfricanlanguagessuchasthe
KhoeandBantulanguages.Todayabout9percentoftheSouthAfricanpopulationspeakSouthAfricanEnglish
(SAE)asafirstlanguage.SAEisanonrhoticvariety,whichtendstofollowRPasanorm.Itisaloneamongnon
rhoticvarietiesinlackingintrusiver.TherearedifferentL2varietiesthatdifferbasedonthenativelanguageofthe
speakers.[266]MostphonologicaldifferencesfromRPareinthevowels.[267]Consonantdifferencesincludethe
tendencytopronounce/p,t,t,k/withoutaspiration(e.g.pinpronounced[pn]ratherthanas[pn]asinmostother
varieties),whilerisoftenpronouncedasaflap[]insteadofasthemorecommonfricative.[268]
SeveralvarietiesofEnglisharealsospokenintheCaribbeanIslandsthatwerecolonialpossessionsofBritain,
includingJamaica,andtheLeewardandWindwardIslandsandTrinidadandTobago,Barbados,theCayman
Islands,andBelize.EachoftheseareasarehomebothtoalocalvarietyofEnglishandalocalEnglishbased
creole,combiningEnglishandAfricanlanguages.ThemostprominentvarietiesareJamaicanEnglishand
JamaicanCreole.InCentralAmerica,EnglishbasedcreolesarespokeninontheCaribbeancoastsofNicaragua
andPanama.[269]LocalsareoftenfluentbothinthelocalEnglishvarietyandthelocalcreolelanguagesandcode
switchingbetweenthemisfrequent,indeedanotherwaytoconceptualisetherelationshipbetweenCreoleand
StandardvarietiesistoseeaspectrumofsocialregisterswiththeCreoleformsservingas"basilect"andthemore
RPlikeformsservingasthe"acrolect",themostformalregister.[270]
MostCaribbeanvarietiesarebasedonBritishEnglishandconsequentlymostarenonrhotic,exceptforformal
stylesofJamaicanEnglishwhichareoftenrhotic.JamaicanEnglishdiffersfromRPinitsvowelinventory,which
hasadistinctionbetweenlongandshortvowelsratherthantenseandlaxvowelsasinStandardEnglish.The
diphthongs/ei/and/ou/aremonophthongs[e]and[o]oreventhereversediphthongs[ie]and[uo](e.g.bayand
boatpronounced[be]and[bot]).Oftenwordfinalconsonantclustersaresimplifiedsothat"child"ispronounced
[tail]and"wind"[win].[271][272][273]
Asahistoricallegacy,IndianEnglishtendstotakeRPasitsideal,andhowwellthisidealisrealisedinan
individual'sspeechreflectsclassdistinctionsamongIndianEnglishspeakers.IndianEnglishaccentsaremarkedby
thepronunciationofphonemessuchas/t/and/d/(oftenpronouncedwithretroflexarticulationas[]and[])and
thereplacementof//and//withdentals[t ]and[d].SometimesIndianEnglishspeakersmayalsousespelling
basedpronunciationswherethesilenthfoundinwordssuchasghostispronouncedasanIndianvoicedaspirated
stop[].[274]
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Externallinks
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