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Early Arab conquest of what is now Pakistan by Muhammad bin Qasim

for Umayyad caliphate rule c. 711 CE.

Junaid b. Abd Al Rahman Al Marri became the governor of Sindh in 723

AD. Secured Debal, then defeat and killed Jai Singh secured Sindh and
Southern Punjaband stormed Al Kiraj (Kangra valley) in 724 AD Junaid Indian records at Navasari[ details that Arab forces
next attacked a number of Hindu kingdoms in what is now Rajasthan,
Gujrat and Madhya Pradesh aiming at permanent conquest, but the
defeated "Kacchella, Saindhava, Saurashtra, Cavotaka,
chronology and area of operation of the campaigns during 725 - 743 Maurya and Gurjara" kings . The city of Al
AD is difficult to follow because accurate, complete information is Mansura ("The Victorious") was founded near Al
lacking. The Arabs moved east from Sindh in several detachments and
probably from attacked from both the land and the sea,
Mahfuza to commemorate pacification of Sindh by
occupying Mirmad(Marumada, in Jaisalmer), Al-Mandal (perhaps Oka- Amr b. Muhammad in c738 AD. Al Hakam next
Mandal in Gujarat) or Marwar, and Dahnaj, not identified, al- invaded the Deccan in 739 AD with the intention of
Baylaman (Bhilmal) and Jurz (Gurjara countrynorth Gujarat and
southern Rajasthan). and attacking Barwas (Broach), sacking Vallabhi.
permanent conquest, but was decisively defeated
Gurjara king Siluka repelled Arabs from "Stravani and Valla", probably at Navsari by the viceroyAvanijanashraya Pulakesi of
the area North of Jaisalmer and Jodhpur, and the invasion of Malwa but the Chalukya Empire serving Vikramaditya II. Arab
were ultimately defeated by Nagabhata I in 725 AD near Ujjain. Arabs
lost control over the newly conquered territories and Sind due to Arab
rule was restricted to the west of Thar desert.
tribal infighting and Arab soldiers deserting the newly conquered
territory during in 731 AD.

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` Ghaznavid rule in North western India (modern Afghanistan and
Pakistan) lasted over 175 years, from 1010 to 1187. It was
during this period that Lahore assumed considerable importance
apart from being the second capital, and later the only capital, of
the Ghaznavid Empire.
At the end of his reign, Mahmud's empire extended
`
from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand in the Northeast, and
from the Caspian Sea to the Punjab. Although his raids carried
his forces across Northern and Western India, only Punjab came
under his permanent
rule; Kashmir,the Doab, Rajasthan,and Gujarat remained under
the control of the local Indian dynasties. In 1030, Mahmud fell
gravely ill and died at age 59. As with the invaders of three
centuries ago, Mahmud's armies looted temples in Varanasi,
Mathura, Ujjain, Maheshwar, Jwalamukhi, Somnath and Dwarka
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` In the early 11th century, Mahmud of Ghazni launched
seventeen expeditions into South Asia. In 1001, Sultan
Mahmud of Ghazni defeated Raja Jayapala of the Hindu
Shahi Dynasty of Gandhara (in modern Afghanistan),
the Battle of Peshawar and marched further into Peshawar (in
modern Pakistan) and, in 1005, made it the centre for his
forces.
` The Ghaznavid conquests were initially directed against
the Ismaili Fatimids of Multan, who were engaged in an
ongoing struggle with the Abbasid Caliphate in conjunction
with their compatriots of the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa
and the Middle East; Mahmud apparently hoped to curry the
favour of the Abbasids in this fashion. However, once this aim
was accomplished, he moved onto the richness of the loot of
wealthy temples and monasteries.
` Mu'izz al-Din better known as Shahb-ud-Din
Muhammad Ghori was a conqueror from the region
of Ghor in Afghanistan. Before 1160, the Ghaznavid
Empire covered an area running from central
Afghanistan east to the Punjab, with capitals at
Ghazni on the banks of Ghazni river in present-day
Afghanistan, and at Lahore in present-
day Pakistan. In 1160, the Ghorids conquered
Ghazni from the Ghaznavids, and in 1173
Muhammad Bin Sm was made governor of Ghazni.
He raided eastwards into the remaining Ghaznavid
territory, and invaded Gujarat in the 1180s but was
defeated by the Indian queen Naikidevi of Gujarat.
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` In 1186 and 1187 he conquered Lahore in alliance with a

` Mu'izz al-Din then returned east to Ghazni to deal with
local Hindu ruler, ending the Ghaznavid empire and
the threat on his eastern frontiers from the Turks and
bringing the last of Ghaznavid territory under his control.
Mongols, whiles his armies continued to advance
` In 1191, he invaded the territory of Prithviraj III of Ajmer, through Northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal.
who ruled much of present-day Rajasthan and Punjab, but
` Mu'izz al-Din returned to Lahore after 1200. In 1206,
was defeated at the First battle of Tarain.[68] The following
Mu'izz al-Din had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt.
year, Mu'izz al-Din assembled 120,000 horsemen and
On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik
once again invaded India. Mu'izz al-Din's army met
near Sohawa (which is near the city of Jhelum in
Prithviraj's army again at Tarain, and this time Mu'izz al-
the Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan). He was
Din won; Govindraj was slain, Prithviraj executed[69] and
assassinated on 15 March 1206, while offering his
Mu'izz al-Din advanced onto Delhi. Within a year, Mu'izz
evening prayers. The identity of Ghori's assassins is
al-Din controlled Northern Rajasthan and Northern
disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated
Ganges-Yamuna Doab. After these victories in India, and
by local Hindu Gakhars and others claiming he was
Mu'izz al-Din's establishment of a capital in Delhi, Multan
assassinated by Hindu Khokhars, both being different
was also incorporated into his empire.
tribes.

` According to his wishes, Mu'izz al-Din was buried

where he fell, in Damik. Upon his death his most
capable general, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, took control
of Mu'izz al-Din's Indian conquests and declared
himself the first Sultan of Delhi

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The Mamluk dynasty served as the first Sultans of Delhi in India from 1206 to 1290. The founder of
the dynasty, Qutb-ud-din Aybak, was a Turkish ex-slave of the Aybak tribe who rose to command the
armies and administer the territory of Muhammad Ghori in India.
After Muhammad Ghori's death in 1206 without an heir, Qut-bud-din fought off rivals to take
possession of Muhammad Ghori's Indian empire. He established his capital first at Lahore, and later
` Quwwatu'l Islam, or 'the might of Islam' also known as Qutb Mosque,
at Delhi, where he started building the Qutb complex.
was the first mosque in Muslim Delhi, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak,
The Qutub Minar, an example of the Mamluk dynasty's works. its first sultan. The mosque and its complex of associated buildings,
Qut-bud-din died accidentally in 1210, and after a succession struggle, Iltutmish, another Turkish ex- including extensions, the Qutb Minar, several tombs, a gate, and
slave, emerged as Sultan. Iltutmish married Qut-bud-din's daughter, and all but one of the later other monuments, were built in the heart of the occupied Rajput
sultans of the dynasty were his descendants, including his daughter, Razia, who reigned for four citadel, on the ruin of twenty seven Hindu and Jain temples.
years. Sultan Balban was also an ex-slave, who commanded the armies of Sultan Nasir-ud-din, and
kept the Mongols at bay, eventually securing the throne for himself. After the brief reigns of Balban's
grandson and great-grandson, the Mamluk dynasty was overthrown by Jalal-ud-din Feroz Khalji of
the Khalji dynasty, who had established themselves in Bihar and Bengal in Muhammad Ghori's reign.
Qutb-ud-din Aybak (12061210)
Aram Shah (12101211) The complex commemorates the first Islamic conquest of Delhi by
Shams ud din Iltutmish (12111236). Son-in-law of Qut-bud-din Aybak.
Rukn ud din Firuz (1236). Son of Iltutmish.
Muhammad of Ghur in 1193. The mosque was built in the centre of the
Raziyyat-ud-din Sultana (12361240). Daughter of Iltutmish. Hindu fort of Rai Pithora built earlier in the twelfth century by the
Muiz ud din Bahram (12401242). Son of Iltutmish. Chauhan Rajputs. The area occupied by the mosque in the centre of
Ala ud din Masud (12421246). Son of Ruk-nud-din. the citadel is known as Lal Kot and was built by the Tomar Rajputs in
Nasir ud din Mahmud (12461266). Son of Iltutmish.
Ghiyas ud din Balban (12661286). Ex-slave, son-in-law of Iltutmish. the eleventh century. The mosque was begun by Qutb al-Din the first
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad (12861290). Grandson of Balban and Nasir-ud-din. Islamic sultan of Delhi and is all that remains of the first Islamic city
Kayumars of Delhi (1290). Son of Muiz-ud-din.

The present buildings are contained within a large, partially ruined, rectangular
enclosure approximately 225 by 125 m. The enclosure is a multi-period complex
containing three major phases of Islamic building, the earliest of which is dated to
between 1193 and 1198. Twenty-seven Hindu and Jain temples were demolished to
make room for the first mosque, which was called The Might of Islam' (Quwwatu'l Islam);
however, the remains of the temples were used to provide building materials for the
mosque, in particular the columns used in the arcades of the courtyard. This consists of
a rectangular enclosure built on an eastwest axis with the qibla pointing west
towards Mecca. The courtyard is entered from two entrances on the northsouth
sides and a larger domed entrance to the east. Inside, the courtyard is bordered on
three sides by arcades whilst on the west side is the sanctuary separated from the
courtyard by a screen. The screen contains five arches, of which the central arch is the
highest; it is framed by a decorative border which combines Quranic inscriptions with
dense vegetal carving and the spandrels of the arches are decorated with interlocking
pierced discs.
Standing in the courtyard directly in front of the central arch is an iron pillar 12 m
high which was made for the Hindu god Vishnu in the fourth century CE. The
columns supporting the arcades are made of finely carved red sandstone and
consist of alternate square and round sections carved with various Hindu motifs,
such as the bell and chain, as well as some figural sculpture. Because the
columns were not sufficiently tall for the mosque they were placed one on top of
the other to double the height. The arcades and sanctuary are covered with a
trabeate roof where the columns support flat beams resting on brackets. The
area immediately in front of the mihrab was covered by a large dome although
this has now disappeared. The first stage of the Qutb Minar can also be
attributed to this initial phase of construction.

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It was built in the 13th century and the Qutub complex in which the
minar is present is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The construction of the bottom storey of the minar was started
by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate) and his
successor Iltumish completed it by adding three more storeys.
However Firoz Shah Tughlaq replaced the top storey which was
damaged in a lightning and also added one more storey.
Hence now it has five storeys and a height of nearly 234 feet (about
73 m) making it the second tallest minar in India (first is Fateh Burj,
Punjab).
The Qutub Minar also came to be associated with the much
revered saint of Delhi, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
The minar is a mixture of polygonal and circular shapes.
It is largely built on red and buff stone with some use of marble in
the upper storeys.
It is characterized by high decorative balconies and bands of
inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs.

` The mosque sits at the center of

Qutb-ud-din's original
rectangular enclosure, built
between 1193 and 1198, which
also includes the Qutb Minar.
` The enclosure was
subsequently enlarged
northwards by Qutb-ud-din's
successor, Shams-ud-din
Ilutmish (r. 1211-36) and Ala-
ud-din Khalji (r. 1296-1316).
Ilutmish completed and enlarged
the Qutb Minar and the mosque.
` Khalji further enlarged the
mosque, and began to build a
second tower, which was to have
twice the height of the Qutb
Minar. The unfinished Alai Minar
still stands north of the mosque.
` Khalji also added a gateway in
the southeast, known as the Alai
Darwaza. This richly decorated
gate is renowned for its
composition, and for being the ` The original mosque was built using the
first use of the red sandstone components of the Hindu temples it replaced.
and white marble juxtaposition, ` Columns intricately carved with Hindu motifs
soon to become a favorite facing are used intact; the only modification is to
device place one on top of another, to achieve height.
` The later additions to the mosque continue the
use of Hindu columns; when none were
available for re-use, new carvings were made
to achieve stylistic unity in the interior.
` A large arched screen across the main prayer
hall added by Aibek in 1198 is, however, a
clear reference to the Timurid style of
mosques.
` An iron column, dating from the 4th century
and dedicated to the god Vishnu, remains in a
prominent place in the mosque.

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The mosque originally consisted

of a rectangular court 43.2 m by
33 m,(141x105) enclosed by
colonnaded cloisters
The columns are part of various
Hindu & Jain temples

Stone screen of 5 arches in front of sanctuary defines

the quibla
Ogee shaped arches, made by corbelled stones-inspired
by Buddhist chaitya arch
With in the mosque complex is the Iron Pillar, which
dates back to 4th century AD

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Surface of the screen has

Arabesque ornamentation -carved
inscriptions

Serpentine forms & sinuous

curves with floral motifs-show the
influence of Hindu craftsmen

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The pillar bears an inscription, which states that it was

erected as a flagstaff in honor of the Hindu god, Vishnu,
and in the memory of the Gupta King Chandragupta II
(BC375-413).
The pillar also highlights ancient India's achievements
in metallurgy. The pillar is made of 98 per cent wrought
iron and has stood 1,600 years without rusting or
decomposing.

Form of the arch is created using corbelling

system rather than a true arch
Use of temple columns one
above the other to get the
monumental scale

Since the stability of the arch was not ensured the beam was added inside to Dome in the form of corbelling system
hold the arch and roof together. Predominantly corbelling system was used
for support of roof.

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Yemeni greatmosquek
Spiral Minaret airowan-
Minaret
of Al Mutawakil minaret
Mosque

MINAR was meant to be a tower call for

Prayer ,

prophetmosque jam-minaret

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Yemeni
Minaret

Spiral Minaret
of Al Mutawakil greatmosquek
Mosque airowan-
minaret

THE QUTUB MINAR (1199AD)

King Qutub-ud-din Aibak of Slave dynasty
laid the foundation of the Qutab Minar in 1199
and completed by the sultan's successor and
son-in-law, Iltumish
The building is 72.5 m(238ft) high and has 379
steps from the bottom to the top

238 TALL RED SAND STONE STRUCTURE

TRIANGULAR FLUTING
The first three storeys are made of red
sandstone and are heavily indented with
different styles of fluting, alternately round and
angular on the bottom floor, round on the
second and angular on the third. ROUND FLUTING

The fourth and fifth floors are made of marble

and sandstone
The intricate balconies held together by
stalactite vaulting technique and patterned with
honey combing is a special feature of the minar
The surface decoration of the Qutab Minar is
STELLATE FLUTING
consistently Islamic in character
The minar has survived a series of lightening
bolts and earthquakes during the past centuries

Qutub-Axis minar: Symbol of power & supremacy

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Numerous inscriptions in Arabic and Nagari
characters are seen as wide encircling bands
in the plain fluted masonry of the Minar. This
inscriptions reveal the history of Qutub, from
its commencement in AD1199 to its repairs in
between..
Muqarnas or stalactite vaulting technique is
used for supporting the balconies
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Muqarnas in Islamic Architecture
A unique feature of Islamic
architecture, 'muqarnas' is an
Arabic word to describe a
'stalactite vault',
the complex geometric interlacing of
components to produce a three-
dimensional surface that was used both
for volume and ornamentation. It was
developed in the mid 10th century and
was later adopted throughout the Islamic
world.
Muqarnas from the Sultan Hassan Mosque, Cairo
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SURFACE TREATMENT

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TOMB OF BALBAN (1280 AD)
Tomb of Giasuddin Balban
Small & unattractive edifice, but a major
landmark in indo-Islamic architecture
Square domed chamber 30x30 with an
archway on each sides
For the first time in India, a true arch with
radiating voussoirs was constructed
By this time Delhi became a major city, seat
of Power & a centre of learning & attracted
people from different parts of the world
Craftmen & artists from central asian & west
asian Islamic countries came to Delhi & there
was an exchange of ideas & techniques with
local craftsmen
Resulted in the further evoilution of a new
Indo-Islamic architecture
Arhai-din-ka-Jhompera Mosque, 1200-
1206,Aerial View
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ARHAI DIN KA JHOMPRA (1205 AD)
The mosque was built in yellow
sandstone and masonry taken from
local Hindu and Jain temples.
The ceiling of the arcades and
prayer hall are supported by triple-
height colonnades composed of
three Hindu or Jain pillars placed
one on top of each other to create a
single pillar.
The Arhai-din-ka-Jhonpra Mosque (or Hut of Two
and a Half Days was begun in c.1200 by Qutb-ud-
Din Aybak (r.1206-1210), Sultan of Delhi, and
completed by his successor, Shams-ud-Din
Iltutmish (r.1211-1236).
The mosque has a monumental faade of seven
arches that was added by Iltutmish in about 1230.
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AJMER SCREEN

SULTAN GHARI (1231 AD) Under the platform is the subterranian

crypt
The western structure forms a miniature
mosque sanctuary with a mihrab& a
shallow pyramidal roof above.
It has well proportioned fluted pillars in
Hindu style with bracketed capitals.
The octagonal platform above was
probably intended to support a pillared
pavilion, the whole of which has
disappeared or was never built.

The first tomb bldg in India built by The exterior is built in grey granite with
Iltutmish for his son Nasir-ud-din circular bastions projecting from
Mohammed corners
Sultan Ghari or 'Sultan of the Cave
since the cenotaph is located in an These together with the domed
underground chamber parapets on the corners make the
tomb look more like a fortress
Square courtyard 60x60with octagonal
platform in the centre
This platform was surrounded by a
square masonry arcade on a high plinth

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TOMB OF ILTHUMISH:
TOMB OF ILTUTMISH (1235 AD)
Situated outside the north-west angle
of his mosque extension at old Delhi.
The tomb of Iltutmish, completed It is a square, compact structure of
shortly before his death, stands just forty two ft side with an entrance
outside of his own extensions to the doorway on each of its three sides
Quwwat ul Islam mosque, at its
northwestern corner. The western side is closed to
accommodate a series of three Mihrabs
It is square in plan, and was once on its inner face.
covered by a shallow Hindu-style
dome, since collapsed. Exterior is relatively plain except for
certain finely inscribed patterns and
The cenotaph stands at the center of borders concentrated around the
the tomb. pointed arch framing the doorways.
Lavish carvings in red sandstone
decorate the interior, with a
combination of Hindu motifs, such as
lotus flowers and bells on chains, as
well as Koranic inscriptions.
Three prayer niches on the western
wall of the chamber indicate the
direction to Mecca.

TOMB OF ILTHUMISH INTERIOR VIEW: The problem, inherent in majority of the domed
buildings, of devising a consistent and organic
union between the rectangular shape of the
compartment below on the one hand and the
circular base of the dome above on the other,
which is known as phase of transition.

In this tomb it was solved in a method called

Squinch

The Squinch system consists of projecting a

small arch, across the upper part of the angle of
the square hall, thus converting its square shape
in to an octagon, which again if necessary is
transformed in the same manner in to sixteen
sided figure. SQUINCH DETAIL

The sixteen sided figure is a convenient base on

which the lower circular rim of the dome may
INTERIOR OF THE TOMB rest.

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K
H
I
L
J
I
D
Y
N
A
S
T
Y
VIEW OF QUTUB MINAR FROM THE TOMB ENTRANCE OF THE TOMB

This dynasty was of Afghanized Turks from the village of Khalji near Ghazni
Ala-ud-din Khalji, ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296, a deceive advance in the field of
The sultans of the Slave Dynasty were architecture took place.

Turkic central Asians, but the members of ALAI DARWAZA:(1305)

the new dynasty, although they were also
Turkic, had settled in Afghanistan and
brought a new set of customs and culture
to Delhi
Alai Darwaza was erected to serve as one of the four
entrances to the congregational mosque at Qutb by Ala-
ud-din Khalji, two of which were to be on the long
eastern side and one each on the north and south. The
only one completed is the southern entrance (Alai
Darwaza).

This entrance gateway occupies a key position in the

The Khilji dynasty was named after a evolution of Islamic architecture in India.

village in Afghanistan. Some historians feel It becomes an isolated structure without much
that they were Afghans, but Bharani and meaning as it exists at present, it seem a little strange
that, the rest of the buildings are so unfinished and this
Wolse Haig have mentioned in their being the only finished structure.
accounts that the rulers from this dynasty
who came to India had temporarily settled
in Afghanistan, but were originally Turks

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ALAI DARWAZA (1311 AD)

Described as one of the most treasured
gems of Islamic architecture, this gate built
by Alauddin Khalji in 1311AD.

This gateway formed the main access

through the southern wall to the enlarged
Quwwat Ul islam mosque.

It is the first building employing whole

islamic principles of acurate construction
and geometric ornamentation.

The darwaza is a square, domed

building with intricate carvings in red
sandstone and marble.
In form the Darwaza is a rectangular
building on high plinth into which steps
have been cut to access the interior.
the most imposing feature of these
facades is the central arch, rising to
nearly the whole height of the structure.
In shape it is rare - a horse-shoe or keel
arch. Sqiunch system for supporting the dome-
1st time in india

Now remains in the site, the main central hall of this gatehouse, a cubical structure of
The intrados or the inner rim of the arch fifty-five feet in plan, with a total height to the top of its domical finial of over sixty feet.
shows its most distinctive feature - a fringe of
lotus-bud carving or spear headed Method of stone masonry of unusual and determinative character was used the process
carving. consisted of laying the masonry in two different courses, a narrow course of headers
alternating with a much wider course of stretchers, the former extending well in to the
The plinth is carved in bands, and the wall rubble hearting, thus interlocking the whole in to a firm bond.
surface above is divided into two stories,
each further subdivided into rectangular
panels.

The first innovation in the gateway was the

system of walling, alternating between one
course of stretchers - stone laid with its longer
ends facing outward - and one course of
headers - stone laid with its longer end going
deep into the wall

The second innovation was the true arch

The inner facade, facing the mosque and

Qutb Minar, is different. The opening is not a
keel arch but a true semi-circular one

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In the middle of each side is a doorway flanked by a perforated stone window , each
doorway opening in to the single inner room, which is a hall of thirty six ft side with a
domed ceiling.

This is a building with moderate size. In design the three faces are much alike, each
containing a tall archway over a flight of steps leading to the higher floor of the interior.

Below is a plinth, its vertical sides elegantly carved in varied bands, while the surface of
the wall above is divided in to two stories and then again in to upright rectangular panels,
the two lower being arched recesses with stone grilles.

Material is a combination of red sandstone and white marble with arabesques and
decorative inscriptions enriching the whole.

The gracefulness of the faade lies in the shape of the arches, of the central opening
which is pointed horse shoe or keel.

Around the arch outline is a band of inscription carved in white marble, supporting the
arch are slender nook-shafts, carved and moulded, and the whole is contained within a
rectangular frame work bordered with repeating patterns and inscriptions in white marble.

In the phase of transition, Squinch arch has been employed, and the method is that of
radiating voussoirs as in all other parts of the building.

Jammat Khana Masjid:

Jammat Khana or (congregation house) is rectangular in plan, and the faade
consists of three broad arched openings, each archway having a wide band of
inscription above, and the fringe of spear heads attached to its intrados, all in
accordance with the style of the Alai Darwaza.

The three exterior archways indicate the triple formation of the building, as it is in
three conjoined compartments, each rooted with a shallow dome.

The interior of this is allied closely to the hall of the

Alai Darwaza.
In the middle of each wall is a spreading archway repeating
in shape and size those of the faade

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