EDUP3023 CONTENTS

CHILD DEVELOPMENT:
FACTORS INFLUENCING CHILD
Genetic factors: Chromosome,
DEVELOPMENT
gene & hormones
Environmental factors: Before birth
Dr. Mary Wong Siew Lian
and after birth
Jabatan PIPK
IPG KBL Nature versus Nurture
Individual differences

These directly observable characteristics are

GENETIC FACTORS
called phenotypes

Phenotypes are determined in part by the

Activity genotype the persons genes

Each of us is made up of trillions of units

Take a look at the one sitting beside you
and
describe how he/she looks like
called cells
Within every cell is a control center or
nucleus, containing rod-like structures called
chromosomes, which store and transmit
genetic information

Chromosomes are the structures that hold

our genes

Genes are the individual instructions that

tell our bodies how to develop and function

They govern our physical and medical

characteristics, such as hair color, blood type
and susceptibility to disease

The typical number of chromosomes in a

human cell is 46 - two pairs of 23 - holding
an estimated 25,000 genes

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 Twenty-two pairs are called autosomes
while the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes
One set of 23 chromosomes is inherited from
the biological mother (through the egg or
ovum), and the other set is inherited from
the biological father (through the sperm)
The 23rd pair in the above diagram, XY,
reveals that the set of chromosomes here is
that of a male
In a female, this pair would be_______ ?
Genetic code
Chromosomes are made up of a chemical
substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
DNA is a long double-stranded molecule that
looks like a twisted ladder
Each rung of the ladder consists of a pair of
chemical substances called bases - adenine,
thymine, guanine, cytosine
Although the bases always pair up in the same
way across the ladder rungs A and T, C and
G they can occur in any order along its sides

T-A T-A C-G T-A

C-G G-C T-A C-G
G-C C-G A-T G-C
A-T T-A G-C A-T
G-C C-G G-C G-C
It is the sequence of base pairs that provides
genetic instructions

A gene is a segment of DNA along the length

of the chromosome

Genes can be of different lengths; perhaps

100 to several thousand ladder rungs long

A unique feature of DNA - is that it can

duplicate itself through a process called
mitosis

This special ability permits a single cell,

formed at conception, to develop into a
complex human being composed of a great
many cells, each resembling the original cell
in genetic composition

This kind of cell division occurs throughout

the body, except in the reproductive organs
This is how most of the cells that make up
our body are made and replaced

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 Gametes the sex cells (sperm & ovum)
New individuals are created when two special
cells called gametes combine during
fertilization to produce a zygote, which has
46 chromosomes
How are gametes different from the other
body cells in terms of genetic content?
Why does the zygote have 46 chromosomes
only and not 92 chromosomes?
Gametes are formed through a cell division
process called meiosis, which reduces the
number of chromosomes normally present in
body cells into 23 chromosomes so that
when the sperm and ovum meet and form
a zygote, it will have 46 chromosomes
This preserves the number of chromosomes
normally found in the human species

Fertilisation
Occurs when a male gamete (sperm)
fuses with the female gamete (egg) to
form a zygote
Also referred to as conception

Sperm + egg = zygote

www.juniorscience.ie

During meiosis, a special event called

crossing over occurs, in which chromosomes
next to each other break at one or more
points along their length and exchange
segments, so that genes from one are
replaced by genes from another

This exchange of genetic material creates

new hereditary combinations (e.g., you may
look like you mother and have the
personality of your father)

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 Determination of sex
The 23rd pair of chromosomes, called the sex
chromosomes, in the zygote determines the
gender of the new individual
These chromosomes can be XX (female) or
XY (male)
The X chromosome is a relatively large
chromosome, whereas the Y chromosome is
short and carries little genetic material
The ova that form in females all carry an X
chromosome each; the sperms that form in
males carry either an X or a Y chromosome
The sex of the new individual is determined
by whether the sperm that meets the ovum
carries an X or a Y chromosome
Multiple Offspring
Identical or monozygotic twins when the
zygote formed separates into two cells and
each develops into an embryo
Fraternal, non-identical or dizygotic twins
when more than one ovum is fertilized
An error occurs during the early stages of
mitosis, causing some but not all body cells
to have the defective chromosomal makeup
(mosaic type)
These could occur because the ova of the
mother is weak (advanced age of the mother)
or extra genetic material originating from the
father
Down syndrome individuals usually have
distinct physical features a short, stocky
build, a flattened face, a protruding tongue,
and almond-shaped eyes
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Chromosomal abnormalities (Autosomes)
Down syndrome (mongolism)
(John Langdon-Down, 1828-1896)
Most common chromosomal disorder,
occurring in 1 of 1000 live births
There are three possible ways this can occur:
Failure of the 21st pair of chromosomes
to separate during meiosis, so the new
individual inherits 3 of these chromosomes
rather than the normal 2 (trisomy 21)
An extra 21st chromosome is attached to
part of another chromosome (translocation)
Characteristics: mental retardation, memory
and speech problems, limited vocabulary, and
slow motor development; Infants are usually
born with eye cataracts, hearing loss, and
heart and intestinal defects
Treatment: Infant and preschool intervention
programs help the child to develop favorably
although emotional, social, and motor skills
improve more than intellectual performance
Other abnormalities of the autosomes are
usually so severe that miscarriage occurs /
baby rarely survives beyond early childhood
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 EFFECT OF HORMONES
Physical development is controlled by
hormones produced by the pituitary gland
located near the base of the brain near the
hypothalamus, which controls secretion of
hormones by the pituitary gland

Growth Hormone (GH/somatotrophin)

- Produced by the pituitary gland throughout
life
- Influences the development of almost all the
tissues of the body except those of the
nervous system and the reproductory organs

Thyroxine To prevent mental retardation, ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: BEFORE BIRTH

infants who lack this hormone must be
injected with the hormone soon after birth Prenatal Development
After conception, the story of prenatal
Sex hormones Sexual maturation is
development begins to unfold
controlled by secretions of the pituitary gland;
these secretions stimulate production of sex Vast changes take place during the 38 weeks
hormones of pregnancy, which is usually divided into
three trimesters (about 3 months each)
Although estrogen is a female hormone and
androgen is a male hormone, both hormones The fertilized cell develops into the zygote,
are present in an individual, but in different then the embryo, and next the fetus
quantities

Trimester/ Trimester/
Period/ Weeks/
Major Events
Weeks/ Major Events Length/
Weight
Length/
Weight 2 The fetus continues to enlarge rapidly
1 The one-celled zygote multiplies and forms a blastocyst 13-24 wks In the middle of this period, fetal movements can be felt by the
Zygote The blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining 30 cm mother
1-2 wks Structures for feeding and protection - amnion, chorion, yolk 820 g Vernix (cheese-like substance) and lunago (downy hair) keep the
sac, placenta, and umbilical cord begin to form fetuss skin from chapping in the amniotic fluid
Most of the brains neurons are present by 24 weeks
Eyes are sensitive to light, and the fetus reacts to sound
1 A primitive brain and spinal cord appears; Heart, muscles, ribs,
Embryo backbone, and digestive tract begin to develop 3 The fetus has a chance of survival if born during this time.
3-8 wks Many external body structures (face, arms, legs, toes, fingers) 25-38 wks Size increases
0.6-2.5 cm and internal organs form. The sense of touch begin to develop, 50 cm Lungs mature
4g and the embryo can move 3400 g Rapid brain development causes sensory and behavioral
capacities to expand
In the middle of this period, a layer of fat is added under the skin
1 Rapid increase in size begins Antibodies are transmitted from mother to fetus to protect
Fetus Nervous system, organs, and muscles become organized and against disease
9-12 wks connected, and new behavioral capacities (kicking, thumb Most fetuses rotate into an upside-down position in preparation
7.6 cm sucking, mouth opening, and rehearsal of breathing) appear for birth
28 g External genitals are well-formed, and the fetuss sex is evident

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Prenatal environmental influences
Teratogens refer to environmental agents
that cause damage during the prenatal
period:
Some prescription and non-prescription
drugs bought over the counter can have
adverse effects on the developing fetus
during pregnancy or later in the life of the
individual (aspirin, accutane, caffeine in
coffee, tea, cocoa, cola, and antidepressants)
Alcohol consumption by pregnant mothers
can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, which
involves slow physical growth, facial
abnormalities, and impairment in mental
functioning
Exposure to radiation, and environmental
pollutants such as mercury, can lead to
physical and mental impairments
Birth complications
One of the most serious problems during
child birth is anoxia or lack of oxygen,
resulting in brain damage
Oxygen deprivation can result because:
the infant fails to start breathing
immediately,
the umbilical cord is squeezed in the breech
position
Rhesus (Rh) factor incompatibility leading
to destruction of the red blood cells
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Illegal drugs such as cocaine, heroin and
methadone can also affect/inhibit fetal
development and the health of the individual
years later motor, perceptual, attention,
memory, and language development can be
affected
Tobacco contains nicotine, which constricts
blood vessels, lessens blood flow to the
uterus and causes the placenta to grow
abnormally resulting in slow fetal
development and low birth weight
Maternal factors:
Among infectious maternal diseases, rubella (German
measles) causes wide-ranging abnormalities
Babies who acquire the human immune deficiency
virus (HIV) from their pregnant mother during the
fetal stage rapidly develop acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS), leading to brain damage
and early death
Prenatal malnutrition can lead to low birth weight,
central nervous system damage, and suppressed
immune system
Severe emotional stress associated with many
pregnancy complications may permanently alter fetal
neurological functioning
Low birth weight (small-for-date) babies
have high risk of infant mortality
Preterm babies (born a few weeks before
due date), whose weight are appropriate
for length of pregnancy are stronger and
have higher chance of survival than
small-for-date infants
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 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
AFTER BIRTH
Heredity
Physical growth depends on a complex
interplay between heredity and environment
Exposure to environmental pollutants, such
as low-level lead, can have a negative impact
on childrens mental and emotional
functioning
Nutrition
With adequate diet and health, height and
rate of physical growth depend largely on
heredity
Repeated exposure to a new food increases
acceptance if it is done without pressure
During puberty, food intake rises dramatically,
but adolescents eating habits are the poorest
family mealtimes would increase healthy
eating
Diseases
Many children in developing countries suffer
from marasmus (thin, sickly condition of the
body due to malnutrition) and kwashiorkor
(large belly, thin body, skin rashes, irritable,
due to lack of protein)
Bronfenbrenners
Ecological Systems Theory
A theory that emphasizes the importance of
contextual influences on childrens
development
Bronfenbrenner: child development is the
product of interactions between the
environment and the child
These interactions can affect the growth
and development process
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If negative factors are not severe, children
and adolescents who lag in body size show
catch-up growth when their environment
improves
Breastfeeding is ideally suited to infants
nutritional needs and is crucial for protecting
their health in the developing world
As growth slows around age 2, appetites
become unpredictable, and many children
become picky eaters
These two diseases are caused by
malnutrition that can impair body growth
and cause lasting damage to the brain, heart,
liver, and other organs
Emotional well-being
Obesity is a growing problem in both
industrialized and developing nations
Obese children are often socially isolated by
their normal-weight peers
They display more emotional, social, and
school difficulties and behavior problems
Children are individuals who are influenced
by the environment they are developing in
This bio-ecological model views the child as
developing within a complex system of
relationships affected by multiple levels of
the surrounding environment
There are 5 ecological systems which can
influence child development; these are the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem,
macrosystem, and chronosystem
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Microsystem Consists of activities and interactions in the childs
Mesosystem Includes connections between microsystems home,
Exosystem
Environment Description
Macrosystem The outermost level of the model; consists of cultural
values, laws, customs and resources. The priority the
macrosystem gives to childrens needs affects the
support they receive at inner levels of the environment.
Example: in countries where there are generous
workplace benefits for employed parents and set high
standards for childcare, children are more likely to have
favorable experiences in their immediate settings
Chronosystem Refers to chronology or time. The environment is not
static but dynamic ever changing. Important life events
such as birth of a sibling, beginning of school, move to a
new neighborhood, parental divorce can affect
development; alternatively, the life events can arise from
within the child, since as children get older, they select,
modify, and create many of their own settings and
experiences
Implications of the mesosystem environment
e.g. the teacher must be a good role model
for students at all times
Students are easily influenced by what
their teachers say and do e.g. if students
see their teacher smoking outside school,
they may think that it is all right to smoke
If parents take an interest in their childrens
achievements in school, this will encourage
them to study hard
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Environment Description
immediate surroundings - interactions with parents,
siblings, neighbors, teachers; all relationships are
bidirectional; when reciprocal interactions occur often over
time, they have an enduring impact on development
school, neighborhood and child-care center a childs
academic progress depends not just on activities in the
classroom, it is promoted by parent involvement in school
life
Consists of social settings that do not contain children but
nevertheless affect childs experiences welfare services,
parents workplace settings, religious institutions, friends
and extended families these determine the sort of social
support and environment the child grows up in
Implications of Bronfenbrenners Theory
In the microsystem of school, the teacher
does not teach only; the teacher should also
guide students and give them advice when
they are at school
Teachers should know the level of
development of their students
They should select t-l activities that are
suited to the interests, knowledge and
experiences of their students
These learning experiences will then be able
to contribute students development
Teachers play a very important role in
developing the moral behavior of students
through being a role model and through t-l
activities
Teachers should always advice students on
good behavior so that they will be an asset
to society later
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 Exosystem environment: the teacher should
be aware that students experiences (at
home, in the community) can affect their
development and their behavior
The teacher should try to meet students
needs e.g. those who come from poor
families who are not getting any help
from social welfare services
Teachers should understand that due to
their different backgrounds and upbringing,
some students may need to be motivated to
learn through different learning activities
and much encouragement from the teacher
Girls from such homes may not put much
effort into learning the teacher has to
change the way these students
(and parents) think through giving advice
and counseling
NATURE VERSUS NURTURE
This is an age-old controversy!
Nature - means inborn biological givens
the hereditary information we receive from
our parents at the moment of conception
This refers to the genes, which carry the
DNA that controls the functioning of cells
in our body
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Concerning the macrosystem, the teacher
should realize that societal norms and
practices can influence child development
If there is a child in class who is from a
different background, the teacher should
know what to do to make him/her accepted
by others
In some societies, parents are more
supportive of educating boys than girls
hence girls from such home may not be
getting much support from their parents
The chronosystem: The mass media is fast
becoming a major influence on development
of children, both for good and for bad
School children easily become experts in
using this technology this is one factor
that can influence child development
Teachers (and parents) need to monitor and
control the time spent at the computer as
children can easily be influenced by bad
elements through this source pornography,
aggressiveness
Nurture means the complex forces of the
physical and social world that influence our
biological makeup and psychological
experiences before and after birth
Before birth environmental and
psychological influences that the mother
experienced during pregnancy
After birth environmental and
psychological influences that the child
experience during infancy and childhood
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 Theorists agree that both nature and
Do children acquire language because they
nurture have some role in the development
are genetically predisposed to do so or
of a child but how much emphasis is placed
because parents intensively teach them
on each remains a controversy
from an early age?

Examples of unanswered questions:

What accounts for the vast individual
differences among children in height,
Is the older childs ability to think in ways
weight, physical coordination, intelligence,
that are more complex largely due to the
personality and social skills? Is it due more
result of an inborn timetable of growth, or
to nature or nurture?
is it primarily influenced by stimulation
from parents and teachers?

What does research say about this?
Studies have been carried out on identical
twins - separated soon after birth and
brought up in different environments; they
do differ in terms of cognitive, social,
physical abilities and emotional makeup
Studies of prodigies and geniuses in many
fields document that deep and prolonged
practice is necessary to achieve at the
highest levels (this is nature or nurture?)
However, for parents of these children,
their investments in their children came
after the children showed early high-level
achievement (nature or nurture?)
Recent research suggests that gifted
children who have extraordinary abilities in
mathematics, music, the visual arts, may
have unusual brain organization
This shows that gifted children, child
prodigies are not made from scratch but are
born with unusual brains that enable rapid
learning in a particular domain

A balanced viewpoint on this is

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
The answer as to whether nature or nurture
plays a more important role may vary across
Individual differences exist even among
domains of development (physical, social,
students sitting in the same classroom
cognitive, emotional) and even across
individuals They differ in terms of cognitive ability,
social-emotional condition, intelligences,
Scientists also believe that heredity and
academic potentials, family background, etc
environment cannot be separated the two
are correlated
What are the sources of individual
differences?

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 What causes differences in intelligence Environmental influences include:
among children?
health of a childs mother during pregnancy
the amount of pollutants in the childs home
Psychologists believe that differences in
the quality of teaching a child receives
intelligence are the result of heredity and
environment, probably in about equal
Intelligence is a current state of affairs,
proportions for children
affected by past experiences and open to
future changes
Today, psychologists believe that genes do
not fix behavior; rather, they establish a
range of possible experiences that the
environment can provide

Two ways used to explain individual

differences:
Theorists who argue that nature plays a
major role (> 50%) emphasize stability
children who are high or low in a characteristic
(such as verbal ability, anxiety, sociability) will
remain so at later ages
Theorists who emphasize the role of nurture
will usually argue that early experiences
establish a lifelong pattern of behavior -
powerful negative events in the first few years
cannot be fully overcome by later, more
positive ones
For example, providing a baby with a
healthy diet increases brain growth, which
translates into new connections between
nerve cells and transformed gene expression
This opens the door to new gene-environment
exchanges advanced exploration of objects
and interaction with caregivers, which further
enhance brain growth and gene expression
These ongoing bidirectional influences foster
cognitive and social development

In contrast, malnutrition results in stunted

growth and development, and thus inhibits
gene-environment exchanges and
subsequently, cognitive and social
development in the child

Researchers are interested in the nature-

nurture issue because they want to improve
environments so that children can develop
as far as possible

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