THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Seminal vesicle- a pair of lumpy exocrine
*Function-> The function of the reproductive
system is to procreatethat is to create new
life to ensure the survival of species.
*How? ->through a process called
reproduction. there are two types of
reproduction, whether its sexual or asexual.
----MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM----
Function/s:
-To produce, maintain and transport sperm
cells and protective fluid
-To discharge sperm with in the female
reproductive tract during sexual intercourse
-To produce and secrete male sex hormones
responsible for maintaining the male
reproductive system and characteristics
PARTS:
1. Penis-the organ of copulation for male
-has three parts: the root, the body or
shaft and the glans
2. Scrotum- the loose pouch-like sac of skin
that hangs behind and below the penis
containing the testes.
-the climate control of the testes
3. Testes/Testicles- the two oval organs that
lie in the scrotum
-responsible for producing
testosterone and for generating sperm cells
4. Seminiferous tubules- the coiled masses of
tubes responsible for production of sperm
cells.
5. Epididymis- composed of long thin tubules
that are tightly coiled into a small mass
-located in the superior or posterior
edge of the testes, they serve as site of
maturation for the sperm cells.
6. Ductus deferens/ vas deferens- muscular
tube wider in diameter than the epididymis
that serves as storage of matured sperm
cells.
-conveys sperm cells (peristalsis)
from the epididymis into the abdominal
cavity to the ejaculatory duct.
7.
glands located posterior to the urinary
bladder and anterior to the rectum
-produces and stores some liquid
portions of semen
8. Ejaculatory duct- contains ducts from the
ductus deferens and the seminal vesicle as
well
-during ejaculation, the ejaculatory
duct opens and expels sperm and secretions
from the seminal vesicle into the urethra.
9. Urethra- an 8-10 inches long muscular
tube found within the penis where semen
pass through from the ejaculatory duct going
outside the body.
10. Prostate- a walnut-size exocrine gland
that borders the inferior end of urinary
bladder and surrounds the urethra.
-produces a large portion of the
semen, a fluid that is milky white in color and
contains enzymes, proteins and other
chemicals
-ensures that either semen or urine
but not both will pass through the urethra.
11. Cowpers gland/ bulbourethral glands- a
pair of pea size exocrine glands that secrete
a thin alkaline fluid into the urethra
----FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM----
Function/s:
-To produce the egg cells necessary for
reproduction
-The site of fertilization
-Site for the development of the fertilized
eggthe zygote.
-Produces the female sex hormones
Parts:
1.Labia majora- large lips
-enclose and protect the other
external reproductive organs
-contain sweat and oil glands
2. Labia minora- small lips
 -they lie just inside the labia majora
and surround the openings to the vagina
3. Clitoris- the small, sensitive protrusion
where the two labia minora meet
4. Bartholins glands-located beside the
vaginal opening and produce a mucus
secretion
5. Vagina- also known as the birth canal
6. Uterus- a hollow, pear-shaped organ that
will serve as a home to the developing fetus
-two parts: the cervix and the corpus.
7. Fallopian Tube/ Oviduct- tubes that are
attached to the superior part of the uterus
-serve as pathway for egg cells to
travel to the uterus; site of fertilization
8. Ovaries- small, oval shaped glands that
are located on each side of the uterus
-responsible for production of egg cells
and hormones
GAMETOGENESIS
*Spermatogenesis
*Oogenesis
>the process of producing gametes or sex
cells
TYPES:
----GAMETOGENESIS:
Spermatogenesis----
>production of sperm cells
>takes place in the walls of the seminiferous
tubules; cells move towards the lumen as
they mature
Stages:
1.A-SPERMATOGONIUM- undergoes mitosis
forming another A- spermatogonium and a B-
spermatogonium
2.B-SPERMATOGONIUM- divide mitotically
forming primary spermatocytes
3. PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE-enters meiosis I
producing secondary spermatocytes
4. SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE-undergo
meiosis II
5. SPERMATIDS-smallest cells without
flagellum
6. SPERMATOZOA-the matured male sex
cells.
*SPERMIOGENESIS
-the differentiation of the spermatids into
sperm cells.
PROCESS:
1.Nuclear condensation- thickening and
reduction of the size of the nucleus
2.Acrosome formation- formation of a cap
(acrosome) containing enzymes for
penetration of the egg cell
3. Flagellum formation- generation of sperm
tail
PARTS OF THE FLAGELLUM:
*neck- contains two centrioles
*midpiece- sheath of ring-shaped
mitochondria
*principle piece- sheath of ring fiber
*tail
4. Cytoplasma reduction- elimination of
unnecessary cytoplasm
----GAMETOGENESIS: Oogenesis----
-the process by which the female gametes
are formed
Stages:
1.Oogonium- cells that are destined to
become ova; starts meiosis I forming primary
oocyte
2.Primary oocyte- stops at prophase I until
the first menstrual cycle; undergo division
forming 2 daughter cells that are genetically
identical but not of the same size and
cytoplasmic content
3. Secondary oocyte- the bigger daughter
cell produced after meiosis I; undergo
meiosis II
4. Polar bodies- the smaller daughter cells
that will eventually degenerate
5. Ovum or egg cell- the matured female sex
cell
STAGES OF HUMAN PRENATAL
DEVELOPMENT
1. FERTILIZATION-known as conception in lay
mans
-occurs in the fallopian tube
-formation of a diploid cell by
fusion of two haploid gametes
2. CLEAVAGE-the zygote cleaves by mitosis
as it moves down the uterus
3. BLASTULATION-embryo forms a hollow ball
and is implanted in the uterus
4. GASTRULATION-placenta forms around the
embryo
5. NEURULATION-about 2mm in size,
developing muscle tissues, vertebra and
blood vessels, nervous system
6. ORGANOGENESIS-forms body organs
7. CONTINUED MORPHOGENESIS-the embryo
shows miniature limbs
8. END OF 1ST TRIMESTER-the fetus has
completed organs
9. 2ND TRIMESTER-heartbeat is detected,
fine body hairs covering the fetus
10. 3RD TRIMESTER-A period of growth and
preparation for childbirth
*CHILDBIRTH
-the babys head is pointed
towards the lower end of the
uterus (cervix)
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
>Glands and Hormones
>Diseases of the Endocrine System
----GLANDS----
TWO TYPES:
1. EXOCRINE- duct glands
>these are glands having tubes or ducts as a
passageway of their secretions
2. ENDOCRINE- ductless glands
>these are glands that do not have tubes or
ducts so that they release their secretions in
the blood stream.
*HORMONES-secretions of the Endocrine
System
-special protein substances that bring about
changes in cells or tissues that are said to be
their target
*ACTIONS OF HORMONES
>TO DECREASE ACTIVITY OF TARGET CELLS
>TO INCREASE ACTIVITY OF TARGET CELLS
>TO MAINTAIN STRUCTURE AND ACTIVITY OF
CELLS
----THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
SECRETIONS----
1.PINEAL GLAND-at the middle area of the
brain
SECRETION: MELATONIN-helps regulate daily
sleep-wake cycle or seasonal rhythms
2. HYPOTHALAMUS- at the lower central area
of the brain
SECRETION:
RELEASING AND INHIBITING HORMONE-
affects the functions of the pituitary gland
(anterior lobe)
*OXYTOCIN AND VASOPRESSIN
-transported to the posterior lobe of the
Pituitary gland for storage
3. PITUITARY GLAND-just beneath the
hypothalamus
-known as that MASTER GLAND
LOBES AND THEIR SECRETIONS:
 A. Anterior Lobe
SECRETIONS:
*SOMATOTROPHIN a growth hormone that
regulates metabolic functions
*THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE
regulates activity of the thyroid gland
*ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
-stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete its
hormones
*FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE
-stimulates gametogenesis
*LUTEINIZING HORMONE
-stimulates ovaries and testes to produce sex
hormones
*PROLACTIN
- stimulates the mammary gland to produce
milk
B. Middle Lobe
SECRETION: MELANOCYTE
-a stimulating hormone that enhances
production of melanin pigment
c. Posterior Lobe- storage of hormones
secreted by the Hypothalamus
4. THYROID base of the neck, wrapped
around the lateral side of trachea
SECRETIONS:
*THYROXINE AND TRIIODOTHYRONINE
-regulates mental and physical growth
*CALCITONIN
-decreases blood calcium level
5. PARATHYROID- wrapped around the
thyroid
*parathormone-controls calcium level within
the bones
6. ADRENAL GLANDS on top of the kidneys
PARTS AND THEIR SECRETIONS:
a. ADRENAL CORTEX outer part
*GLUCOCORTICOIDS-breakdown protein and
increase blood sugar
*MINERAL CORTICOIDS-regulate
concentration of minerals (Na, Ca) and
water in the blood
b. ADRENAL MEDULLA
*ADRENALINE/EPINEPHRINE AND
NORADRENALINE/NOREPINEPHRINE
-trigger physiological changes to improve the
fight or flight response
7. PANCREAS ISLETS OF LANGERHAN
*INSULIN-produced by beta cells
-lowers blood sugar level
*GLUCAGON-produced by alpha cells
-raises blood sugar level
8. TESTES
*ANDROGEN TESTOSTERONE
-controls growth and development of male
sex organs and secondary characteristics
9. OVARIES
*PROGESTERONE AND ESTROGEN-stimulate
growth of uterus lining
*ESTROGEN-controls development of female
secondary sex characteristics
>controls body processes chemically through
the hormone secretion
>functions in homeostasis
>control the female reproductive cycle
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
----DEFINITION OF TERMS----
*NEURON- the functional unit of the nervous
system; cells that are involved in
transmitting impulses
*NERVE- long fiber of a bunch of neuron
projection bundled together
*STIMULUS/IMPULSES-changes in the
environment that cause response/s
*RECEPTOR- a cell or organ responsible for
the perception of impulse
*EFFECTOR- a cell or organ involved in
producing a specific response
*SUPPORTING CELLS- cells that function to
protect and assist the nerve cells
----THE NEURONS: STRUCTURE/PARTS----
1.CELL BODY/SOMA-contains the nucleus and
the protoplasm; it said to be the factory of
the neuron
2.NERVE FIBERS-projections from the cell
body
2a. DENDRITES-highly branched, more
numerous, shorter and thinner fibers,
conducts impulses towards the soma
2b. AXONS-slightly branched, fewer,
longer and thicker fibers, conduct impulses
away from the soma
----THE NEURONS: CLASSIFICATION-----
(according to function)
1.SENSORY NEURONS-carry impulses from
the receptor to the brain or spinal cord
2.MOTOR NEURONS-carry impulses from the
brain or spinal cord to the muscles
3.ASSOCIATIVE NEURONS/INTERNEURONS-
located at the Central nervous System (CNS);
process the impulses from the sensory
neurons then relay them to the motor
neurons
(according to structure)
1.MULTIPOLAR-motor neurons, pyramidal
neurons
2.BIPOLAR- retinal neurons, olfactory
neurons
3.UNIPOLAR- touch and pain sensory neurons
4.ANAXONIC-amacrine cells
----THE NERVES: CLASSIFICATION----
(according to location)
1.CRANIAL NERVES-found in the brain stem
and they transmit signals to the brain
2.SPINAL NERVES-connecting the spinal
column to the spinal cord, transmit signals to
the different parts of the body
(according to function)
1.AFFERENT NERVES- transmit impulses from
the sensory neuron to the CNS
2.EFFERENT NERVES- transmit signals from
the CNS to the muscles or glands
3.MIXED NERVES-composed of afferent and
efferent nerves
*REFLEX ARC
>the pathway of impulses from the sensory
organ to the effector
REFLEX ACTION
>an action that does not involve thinking
--Transmission of Impulses from one Neuron
to another
*SYNAPSE-a microscopic space in between
two neurons that are situated end-to-end
*NEUROHORMONE/NERVE
HORMONE/NEUROTRANSMITTER hormones
*SITE OF RELEASE OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
>synapse between axon of a sensory neuron
and dendrite of the interneuron
>between the axon of an interneuron and
dendrite of a motor neuron
>between end of the motor neuron and
effector muscle
responsible for the transmission of an
impulse from one neuron to another
*ACETYLCHOLINE-neurotransmitter released
by motor neuron
*CHOLINESTERASE-makes the action of the
acetylcholine ineffective
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
>serves as the processing center of the
network of nerves in our body
>consist of the BRAIN and SPINAL CORD
A.BRAIN
-consisting of gelatin-like tissues
-has two distinct colored regions:
>gray matter-darker region
-contains the cell body and dendrites
of the brain neurons, rich in neuron-to-
neuron synapses
>white matter-lighter region
-dominated by myelinated axons
PARTS:
1.FOREBRAIN
A. CEREBRUM
-has two colored regions:
*gray matter-seat of thinking, reasoning and
power of imagination, sensory motor
coordination, origin of all cerebral functions
*white matter-relays impulses bet. The
cortex and the rest of the brain and the
spinal cord
-has two cerebral hemisphere:
*left-for language, logic, and mathematical
abilities
*right-for spatial perception, musical ability,
artistic ability and emotions
B. THALAMUS
-directs all incoming sensory information to
the cortex, also handles outgoing motor
impulses
C. HYPOTHALAMUS
-maintains homeostasis, regulates many
hormones, blood pressure, body
temperature, heart rate, hunger, thirst and
emotions
2. MIDBRAIN
-relays sensory information to the cerebrum,
coordinate eye reflexes, also helps regulate
sleep
3. HINDBRAIN
A. PONS AND MEDULLA OBLONGATA
-relay information between the spinal cord
and the brain through their sensory and
motor neurons, regulate breathing,
heartbeat, digestion, coordinate walking and
other body movements
B. CEREBELLUM
-regulates balance and muscle coordination
*Centers of the Brain:
1.FRONTAL-speech, motor cortex
2.PARIETAL- speech, taste, reading
3.TEMPORAL-smell, hearing
4.OCCIPITAL-vision
-----THE SPINAL CORD----
>a tube of nerves inside the backbone or
spine
>pathway of nerve impulses going to and
from the brain
>for processing nerve impulses
>also composed of white matter and gray
matter
----THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM----
>composed of network of nerves which
connect the CNS to the different organs and
glands of the body
>responsible for the conscious awareness of
and reaction to conditions in our body and
our environment
>made up of 12 pairs of cranial nerves and
31 pairs of spinal nerves
>connect the brain and the spinal cord to the
sensory organs and voluntary muscles
----THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS
SYSTEM----
>connects the brain and the spinal cord to
involuntary muscles
>2 types:
*SYMPATHETIC-prepares the body for
physical activity

*PARASYMPATHETIC-relaxation and slowing

down of organ functions