Basic Concept of Chemistry

Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd.
Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
01 Some Basic concepts of chemistry

1.0 Prominent scientists
Scientists Contributions
Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778 1850) i. Formulated the gas law.
(French chemist and physicist) ii. Collected samples of air at different heights and
recorded temperatures and moisture contents.
iii. Discovered that the composition of atmosphere does
not change with increasing altitude.
Amedeo Avogadro (1776 1856) i. Published article in French journal on determining the
(Italian scholar) relative masses of elementary particles of bodies and
proportions by which they enter combinations.
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N C
ii. Published a research paper titled New considerations
on the theory of proportions and on determination of
the masses of atoms.
I E
C
.
Note:
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In order to give a tribute to Avogadros contributions related to molecular theory, the number of elementary
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Avogadro number. A
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entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other particles) in 1 mole of a substance, 6.022 1023 is known as
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1.1 Introduction
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Q.1. Chemistry has played an important role in the fulfillment of basic needs of man. Explain.
Ans: Increasing population has led to an increase in the demands of basic needs of man (food, clothing and
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shelter). Developments in the field of chemistry have helped to cope up with these necessities as follows:
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i. Food:
a. The population of a country requires nutritious and hygienic food in sufficient quantity. To
b. O F S
achieve the same, there is a need to manufacture good quality fertilizers and insecticides.
The advancement of chemistry has helped many countries to become not only self sufficient but
ii. T E also an exporter of food commodities.

Clothing:
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a. Good quality clothes are required for every individual to adjust with changing environmental
T I conditions.
N S b. Because of the production of synthetic fibres like nylon, rayon, etc. in factories, this need has
been fulfilled.
I iii. Shelter:
a. The human population needs comfortable and well-built houses. Iron, cement and steel are
required in large quantities for construction of such houses.
b. Chemistry has played an important role in the extraction of these metals from their respective
ores.
Q.2. Define chemistry.
Ans: Chemistry is defined as the study of the composition, structure and properties of matter and the reactions
by which one form of matter may be converted into another form.
Q.3. Give reason : Chemistry is called as a central science.
Ans: i. Chemistry is an active evolving science and is of vital importance to the entire world. Although the
subject has very ancient roots, it is a modern science.
ii. The basic knowledge of chemistry is essential for development of subjects like physics, biology,
geology, engineering, environmental science and many others.
Therefore, it is called as a central science.
1
Dr. P. N. PATHAK (Ph.D, DGE, MBA)

Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Std. XI Sci.: Perfect Chemistry
Q.4. What are the various branches of chemistry?

Ans: The several branches of chemistry are as follows:
i. Physical chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the structure of matter, the energy changes and the
theories, laws and principles that explain the transformation of matter from one form to another.
ii. Inorganic chemistry:
It is the branch of chemistry that deals with chemistry of elements other than carbon and their
compounds.
iii. Organic chemistry:
This branch of chemistry deals with reactions of the compounds of carbon.
iv. Analytical chemistry:
This is the branch of chemistry which deals with the separation, identification and quantitative
determination of the compositions of different substances.
v. Biochemistry:
This is the branch of chemistry that deals with substances which are constituents of living organisms.
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Note:
N C
Pharmaceutical, environmental and nuclear chemistry are also branches of chemistry.
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C
. S
1.2 Importance and scope of chemistry
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Q.5. Explain the importance and scope of chemistry.
A L
H
Ans: Chemistry has a wide scope and importance in various fields.
i.
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Processes based on chemical technology help to extract, purify, synthesize and analyse materials like
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iron, steel, aluminium, zinc, alloys like brass, amalgams as well as precious metals like silver, gold,
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platinum.
ii. All drugs are synthesized in chemical / pharmaceutical laboratories.
eg.
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i L-dopa For treatment of Parkinsons disease.
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ii F Human insulin For treatment of diabetes.
T Eiii
iv
Cisplatin and taxol
Azidothymidine (AZT)
Life saving drugs to give relief to cancer patients.
For treatment of AIDS.
T U v Tamiflue For treatment of swine flu.
T I iii. Photosynthesis is the process through which trees and plants prepare their food using chlorophyll
N S (green pigment) in presence of sunlight. The process is a simple chemical reaction and takes place
I naturally.
sunlight
CO2 + H2O
chlorophyll
food grains/fruits/flowers/cotton/medicine etc.
iv. Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas, etc. are combustible chemicals which are used to
produce energy which is used to drive trains, trucks, buses and all automobiles. The energy is also
used to generate electricity. Several electrochemical cells like Daniel cell, lead storage cell, dry cell,
nickel cadmium cell, lithium ion cell, fuel cell, etc., are used as a source of energy. These cells are
less polluting and more efficient. There are attempts being made to convert solar energy into
electrical energy using photovoltaic cells, the solar cells. Attempt is also made to obtain hydrogen
from water, which is used in fuel cells to generate electricity.
v. With the help of chemistry it is easy to design and generate large number of materials like polymers,
plastic, liquid crystals, adhesives and surface coating materials like latex paints. Knowledge of
chemistry can also be used to synthesize new materials that can act as super conductors at or near
room temperature due to which loss of electricity will get reduced by almost 20%. Microprocessors
used in computers are silicon chips formulated and developed by chemists.
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Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
#Q.6.Give five applications of subject chemistry which are not mentioned in the book.
Ans: i. Warfare:
With the knowledge of chemistry, various destructive gases and bombs have been invented which are
used during wars.
ii. Cosmetics:
Chemistry has helped to produce good quality cosmetics.
iii. Health:
Chemistry plays an important role in maintaining ones good health by providing knowledge about
proper intake of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins, etc.
iv. Education:
Chemistry provides inter-relationship to study the para-chemistry subjects such as Bio-chemistry,
Pharmacy, Herbal Science, Toxicology, Archaeology, Environmental Science, etc.
v. In recent years, chemistry has given us new materials such as superconducting ceramics, conducting
polymers, optical fibres, micro alloys, carbon fibres, etc. which are used for various purposes.
1.3 Historical approach to particulate nature of matter
E S
Q.7. Define matter.
Ans: Matter is anything which has mass and occupies space. N C
Q.8. Explain the classification of matter on the basis of its chemical composition. I E
C
. S
Ans: Matter on the basis of chemical composition can be classified as follows:
i. Pure substances:
A A R L
Substances which always have a fixed composition are called pure substances.
They are of two types:
a. Elements: N BI
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b. Compounds:
M E ,
Elements are the pure substances which are made up of only one component.
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eg. Gold, silver, copper, mercury, bromine, oxygen etc.
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Compounds are the pure substances which are made up of two or more components.
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eg. Water, ammonia, methane etc.
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ii. Mixtures:
O F
A mixture is a simple combination of two or more substances in which the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.
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The composition of mixture can be varied to any extent. Therefore, mixtures do not have fixed
T U composition.
eg. Mixture of ethyl alcohol and water, salt in water, mixture of gases, etc.
T I Mixtures are of two types:
N S a. Homogeneous mixture:
I A mixture in which the concentration of the constituents remains uniform throughout the
mixture and all the constituents are present in one phase, is called a homogeneous mixture.
eg. Mixture of salt and water.
b. Heterogeneous mixture:
If two or more phases are present in a mixture, it is called a heterogeneous mixture.
eg. Phenol - water system, silver chloride-water system, iron fillings-sand system, etc.
Q.9. What is Phlogiston theory?
Ans: Phlogiston theory:
i. According to this theory, a combustible substance contains phlogiston (a mysterious matter) and some
clax. During combustion, phlogiston evolves and is lost in the atmosphere. Clax remains in the form
of an ash.
ii. Combustion reactions were explained by phlogiston theory.
eg. During the combustion of a candle in a closed container, the air inside the container is saturated
with phlogiston. Since air cannot accommodate more phlogiston, the candle gets extinguished.
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Q.10. What is dephlogisticated air? Who named it?

Ans: i. Joseph Priestley (a British scientist) focussed sunrays on a substance (mercuric oxide) to heat it.
ii. A gas evolved, in which substances could burn more vigorously than in air.
iii. A burning candle became brighter in this gas.
iv. Priestley was of the view that this gas is the normal air without phlogiston. Hence he named it
dephlogisticated air.
Q.11. What was the contribution of Sir Henry Cavendish in the phlogiston theory?
Ans: i. Sir Henry Cavendish carried out the reaction of a dilute acid with metals such as zinc, iron, etc. He
named the gas evolved as flammable air. It was found that this gas burnt in air and in
dephlogisticated air and produced water.
ii. Cavendish suggested that flammable air is water associated with phlogiston. This is in continuation
with the idea of phlogiston.
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Q.12. Who ruled out the theory of phlogiston? Why?
Ans: i. The theory of phlogiston was ruled out by Antoine Lavoisier (a French Scientist). N C
ii. I E
He proved that a part of air is used in chemical reaction during combustion. This part of air was called
C
. S
oxygen. It means acid forming.
A R L
iii. He also proved that oxygen was the gas formed in Joseph Priestleys experiment.
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H
iv. He also proved that the flammable air produced by Cavendish was a new gas, which he named as
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hydrogen, meaning water forming.
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Q.13. Define and explain the following with the help of examples.
i. Elements ii. Compounds
Ans: i. Elements:
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a. An element is defined as a substance which cannot be separated into simpler substances by any
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chemical process.
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eg. Gold, silver, copper, carbon, etc.
b.
T EOut of 118 elements that have been identified till recently, most are naturally occuring and a
few are prepared in the laboratory (man-made).
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c. Chemists use one or two letter symbols to represent elements.
T I d. All the chemical symbols have first letter capital and second letter small (if present).
N S e. The symbols of the elements are derived either from English names or from Latin names of the elements.
I eg. Aluminium Al , Einsteinium Es, Gold Au (Aurum)
f. Elements contain only one type of atom. Elements are further classified as metals, non-metals, metalloids.
ii. Compounds:
a. Compounds are defined as substances of definite compositions which can be decomposed into
two or more substances by a simple chemical process.
eg. Water, sodium chloride, sugar, alcohol, etc.
b. The properties of compounds differ from the properties of the substances and elements obtained
from decomposition of the compounds.
eg. Hydrogen and oxygen are obtained from decomposition of water. Water can be used to
extinguish fire whereas oxygen supports combustion and hydrogen is combustible.
c. Compounds are classified into two subclasses organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
d. Compounds contain two or more components.
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Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry
Note:
Names and symbols of some elements
Element Sym- Element Sym- Element Sym- Element Sym- Element Sym-
bol bol bol bol bol
Aluminium Al Cadmium Cd Mercury Hg Neobium Nb Rhodium Rh
Argon Ar Caesium Cs Holmium Ho Neodymium Nd Rhenium Re
Silver Ag Cerium Ce Iodine I Neptunium Np Sulphur S
Gold Au Curium Cm Irridium Ir Oxygen O Scandium Sc
Actinium Ac Calefornium Cf Krypton Kr Osmium Os Selenium Se
Americium Am Erbium Er Lithium Li Potassium K Strontium Sr
Beryllium Be Einsteinium Es Lanthanum La Phosphorous P Sodium Na
Boron B Fluorine F Lutetium Lu Lead Pb Technicium Tc
Barium Ba Francium Fr Lawrencium Lr Palladium Pd Uranium U
Bismuth Bi Iron Fe Magnesium Mg Platinum Pt Tungston W
Carbon
Chlorine
C
Cl
Galium
Germanium
Ga
Ge
Manganese
Molybdenum
Mn
Mo
Promethium
Protoactinium
Pm
Pa
Vanadium
Xenon
V
E
Xe
S
Calcium Ca Gadolinium Gd Mendelivium Md Plutonium Pu
N
Ytterbium CYb
Chromium
Cobalt
Cr
Co
Hydrogen
Helium
H
He
Nitrogen
Neon
N
Ne
Radium
Rubidium
Ra
Rb I E
Zirconium Zr
C
Copper Cu Hafnium
R.Hf Nickel Ni Ruthenium
L S
Rn
A
Q.14. Classify the following substances into elements, compounds, homogeneous mixtures and
A
H
heterogeneous mixtures.
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Sand in water, Sodium chloride, Nitrogen, Sodium chloride in water, Pumice stone, Air, Phenol-
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water system, Carbon dioxide, Gold
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Ans: i. Sand in water : Heterogeneous mixture
ii. Sodium chloride : Compound
iii. Nitrogen
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iv. Sodium chloride in water : Homogeneous mixture
v. U
Pumice stone : Heterogeneous mixture
vi. Air
O F S
vii. Phenol-water system
:
:
Homogeneous mixture
Heterogeneous mixture
ix. GoldT E
viii. Carbon dioxide :
:
Compound
Element
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Q.15. Distinguish between
i.
T I Mixtures and compounds. ii. Compounds and elements.
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Ans: i. Mixtures and compounds:
I Mixtures Compounds
i. The constituents of a mixture may be The constituents of a compound are always
present in any ratio. present in a fixed ratio.
ii. Mixtures may or may not be Compounds are always homogeneous in nature.
homogeneous in nature.
iii. The properties of a mixture are in The properties of a compound are entirely
between those of its constituents. different from those of its constituent elements.
iv. The constituents of a mixture can be The constituents of a compound cannot be easily
easily separated by simple physical separated by simple physical means but can be
means. separated by chemical processes.
v. The melting and boiling points of Chemical compounds possess sharp melting and
mixtures are usually not sharp. boiling points.
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ii. Compounds and elements:

Compounds Elements
i. A compound is a substance composed of An element is a pure chemical substance made
two or more different chemical elements. of same type of atoms.
ii. A compound can be separated into simpler Elements cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by chemical reactions. substances.
iii. Compounds contain different elements in a Elements are distinguished by their atomic
fixed ratio arranged in a defined manner number (number of protons in their nucleus).
through chemical bonds.
iv. A compound is represented using a formula. An element is represented using symbols.
v. The list of compounds is endless but can There are about 118 elements that have been
broadly be classified as ionic and covalent.
identified and can be classified as metals, non-
metals or metalloids.
eg. Sodium chloride (NaCl), Sodium eg. Iron, copper, silver, gold, etc.
bicarbonate (NaHCO3), etc.
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Q.16. Define a unit.
N C
are called units. I E
Ans: The arbitrarily decided and universally accepted standards used in the measurement of physical quantities
C
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eg. meter (m), kilogram (kg).
Q.17. State the need of units.
A A R L
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Ans: i. In chemistry, several experiments are carried out which involve observation and collection of both
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qualitative and quantitative data.
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ii. Measurement of physical properties such as mass, length, volume, temperature, pressure, time, etc.,
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comprise of the quantitative data.
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iii. For this purpose, the magnitude or size of physical quantity is compared with a suitable standard.
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These units are arbitrarily chosen on the basis of universally accepted standards.
iv. To express any measured property, a number and an appropriate unit has to be used. Only number
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does not give any idea about the property.
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Q.18. What are the various systems in which units are expressed?
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Ans: Units are expressed in various systems like CGS (centimetre for length, gram for mass and second for
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time), FPS (foot, pound, second) and MKS ( metre, kilogram, second) systems, etc.
T
Note:
T
i. U During calculations, confinement to one single system of unit is advisable.
T Iii. NASAs Mars climate orbiter (first weather satellite for mars) was destroyed due to heat. The mission
N S failed as there was a confusion while estimating the distance between earth and mars in miles and
I kilometers.
Q.19. What are SI units? Name the fundamental SI units.
Ans: SI Units:
In 1960, the general conference of weights and measures proposed revised metric system, called International
system of Units i.e. SI system abbreviated from its French name Systeme Internationale d Units.
The seven fundamental SI units are as given below:
No. Fundamental quantity SI unit Symbol
i. Length Metre m
ii. Mass Kilogram kg
iii. Time Second s
iv. Temperature Kelvin K
v. Amount of substance Mole mol
vi. Electric current Ampere A
vii. Luminous intensity Candela cd
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Tar get Publications Pvt. Ltd. Chapter 01: Some basic concepts of chemistry
Q.20. What are derived units?

Ans: The units of all physical quantities can be derived from the seven fundamental SI units. These units are
known as derived units.
eg. i. Area = Length squared (m2)
ii. Concentration = mole per cubic metre (mol m3)
Note: The table given below shows some common derived units.
No. Physical quantity Relationship with fundamental unit Unit
i. Area Length squared m2
ii. Volume Length cubed m3
iii. Density Mass per unit volume kg m3
iv. Velocity Distance travelled in unit time ms1
v.
vi.
Acceleration
Force
Velocity change per unit time
Mass Acceleration
ms 2
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kg m s2 (newton, N)
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vii. Pressure Force per unit area kg m1 s2
N C
viii. Electric charge Current Time E
As (coulomb, C)
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C kg m2 s2 A1
.
ix. Electric potential or Potential Energy per unit charge
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difference (J A1 s1 or
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x. Energy
T A
N BI HA Force distance travelled
Volt,V or JC1)
kg m2 s2
(Joule s1)
,
(work or heat)
E mol m3
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xi. Concentration Mole per cubic metre
xii. M
Heat capacity Cp = dH / dT JK1 mol1
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D Cv = dE / dT
kg C1 (kg/Coulomb)
F AS
xiii. Electrochemical equivalent Z = E/F
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S
Some common SI prefixes used for expressing big and small numbers:
Prefix O F Symbol Magnitude Meaning (multiply by)
T
Tera E T 1012 1 000 000 000 000
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Giga
T G 109 1 000 000 000
T I Mega M 10 6
1 000 000
N S myria my 10 4
1 000 0 (this is now obsolete)
I kilo
hecto
k
h
10
10
3
2
1 000
100
deka da 10 10

1
deci d 10 0.1
centi c 102 0.01
3
milli m 10 0.001
6
micro 10 0.000 001
9
nano n 10 0.000 000 001
12
pico p 10 0.000 000 000 001
15
femto f 10 0.000 000 000 000 001
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1.4 Laws of chemical combination

Q.21. What is a chemical combination?
Ans: The process in which the elements combine with each other chemically, to form compounds, is called as
chemical combination.
*Q.22.State and explain the laws of chemical combination.
Ans: Laws of chemical combination:
One of the most important aspects of the subject of chemistry is the study of chemical reactions. These
chemical reactions take place according to certain laws called as Laws of chemical combination. They
are:
i. Law of conservation of mass:
a. The law of conservation of mass states that, mass is neither created nor destroyed during
chemical combination of matter.
b. It was first stated by Russian scientist Lomonosove (1765) and later independently stated by
French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1783) who performed careful experimental studies for
various combustion reactions.
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c.
C
Lavoisier observed that the total masses of the reactants (before the reaction) were in agreement
with the total masses of the products (after the reaction). N
eg. Consider the reaction for the burning of carbon to form carbon dioxide.
I E
C
.
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
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The sum of the masses of carbon and oxygen (reactants) is always equal to the mass of the
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A
carbon dioxide (product). This is in accordance with the law of conservation of mass.
A
ii.
N BI
T H
Law of definite composition / proportions:
a. The law of definite composition/ proportions was stated by French chemist Joseph Proust.
b. E ,
The law states that any pure compound always contains the same elements in a definite
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proportion by weight irrespective of its source or method of preparation.
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c. Proust worked with two samples of cupric carbonate; one of which was naturally occuring
D
cupric carbonate and other was prepared in the laboratory. He found that the composition of
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elements present in both the samples of cupric carbonate was same as shown below:
S
Percentage
O F
Naturally occurring cupric carbonate 51.35
Cu
38.91
C
9.74
O
T E Cupric carbonate prepared in the laboratory 51.35 38.91 9.74
T U
T I d. The law was further supported by different samples of pure water which contained same
amount of oxygen (88.81% by weight) and hydrogen (11.19% by weight) and different samples
N S of pure sugar which contained same amount of carbon (42.1% by weight), hydrogen (6.5% by
I iii.
weight) and oxygen (51.4% by weight). This was irrespective of the source.
Law of multiple proportions:
a. John Dalton (British scientist) proposed the law of multiple proportions in 1803.
b. The law states that, if two elements chemically combine with each other forming two or more
compounds with different compositions by mass, then the ratios of masses of the two interacting
elements in the two compounds are small whole numbers.
eg.
Chemical reaction of carbon with oxygen gives two compounds carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous, combustible gas. However carbon dioxide is a
nonpoisonous, noncombustible gas.
1g of carbon reacts with 1.33 g of oxygen to form carbon monoxide. 1g of carbon reacts with 2.66 g of
oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The ratio of weights of oxygen to that of carbon for carbon dioxide is
2.66g of oxygen
= 2.66
1.00g of carbon
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And the ratio of weights of oxygen to that of carbon for carbon monoxide is
1.33g of oxygen
= 1.33
1.00g carbon
2.66
The two ratios are in the proportion = 2 i.e., 2:1
1.33
Therefore, the ratio of the masses of oxygen that combine with the same mass of carbon is 2:1 i.e., a
simple ratio.
iv. Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases:
a. Joseph Louis Gay Lussac (a French chemist) observed that there exists a definite relationship
between volumes of gaseous reactants and the volumes of gaseous products. He generalized his
observations in the form of a law of combining volumes of gases.
b. Gay Lussacs law states that, when gases react together to produce gaseous products, the
volumes of reactants and products bear a simple whole number ratio with each other, provided
c.
volumes are measured at same temperature and pressure.
eg. Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of hydrogen gas reacts with
E S
1 L of chlorine gas to produce 2 L of hydrogen chloride gas i.e.
Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride N C
[1L] [1L] [2L] I E
C
.
[ 1 vol ] [ 1 vol ] [ 2 vol ]
S
R
Thus, the ratio of volumes is 1:1:2
L
A
d. Volumes may be measured in any convenient unit such as L, mL, cm3, dm3, etc.
A
N BI
T H
eg. Consider the reaction for the conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide.
Sulphur dioxide + Oxygen Sulphur trioxide
E
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M
[ 1 vol ],
[ 200 mL ] [ 100 mL]
[ 1 2 vol ]
[ 200 mL ]
[ 1 vol ]
N AR
DThe ratio of volumes is 2 : 1: 2.
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Note:
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The first three laws deal with the mass relationships whereas the fourth law deals with the volume of the
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reacting gases.
O S
Q.23. Who opposed the law of definite proportion? How were the objections ruled out?
Ans: i.
ii. T E
Berthollet (French scientist) opposed Prousts law of definite proportion.
He gave examples of the substances that contained different proportions of elements.
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iii. However, the experimental work of analysis explained by Berthollet was based on impure samples or
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T I incomplete reactions.
N S Hence, Berthollets objections were ruled out.

Q.24. Is the law of constant composition true for all types of compounds? Justify your answer.
I
Ans: No, law of constant composition is not true for all types of compounds. It is true for only those compounds
which are obtained from one isotope.
eg. Carbon exists in two common isotopes: 12C and 14C. When it forms 12CO2, the ratio of masses is
12 : 32 or 3 : 8. However, when it is formed from 14C i.e., 14CO2, the ratio will be 14 : 32 i.e., 7 : 16 ,
which is not same as in the first case.
Q.25. Verify the law of multiple proportions for the chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen.
Ans: The chemical reaction of hydrogen with oxygen gives two compounds, water and hydrogen peroxide. Water
contains 88.89% by weight of oxygen and 11.11% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio of the percentages by
weight of oxygen to that of hydrogen is equal to
88.89% by weight of oxygen
= 8 = 8:1
11.11% by weight of hydrogen
And hydrogen peroxide contains 94.12% by weight of oxygen and 5.88% by weight of hydrogen. The ratio
of the percentages by weights is equal to
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94.12% by weight of oxygen

= 16 = 16:1
5.88% by weight of hydrogen
16 :1
The ratios of the two compounds are in the proportion = 2:1
8 :1
Therefore, the ratio of weights of oxygen that combine with the same weight of hydrogen in the two
compounds is equal to 2:1.
This is in accordance with the law of multiple proportions.
Q.26. Give two examples which support the Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases.
Ans: i. Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 2 L of hydrogen gas reacts with 1L of oxygen
gas to produce 2 L of steam (water vapour). i.e.,
Hydrogen + Oxygen Steam (water vapour)
2L 1L 2L
(2 vol) (1 vol) (2 vol)
E S
ii.
The ratio of volumes, is 2 : 1 : 2.
N
Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, 1L of nitrogen gas reacts with 3 L of
C
hydrogen gas to produce 2 L of ammonia gas, i.e.
I E
C
. S
Nitrogen + Hydrogen Ammonia
1L 3L
A A R 2L
L
H
(1 vol) (3 vol) (2 vol)
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Here the ratio of volumes is 1 : 3 : 2
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From these two examples, it can be concluded that there exists a simple ratio of whole numbers of volumes
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of the gaseous reactants with gaseous products.
Hence, these examples support the Gay Lussacs law.
Note: N AR
D
i.
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Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes is applicable only to reactions involving gases and not to solids
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and liquids.
ii.
O
The volumes of gases in the chemical reaction are not additive. For example, in case of reaction between
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hydrogen and chlorine gases it appears to be additive. However in case of reaction between hydrogen and
T
oxygen, 2 volumes of hydrogen and 1 volume of oxygen, equal to 3 volumes of reactants get converted into
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T
2 volumes of the product, steam.
I
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iii. Similarly, in case of formation of ammonia, 1 volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen, equal to
4 volumes of reactants, react to get converted into 2 volumes of the product, ammonia.
I N
1.5 Daltons atomic theory
*Q.27. State and explain Daltons atomic theory.
Ans: To provide theoretical justification to the laws of chemical combination, John Dalton postulated a simple
atomic theory of matter (1808).
According to him, Atom is the smallest indivisible particle of a substance. The basic assumptions of the
theory are given below:
i. All matters are made up of tiny, indestructible, indivisible unit particles called atoms. Atoms are the
smallest particles of the element and molecules are the smallest particles of a compound.
ii. All atoms of the same element have same size, shape and mass and all other properties. Atoms of
different elements have different properties.
iii. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine. The atoms in a compound unite
in small whole number ratios like 1: 1, 1 : 2, 1: 3, 2 : 1, 2 : 3, etc.
iv. A chemical reaction involves only the separation, combination or rearrangement of integer number of
atoms. During a chemical reaction, atoms are neither created nor destroyed.
10

Q.28. How was the law of conservation of mass explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i. Based on the assumptions of atomic theory, Dalton explained the law of conservation of mass.
ii. He stated that, during a chemical reaction, atoms can rearrange and change their partners. Molecules
could be decomposed into atoms.
iii. However, total number of atoms in the reactants and products should be same. Thus, mass is
conserved during a reaction.
Q.29. How was the law of multiple proportion explained by Dalton on the basis of his atomic theory?
Ans: i. The law of multiple proportion states that, if two elements chemically combine with each other
forming two or more compounds with different compositions by mass, then the ratios of masses of two
interacting elements in the two compounds are small whole numbers.
ii. According to Daltons atomic theory, compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine.
iii. Dalton explained that under certain conditions, atoms of two types combine in the ratio 1:1 to form a
molecule. Under some other conditions, they may combine in the ratio 1:2 or 1:3 or 2:3, etc.
Note:
Dalton proposed some symbols for some common atoms and molecules. They are shown in the following E S
figure:
N C
I E
C
R. L S
A
Oxygen Sulphur Nitrogen Hydrogen
A
N BI
T H
Carbon
M E
A AM ,
Potassium Water
N AR
D
F AS
U
Methane Carbon monoxide
O F S
T EHydrogen peroxide Carbon dioxide
T U Daltons symbols for some elements and compounds
T I
1.6
N S Concepts of elements atoms and molecules
I
Q.30. Explain the following terms:
i. Atoms ii. Molecules
Ans: i. Atoms:
a. The smallest indivisible particle of an element is called an atom. Thus, it has properties similar
to that of the element.
b. Atoms may or may not exist freely. Atoms of almost all the elements can react with one another
to form compounds.
c. Every atom of an element has definite mass of the order of 1027 kg and has a spherical shape of
radius of the order of 1015 m.
d. The smallest atom of the element is that of hydrogen with mass of 1.667 1027 kg.
eg. Water consists of 3-atoms; 2-hydrogen atoms and 1-oxygen atom.
Note:
The properties of the constituent atoms are different from those of their respective compounds.
eg. Carbon dioxide gas is used as a fire extinguisher although carbon is combustible and oxygen supports
combustion.
11

ii. Molecules:
a. A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms of definite composition which are held
together by chemical bonds.
b. A molecule may contain atoms of same elements or different elements.
c. It is the smallest independent unit of a compound which exists freely. It has all the properties of
the original compound.
d. It cannot be divided into constituent atoms with the help of simple methods but decomposition
into constituent atoms can be achieved under drastic conditions.
eg. Water molecule (H2O).
1.7 Atomic and molecular masses
Q.31. Why do different elements have different atomic masses?
OR
Justify: It is not possible to weigh a single atom.
Ans: i. Each and every atom of an element consists of fixed number of protons, neutrons and electrons,
which are the subatomic particles. E S
ii. The number of protons differs from atom to atom.
N C
iii. As the number of subatomic particle changes, the mass of the atom changes.
iv. The size of one atom is of the order of 1015 m. The mass is of the order of 1027 kg. I E
C
.
Thus it is not possible to weigh a single atom.
R L S
Q.32. How is atomic mass measured?
OR A
N BI
T HA
Why is atomic mass called relative mass?
Ans: i. E
A AM
M ,
The size of a single atom is of the order of 1015 m and the mass is of the order of 1027 kg. Thus it is
not possible to weigh a single atom.
N AR
D
ii. The masses of the atoms of the elements can be determined experimentally by using mass
spectrograph.
F AS
U
iii. For this purpose, a standard element is chosen and assigned appropriate value of mass of an atom.
S
iv. By international agreement in 1961, for determining atomic masses, carbon-12, a distinct atom of carbon,
v. O F
was chosen as the standard with its atomic mass as 12.000 atomic mass unit (abbreviated as amu).
Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 equal to 1.6605 1024 g.
T E
vi. The masses of all other atoms are determined relative to the mass of an atom of carbon-12. Thus,
T U
atomic mass is called as relative mass.
Note:
T I
N S Recently, the unit of atomic mass, amu is replaced by u which means unified mass.
I
Q.33. Define isotopes.
Ans: Isotopes are the atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number. Therefore
isotopes of an element contain same number of protons and electrons but different number of neutrons.
*Q.34. Explain the need of the term average atomic mass?
Ans: i. Several naturally occurring elements exist in the form of two or more isotopes. They have different
isotopic masses.
ii. In any sample of an element, the isotopes are present in different quantities.
iii. The observed atomic mass of the atom of the element is the average atomic mass of the element. The
natural abundances of the isotopes are taken into consideration for this purpose. The natural
abundance is the percentage occurrence.
iv. Thus, it is the average weight of an atom of the element which is used in calculating the atomic
weight of the element.
v. Chemistry is a macroscopic science and involves a large number of atoms (or molecules). Hence, an
average mass of an atom or average atomic mass is an inevitable term.
12

eg.
Chlorine has two isotopes, Cl35 and Cl37, present in 75% and 25% proportion respectively. Hence,
the atomic weight of chlorine is the weighed average of these two isotopic weights i.e., (35.0 0.75)
+ (37.0 0.25) = 35.5.
Note:
i. The variation of the exact atomic mass of isotope of elements with its relative abundance is obtained
by using the mass spectrometer with higher precision.
20
Intensity (percentage) 10 Ne (90.92%)
E S
N C
21 22
Ne (8.82%) I E
Ne (0.26%)
C
.
10 10
S
A A R 19 20 21 22 23 L
N BI
T H
Atomic mass (amu)
E ,
ii. By using Astons mass spectrometer, it was shown that Neon exists in nature in the form of a mixture
A AM
of the following three isotopes:
a. M
Neon-20 with atomic mass 19.9924 u with natural abundance 90.92%
N AR
D
b. Neon - 22 with atomic mass 21.9914 u with natural abundance 8.82%.
c. Neon - 21 with atomic mass 20.9940 u with natural abundance 0.26%.
F AS
U
The observed atomic mass of Neon is its average atomic mass which is calculated as shown below:
S
Average atomic mass of Ne
O F
(Atomic mass of Ne-20 % of Ne-20)

T E
+ Atomic mass of Ne-22 % of Ne-22
=
+ Atomic mass of Ne-21 % of Ne-21 100

T U
T I = [19.9924 u 90.92 + 21.9914 u 8.82 + 20.994 u 0.26] /100 = 20.1713u
N S
*Q.35. Define the term Molecular Mass.
I th
Ans: Molecular mass of a substance is defined as the ratio of mass of one molecule of a substance to 1 of the
12
mass of one atom of Carbon-12.
It is also the algebraic sum of atomic masses of constituent atoms which constitute the molecule.
Q.36. What are the characteristics of molecular mass (molar mass)?
Ans: i. Molecular mass is also expressed in amu.
th
1
ii. It indicates comparative mass of a molecule of a compound with respect to of the mass of one
12
atom of Carbon-12.
iii. The molar mass expressed in gram is known as gram molar mass. 1 gram molar mass is also known
as 1 gram molecule or 1 gram mole or 1 mole.
iv. 1 mole of the element is the amount of the element equal to its atomic mass in gram. It is also called 1
gram atom of the element.
13

1.8 Avogadros law

*Q.37.State and explain Avogadros law.
Ans: i. In the year 1811, Avogadro combined Gay Lussacs law and Daltons theory and thereby proposed
Avogadros law.
ii. Avogadros law states that, equal volumes of all gases, under identical conditions of temperature
and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.
iii. Mathematically, Avogadros law is stated as, at constant pressure and temperature, volume of a gas
is directly proportional to the number of molecules.
iv. V number of molecules (P, T constant)
Since number of molecules is proportional to the number of moles of gas n,
V n (P, T constant)
V mass of gas
or = constant, where n =
n molar mass of gas
v.
E S
At standard temperature and pressure (STP condition), i.e., at 273.15 K and 1 atmosphere, the volume
of 1 mole of a gas i.e., molar volume of a gas can be calculated by gas equation,
PV = nRT N C
V I E
C
.
Volume per mol (molar volume) =
n
S

V
=
RT
A A R
, (R = 0.08206 L atm mol1 K1) L
N BI
T H
n P
0.08206 273.15
,
= 22.414 L mol1.
=
E
1atm
vi.
A AM
M
Thus 1 mole of any pure gas occupies a volume of 22.414 L (or 0.022414 m3) at standard temperature
N AR
D
and pressure.
The value 22.414 L mol1 is called Avogadros molar volume or molar gas volume at STP.
F AS
U
S
Q.38. Describe the significance of Avogadros number.
i. O F
Ans: The significance of Avogadros number is as follows:
Avogadros number is equal to the number of molecules present in one gram mole or one gram
T E
molecular weight of any compound. Gram molecular weight of any substance is the weight in grams
T U
of Avogadros number, i.e., 6.0221023 molecules.
T I
ii. It is equal to the number of molecules in one mole or number of atoms in one gram atomic weight of
an element. Gram atomic weight of an element is the weight of Avogadro number of atoms.
N S iii. It is equal to the number of molecules in 22.414 dm3 of any gas at STP.
I iv. The actual weight of a molecule of a compound or an atom of an element can be calculated using this
number.
Q.39. What is Atomicity?
Ans: Atomicity of a molecule is the total number of atoms of constituent elements combined to form a molecule.
eg. Atomicity of Oxygen (O2) is two, while that of Ozone (O3) is three.
Note:
He and Ne are monoatomic
O2, N2 and H2 are diatomic
O3 is triatomic
P4 is tetraatomic
S8 is Polyatomic.
14

*Q.40. Explain how an atom of an element is distinguished from its molecule.

Ans: i. Consider the formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine.
ii. Hydrogen and chlorine do not exist in free atomic state but exist in molecular state and molecules
take part in the reaction to form hydrogen chloride.
iii. The reaction may be written as
Hydrogen + Chlorine Hydrogen chloride
According to
Gay Lussacs law: [1 volume] [1 volume] [2 volumes]
According to
Avogadros law: (V n) [n molecules] [n molecules] [2n molecules]
1 1
Dividing by 2n molecule
2
molecule
2
[1 molecule]
E S
iv. This shows that
1
molecule of hydrogen and
1
N
molecule of chlorine give 1 molecule of HCl. If C
2 2
I E
C
molecules of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be monoatomic, it indicates that atoms are
R. S
divisible and this is contrary to Daltons atomic theory which states that atom is indivisible.
L
A
So, the molecule of hydrogen and chlorine are considered to be diatomic.
A
N BI
T H
M E
A AM ,+ =
N AR
D
X X 2X
F AS
U
molecules of molecules of molecules of
S
hydrogen chlorine hydrogen chloride
O F (1 Volume) (1 Volume) (2 Volume)
T E Formation of HCl molecule
U
*Q.41. Explain mole concept.
T
Ans: i.
T I The mass of one atom of an element or one molecule of a compound is negligibly small and is
N S difficult to weigh.
I ii.
iii.
The amount of a substance equal to its atomic mass or molar mass in grams is 1 mole of a substance.
Thus, one mole of a substance is defined as the amount of the substance that contains the number of
particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons, etc.) as present in 0.012 kg of carbon12.
iv. This number of particles is determined to be equal to 6.022 1023 particles.
Q.42. What is Avogadro Number (NA)?

Ans: The number of atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons, etc. present in 1 mole of a substance is found to be
equal to 6.022 1023, which is called Avogadro Number (NA). Thus, NA = 6.022 1023 mol1
Note:
i. Number of electrons equal to NA make an electrical charge of one Faraday.
ii. One mole of various gases (of different molar masses) occupy 22.414 L at STP and contain
avogadros number of molecules.
15

6.022 1023 6.022 1023 6.022 1023 6.022 1023

molecules of molecules of molecules of molecules of
O2 CO2 CH4 Ar
22.4 L 22.4 L 22.4 L 22.4 L

32.0 g 44.0 g 16.0 g 39.9 g
1 mole of different gases having different

masses containing 6.022 1023 molecules and
occupying volume of 22.414 L at STP
Q.43. Give the relationship between mass of a gas, number of moles and volume of the gas at STP, with the
E S
help of mole triangle.
N C
Ans: The mole triangle representing the relationship between the mass of gas, number of moles, volume of gas at
I E
C
STP and the number of molecules.
R. L S
A
N BI
T HA
E
A AM
M , Number of
fundamental
particles
N AR
D
F AS
Divided by
U Multiplied by
Avogadros number Avogadros number
O F S
T E Divided by
molecular weight
Multiplied by Volume
T U Mass of
(molar mass)
Number of 22.4 dm3 occupied by
T I substance Multiplied by
molecular weight
moles
Divided by
gas at STP
in dm3
N S (molar mass) 22.4 dm 3
I Mole triangle
Note:
mass of a substance W
i. Number of moles (n) = =
molar mass of thesubstance M
where, W is mass and M is molar mass of the gas.

ii. One mole of a gas contains 6.022 1023 molecules.
Number of molecules = n Avogadro number = n NA = n 6.022 1023.

iii. One mole of a gas at STP (273.15 K and 1 atmosphere) occupies 22.414 L
Volume of a gas at STP = n 22.414 L.
16

1.9 Percentage composition and molecular formula

*Q.44. Explain the terms
i. Percentage composition ii. Empirical formula
iii. Molecular formula
Ans: i. Percentage composition:
The percentage composition of a compound is defined as the percentage by weight of each element
present in the compound.
Massof theelement in1moleof thecompound
Percentage (by weight) = 100 %
Gram molecular weight of thecompound
eg.
One mole of ethanol C2H5OH (molecular mass 46) contains,
2 moles of carbon atom = 12 2 = 24 g
1 mole of oxygen atom = 16 1 = 16 g
E S
6 moles of hydrogen atom = 1 6 = 6 g
N C
the percentages of constituent elements are: I E
Thus 46 g of ethanol contains 24 g, 16 g and 6 g of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen respectively. Hence,
C
Percentage of carbon =
R.
24
100 = 52.17%
L S
A
46
A
N BI
T
Percentage of oxygen =
H 16
100 = 34.78%
,
46
E
A AM
M 6
Percentage of hydrogen = 100 = 13.04%
46

N AR
D
Each 100 g sample of ethanol contains 52.17 g carbon, 34.78 g oxygen and 13.04 g hydrogen.
ii.
F AS
U
Empirical formula:
S
The empirical formula of a compound is defined as a chemical formula indicating the relative number
O F
of constituent atoms in a molecule in the simplest ratio.
T E
eg.
The empirical formula of ethanol (C2H5OH) is C2H6O and that of benzene (C6H6) is CH.
T
iii.U Molecular formula:
T I The formula which gives the actual number of each kind of constituent atoms in one molecule of the
N S compound is called the molecular formula of the compound.

I It is an integral multiple of empirical formula.
eg.
The molecular formula of ethanol is C2H5OH and that of benzene is C6H6.
Q.45. Write the steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound.
Ans: Steps for determination of empirical and molecular formula of a compound:
i. First the percentage of all the elements present in the compound are experimetally determined. If the
sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is less than 100%, then oxygen is present. The
difference between 100 and sum of the percentages of the constituent elements is the percentage of
oxygen.
ii. The number of moles of each constituent element present in 100g of the substance is obtained by
dividing percentage of the element by its atomic mass.
iii. The ratio of number of moles of constituent elements is determined. It is then converted into smallest
simple whole number ratio.
eg. For ethanol, C2H5OH, the smallest simple whole number ratio in the order of C : H : O is 2 : 6 : 1.
17

iv. For fractional ratios, the whole number ratio is obtained by multiplying it with suitable integer. For
this, minor fractions may be neglected.
v. The empirical formula of the compound is obtained by writing the whole numbers of the ratio of number
of moles of elements as the subscripts to the right side of the corresponding atoms of the elements.
vi. Molecular mass of the substance is experimentally determined. The ratio (r) of molar mass of the
substance to the empirical formula mass of the substance is determined, then
Molecular formula = r empirical formula of compound.
#Q.46. Write empirical and molecular formulae of following compounds:
i. water ii. carbon
iii. methane iv. hydrogen peroxide
v. acetylene vi. glucose
vii. diborane viii. tetraphosphorous decoxide.
Ans:
Compound Empirical formula Molecular formula
E S
i.
ii.
Water
Carbon
H2O
C
H2O
C N C
iii. Methane CH4 CH4
I E
C
.
iv. Hydrogen peroxide HO H2O2
S
v.
vi.
Acetylene
Glucose
A A R CH
CH2O L C2H2
C6H12O6
vii. Diborane
N BI
T H BH3 B2H6
E ,
viii. Tetraphosphorous decoxide P2O5 P4O10
A AM
M
1.10 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
N AR
D
Q.47. What is a chemical reaction?
F AS
Ans: Chemical reaction is a process in which a single substance or many substances interact with each other to
U
produce one or more substances. They are represented in terms of chemical equation.
F S
eg.
E O
The chemical reaction for the formation of water (product) from gaseous hydrogen and oxygen (reactants)
may be written as,
U T
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
This is as shown below:
I T
S T
I N +
Two hydrogen molecules + One oxygen molecule Two water molecules

2H2 + O2 2H2O
Formation of water molecules
Q.48. Describe in brief representation of chemical symbols in a chemical equation.

Ans: Chemical equation use chemical symbols called formulae of reactants and products. For example, symbol
of atomic hydrogen is H. It exists in gaseous state as a diatomic molecule. Therefore, chemical formula of
hydrogen molecule is H2, its gaseous state is indicated by the suffix (g) and written completely as H2(g).
Similarly other gases are represented as, oxygen O2(g), nitrogen N2(g), fluorine F2(g), chlorine Cl2(g), bromine
Br2(g) and Iodine I2(g).
At room temperature, bromine exists in liquid state, hence, bromine in liquid state is represented as Br2(l)
while iodine exists in solid state and hence represented as I2(S).
18

Q.49. What are reactants and products in a chemical reaction?

Ans: The starting material which takes part in chemical reaction is called as reactant, the substance formed after
the chemical reaction is called product.
eg. Gaseous hydrogen and oxygen react to form water.
H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
Here, H2(g) and O2(g) are reactants and H2O(g) is product obtained in the reaction.
Q.50. Explain the balancing of mass in the following reaction: H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g)
Ans: i. In the given reaction, H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(g) conservation of mass in not observed.
ii. Hence, balancing of mass is essential.
iii. In order to conserve the mass of oxygen the reaction is balanced as 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(g)
iv. This balanced chemical equation suggests that two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of
oxygen gas to produce two water molecules.
*Q.51. Write a note on chemical stoichiometry. E S

Ans: i. Chemical stoichiometry is a process of making calculations based on formulae and balanced
N C
chemical equations.
I E
C
.
ii. Consider the balanced chemical reaction, 1N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
S
R
Numbers 1, 3 and 2 are coefficients representing the number of moles of N2(g), H2(g) and NH3(g)
L
A
respectively.
A
N BI
T H
iii. From this chemical equation, it can be seen that 1 mole of N2(g) (28 grams) react with 3 moles H2(g)
,
(6 grams) giving 2 moles of NH3(g) (34 grams).
E
A AM
Hence from the amount of the reactants, the amount of products that would be formed can be calculated.
M
iv. From stoichiometry, the amounts of reactants required to obtain definite amount of products can be estimated.
N AR
D
Q.52. What are the steps involved in writing a balanced chemical equation by stoichiometry?
F AS
U OR
F S
What are the steps involved in stoichiometric calculation?
O
Ans: Following are the steps involved in the stoichiometric calculations:
i. E
The correct formula of reactants and products must be written. The valencies of the atoms of
T
compounds should be satisfied.
ii.
T U
In order to write balanced chemical equation, following three steps must be followed:
T I
Step I :
N SThe names of the reactants are written on the left hand side. A + sign is used to separate the reactants. An
I arrow is drawn from left to right and on the right side of the arrow, the names of the products are written. A
+ sign is used to separate the products.
eg. The reaction for the combustion of methane to form carbon dioxide and water is written as,
methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
Step II :
The chemical equation is rewritten in terms of chemical formula of each substance.
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) CO2 (g) + H2O(g)
Step III :
To balance the mass of the chemical reaction, proper whole number coefficients are selected for each
reactant and product.
CH4(g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O(g)
This is the balanced chemical equation.
19

Note:
Some Common Compounds:
No. Compound Formula No. Compound Formula
i. Phosphoric acid H3PO4 xi. Ferrous chloride FeCl2
ii. Sodium phosphate Na3PO4 xii. Ferric chloride FeCl3
iii. Ferric phosphate FePO4 xiii. Stannous chloride SnCl2
iv. Aluminium phosphate AlPO4 xiv. Stannic chloride SnCl4
v. Copper phosphate Cu3(PO4)2 xv. Sulphuric acid H2SO4
vi. Ferrous phosphate Fe3(PO4)2 xvi. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4
vii. Hydrogen chloride HCl xvii. Copper sulphate CuSO4
viii. Sodium chloride NaCl xviii. Ferrous sulphate FeSO4
ix. Cuprous chloride Cu2Cl2 xix. Ferric sulphate Fe2(SO4)3
x. Cupric chloride CuCl2
E S
Q.53. Show that Law of conservation of mass is fully justified in a balanced chemical equation.
N C
Ans: i.
E
A balanced chemical reaction can be used to establish the weight relationships of reactants and
products. I
C
ii.
R. S
This is in accordance with the law of conservation of mass, which states that, total mass of reactants
L
A
is always equal to total mass of the products.
A
N BI
T H
eg.
The mass relationship is given in following balanced reaction.
2Fe(s) M
+ 3Cl2(g)
E ,
(Atomic masses: Fe = 55.85 u, Cl = 35.45 u)
A AM 2FeCl3(s)
N AR
D
(2 atoms) (3 molecules) (2 molecules)
[2 55.85 g] [3 35.45 2 g] [2 (55.85 + 3 35.45) g]
[111.7 g ]
F AS
U [ 212.7 g] [324.4 g]
S

O F 324.4 g 324.4 g
E
Hence, the mass is conserved during the reaction.
T
U
*Q.54. What are limiting and excess reactants?
T
Ans: i.
T I The stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products in the balanced chemical equation
determines the amounts of reactants required and products formed in a chemical reaction.
N Sii. Usually, to save cost cheaper reactant is taken in excess while the costlier reactant is used in lesser
I amount.
iii. As and when the reactant, which is taken in lesser amount, gets consumed the reaction stops. For the
reactant, which is taken in excess, only a part of it is consumed while the rest is left behind with the
products.
iv. Thus, the reactant taken in inadequate quantity is called as limiting reactant. It is the reactant that
reacts completely, but limits further progress of the reaction.
v. The excess reactant is the reactant which is taken in excess compared to the limiting reactant. Hence,
some amount of it remains unreacted.
Q.55. In the combustion of methane in air, what is the limiting reactant and why?
Ans: In the combustion of methane in air, methane is the limiting reactant because the other reactant is oxygen of
the air which is always present in excess. Thus, the amounts of carbon dioxide and water formed will
depend upon the amount of CH4 burnt.
20

Quick Review
The classification of matter (On basis of chemical composition):
Matter
Anything which has mass
and occupies space.

Pure substances Mixtures
Substances which always A simple combination of two
have a fixed composition. or more substances in which
the constituent substances
retain their separate identities.
Elements
Pure substances which are made
Compounds
Pure substances which are made
E S
up of only one component.
eg. Gold, silver, etc.
up of two or more components.
eg. Water, ammonia, etc. N C
I E
C
R. Homogeneous mixture
L S
Heterogeneous mixture
A
A mixture in which the A mixture in which two
A
H
concentration of the constituents
N BI
T or more phases are present.
remains uniform throughout the eg. Phenol-water system
E ,
mixture and all the constituents
A AM
are present in one phase.
M eg. Mixture of salt and water
N AR
D
Different laws and the contributing scientists:
No.
F AS
U Laws Contributing Scientists
S
i. Law of conservation of mass i. Lomonosove (Russian scientist)
ii. O F
Law of definite composition
ii. Antoine Laviosier (French chemist)
Joseph Proust (French chemist)
iii.
T ELaw of multiple proportions John Dalton (British scientist)
U
iv.
T
Law of combining volumes of gases Joseph Louis GayLussac (French chemist)
T I Important Formulae
1.
N S One mole of atoms =
Mass of element
I Atomic mass
Atomic mass
2. Mass of one atom =
6.022 1023
Molecular mass
3. Mass of one molecule =
6.022 1023
Mass of substance
4. Number of moles (n) =
Molar mass of substance
5. Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
6. Volume of gas at STP = n 22.414 L.
Mass of the element in1mole of the compound
7. Percentage (by weight) = 100
Gram molecular weight of the compound
8. Molecular formula = r empirical formula (where r is ratio of molecular mass to empirical mass).
21

Solved Examples
Type I : Problems based on average atomic mass

Example 1
Calculate the average atomic mass of naturally occuring argon from the following data: (NCERT)
Isotope Isotopic mass (g mol1) abundance

36
Ar 35.96755 0.337%
38
Ar 37.96272 0.063%
40
Ar 39.9624 99.600%
Solution:
To find:
Formula:
Average atomic mass of naturally occuring argon
Average atomic mass of argon E S
atomic mass of 36 Ar percentage of 36 Ar
N C

= + atomic mass of 38 Ar percentage of 38 Ar 100
I E
C
.
+ atomic mass of 40 Ar percentage of 40 Ar
S
R

L
Calculation:
A
N BI
T H
Average atomic mass of argonA
E ,
35.96755 0.337 + 37.96272 0.063 + 39.9624 99.60
=
A AM
M 100
1
N AR
= 39.947 g mol .
D
Ans: Average atomic mass of argon = 39.947 g mol1.
F AS
U
F S
Example 2
E O
Calculate the atomic mass (average) of chlorine using the following data:
Atomic
(NCERT)
U T % Natural abundance
mass
I
35
T
C1 75.77 34.9689
S T37
C1 24.23 36.9659
I N
Solution:
To find: Average atomic mass of chlorine
Formula: Average atomic mass of chlorine
atomic mass of 35 Cl percentage of 35 Cl

+ atomic mass of 37 Cl percentage of 37 Cl
=
100
Calculation:
Average atomic mass of chlorine
34.9689 75.77 + 36.9659 24.23
=
100
= 35.4528 g mol1
Ans: Average atomic mass of chlorine = 35.4528 g mol1.
22

Example 3
Boron occurs in nature in the form of two isotopes having atomic mass 10 and 11. What are the percentage
abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8?
Solution:
Given: Atomic masses of two isotopes of boron = 10 and 11, Average atomic mass of boron = 10.8
To find: The percentage abundances of two isotopes in the sample of boron having average atomic mass 10.8
atomic mass of 10 B percentage
Formula: Average atomic mass = 100
+ atomic mass of B percentage
11
Calculation: Let the % abundance of 10B isotope = x.

% abundance of 11B isotope = 100 x.
Average atomic mass = 10.8
x 10 + (100 x) 11
From formula, Average atomic mass =
100
= 10.8
E S
10x + 1100 11x = 10.8 100
N C
x = 1100 + 1080
I E
C
.
x = 20
S
R
Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = (100 20) = 80%
L
A
N BI
T HA
Ans: Percentage abundance: 10B = 20%, 11B = 80%.
Type II : Problems based on Avogadro number and mole concept
*Example 4
M E
A AM ,
Calculate the number of moles and molecules of ammonia present in 5.6 dm3 of its volume.
Solution:
N AR
D
F AS
U
Let number of moles present in 5.6 dm3 of ammonia = x
S
Number of moles present in 22.414 dm3 of ammonia = 1
x=
5.6
O F
= 0.25 mole
22.414
T E
1 mole of NH3 (ammonia) = 6.022 1023 molecules
T U
Number of molecules in 0.25 mole of NH3 (ammonia)
T I
= 0.25 6.022 1023
N S = 1.5055 1023 molecules

I
Ans: The number of moles and molecules in 5.6 dm3 of NH3 are 0.25 mole and 1.5055 1023 molecules,
respectively.
*Example 5
3.49 g of ammonia at STP occupies volume of 4.48 dm3. Calculate molar mass of ammonia.
Solution:
Let x grams be the molar mass of NH3.
Volume occupied by 3.49 g of NH3 at S.T.P = 4.48 dm3
Volume occupied by x g of NH3 at S.T.P = 22.414 dm3 .[1 mole of any gas occupies 22.414 dm3 at S.T.P]
22.414 3.49
x= = 17.46 g mol1.
4.48
Ans: Molar mass of ammonia is 17.46 g mol1.
23

*Example 6
Calculate the mass of potassium chlorate required to liberate 6.72 dm3 of oxygen at STP, molar mass of
potassium chlorate is 112.5 g mol1.
Solution:
The molecular formula of potassium chlorate is KClO3.
Required chemical equation:
2KClO3 2KCl + 3O2
[2 112.5 = 225 g] [3 22.414 = 67.242 dm3]
Thus, 225 g of potassium chlorate will liberate 67.242 dm3 of oxygen gas.
Let x gram of KClO3 liberate 6.72 dm3 at S.T.P.
225 6.72
x= = 22.49 g
67.242
Ans: Mass of potassium chlorate required is 22.49 g.
*Example 7 E S
Calculate the volume of oxygen required for complete combustion of 0.25 mole of methane at STP.
N C
Solution:
Required chemical equation: I E
C
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
R. L S
A
[1 mole] [2 moles]
A
H
Thus, 1 mole of CH4 requires 2 moles or 2 22.414 dm3 of O2 for complete combustion.
N BI
T
0.25 mole of CH4 requires x dm3 of O2 for complete combustion.
E ,
x = 0.25 2 22.414
A AM
M
= 0.5 22.4 = 11.207 dm3
Ans: The volume of O2 required is 11.207 dm3.
*Example 8
N AR
D
F AS
U
Calculate the volume of hydrogen required for complete hydrogenation of 0.25 dm3 of ethyne at STP.
S
Solution:
C2H2 + O F
Required chemical equation:
2H2 C2H6
T E
[1 mole] [2 moles]
1 mole of C2H2 occupies 22.414 dm3
T U
2 moles of H2 occupies 44.828 dm3
I
Thus, 22.414 dm3 of C2H2 requires 44.828 dm3 of H2 for complete hydrogenation.
T
N S
Let 0.25 dm3 of C2H2 require x dm3 of H2 for complete hydrogenation.
0.25 44.828
I
x=
22.414
= 0.5 dm3
Ans: The volume of hydrogen required is 0.5 dm3.
*Example 9
Calculate the number of atoms of hydrogen present in 5.6 g of urea (molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1).
Also calculate the number of atoms of N, C and O.
Solution:
Given: Mass of urea = 5.6 g
Molar mass of urea = 60 g mol1
To find: The number of atoms of hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon and oxygen
Calculation:
Molecular formula of urea: CO(NH2)2
1 molecule of urea has total 8 atoms, out of which 4 atoms are of H, 2 atoms are of N, 1 of C and 1 of O.
1 mole or 60 g of urea contains 6.022 1023 molecules
24

60 g of urea has 4 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.

5.6 4 6.022 1023
Number of H atoms in 5.6 g of urea = = 2.248 1023 atoms of hydrogen.
60
Similarly, 60 g of urea has 2 6.022 1023 atoms of nitrogen
5.6 2 6.022 1023
Number of N atoms in 5.6 g of urea = = 1.124 1023 atoms of nitrogen.
60
Similarly,
60 g of urea has 1 6.022 1023 atoms of carbon
5.6 1 6.022 1023
Number of C atoms in 5.6 g of urea = = 0.562 1023 atoms of carbon.
60
Similarly,
60 g of urea has 1 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen
5.6 1 6.022 1023
Number of O atoms in 5.6 g of urea =
60
= 0.562 1023 atoms of oxygen.
E S
Ans: 5.6 g of urea contains 2.248 1023 atoms of H,
1.124 1023 atoms of N, N C
0.562 1023 atoms of C and I E
C
.
0.562 1023 atoms of O.
R L S
*Example 10
A
N BI
T HA
Calculate the number of atoms of C, H and O in 72.5 g of isopropanol, C3H7OH (molar mass 60)
,
Solution:
Given: E
Mass of isopropanol (C3H7OH) = 72.5 g
A AM
M
Molar mass of isopropanol = 60 g
N AR
D
Total number of atoms = 12, out of which, there are 3 carbon atoms, 8 hydrogen atoms and 1
oxygen atom.
F AS
U
To find: The number of atoms of C, H, and O
S
Calculation:
O F
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 3 6.022 1023 atoms of carbon.
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be x atoms of carbon
T E
x =
72.5 3 6.022 1023
T U 60
T I = 21.829 1023
= 2.183 1024 atoms of carbon.
N S
Similarly,
I
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 8 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be y atoms of hydrogen.
72.5 8 6.022 1023
y= = 58.21 1023 atoms of hydrogen
60
= 5.821 1024 atoms of hydrogen.
Similarly,
In 60 g of C3H7OH, there are 1 6.022 1023 atoms of oxygen
In 72.5 g of C3H7OH, let there be z atoms of oxygen.
72.5 1 6.022 10 23
z= = 7.277 1023 atoms of oxygen.
60
Ans: 72.5 g of isopropanol contains 2.183 1024 atoms of C,
5.821 1024 atoms of H and
7.277 1023 atoms of O.
25

Example 11
Calculate the number of moles and the volume in litres of the following gases at STP:
i. 1.6 g of oxygen
ii. 3. 5 103 kg of nitrogen
iii. 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide
Solution:
i. For Oxygen:
One mole of O2 = 2 16 = 32 g (molar mass)
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
weight(w) 1.6
Number of moles of O2 = =
molar mass (M) 32
= 0.05
Volume of oxygen (at STP)
= moles 22.414 L
= 0.05 22.414 L
E S
ii. For Nitrogen:
= 1.12 L or dm3
N C
One mole of N2 = 2 14
I E
C
.
= 28 g = 28103 kg (molar mass)
S
R
= 22.414 dm3 at STP
L
A
w 3.5 103
A
H
Number of moles of N2 = =
N BI
T
M 28 103
= 0.125
E
A AM
M ,
Volume of N2 (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
= 0.125 22.414
N AR
= 2.8 L or dm3
iii. For Hydrogen sulphide:D
F AS
U
One mole of H2S = (2 1) + (1 32) = 34 g i.e., 34 103 kg (molar mass) = 22.414 dm3 at STP
S
w 85103
O F
Number of moles of H2S =
M
=
34 103
T E = 2.5
Volume of H2S (at STP) = moles 22.414 L
T U = 2.5 22.414 = 56 L or dm3

Ans: i.
T I Number of moles and volume of oxygen in 1.6 g of oxygen are 0.05 and 1.12 L respectively.
N S ii. Number of moles and volume of nitrogen in 3.5 103 kg of nitrogen are 0.125 and 2.8 L
respectively.
I iii. Number of moles and volume of hydrogen sulphide in 85 103 kg of hydrogen sulphide are 2.5 and
56 L respectively.
Example 12
Calculate the number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 g of oxygen and 72 g of
water.
(Atomic masses: C = 12, O = 16, H = 1)
Solution:
Given: Atomic masses of C = 12, O = 16 and H = 1.
To find: The number of moles and number of molecules of 12 g of carbon, 64 of oxygen and 72 g of water.
Formula:
Mass of the substance(w)
1. Number of moles (n) =
Atomic mass or molecular mass of substance(M)
2. Number of molecules = n Avogadro number
26

Calculation:
a. For Carbon:
w 12
i. Number of moles = = ( Atomic mass of C = 12)
M 12
=1
ii. Number of molecules = 1 6.022 1023 = 6.022 1023
b. For Oxygen:
64
i. Number of moles = ( Molecular mass of O2 = 2 16 = 32)
32
=2
ii. Number of molecules = 2 6.022 1023
= 12.044 1023 = 1.2044 1024
c. For Water:
i.
72
Number of moles =
18
( Molecular mass of H2O = (2 1) + (1 16) = 18)
E S
=4
N C
ii. Number of molecules = 4 6.022 1023
I E
= 24.088 1023= 2.4088 1024
C
Ans: i.
R. S
Number of moles and number of molecules in 12 g of carbon are 1 and 6.022 1023 respectively.
L
A
ii. Number of moles and number of molecules in 64 g of oxygen are 2 and 1.2044 1024 respectively.
A
H
iii. Number of moles and number of molecules in 72 g of water are 4 and 2.4088 1024 respectively.
N BI
T
E ,
Example 13
A AM
Calculate the mass of the following
i. 0.25 mole of iron M ii. 2.5 moles of ammonia
N AR
D
iii. 250 molecules of sodium chloride iv. 1.2 moles of methane
Solution:
i.
F AS
U
0.25 mole of iron (Fe):
S
Atomic mass of iron = 56
1 mole of Fe
O F 56 g of Fe 56 103 kg of Fe
T E
0.25 mole of Fe 56 103 0.25 14 103 kg of Fe
Mass of 0.25 mole of Fe = 1.4 102 kg.
T U
ii.
T I
2.5 moles of ammonia (NH3):
Molecular mass of ammonia = (1 14) + (3 1) = 17
N S (N) (3H)
I
1 mole of ammonia 17 g of ammonia 17.0 103 kg of ammonia
2.5 moles of ammonia 17.0 103 2.5 42.5 103 kg of ammonia
Mass of 2.5 moles of ammonia = 4.25 102 kg.
iii. 250 molecules of sodium chloride (NaCl):
Molecular mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
(Na) (Cl)
1 mole of NaCl 58.5 g of NaCl
58.5 103 kg of NaCl
6.022 1023 molecules of NaCl 58.5 103 kg of NaCl
58.5 103 250
250 molecules of NaCl 2.429 1023 kg
6.022 1023
Mass of 250 molecules of NaCl = 2.429 1023 kg.
27

iv. 1.2 moles of methane (CH4):

Molecular mass of CH4 = 12 + (41) = 16
(C) (4H)
1 mole of methane = 16 g of methane = 16.0 103 kg of methane
1.2 moles of methane = 16.0 103 1.2 = 19.2 103kg.
Mass of 1.2 moles of methane = 1.92 102 kg.
Ans: i. Mass of 0.25 moles of iron is 1.4 102 kg.
ii. Mass of 2.5 moles of ammonia is 4.25 102 kg.
iii. Mass of 250 molecules of sodium chloride is 2.429 1023 kg.
iv. Mass of 1.2 moles of methane is 1.92 102 kg.
Example 14
What will be the mass of one 12C atom in g?
E S
Solution:
N C
1 mole of 12
C atom 6.022 1023 atom 12 g
I E
23
Mass of 6.022 10 atoms of 12
C
.
C = 12 g
S
R
12
L
A
Mass of 1 atom of 12
C = g = 1.9927 1023 g
A 6.022 10 23
N BI
T H
Ans: Mass of one 12C atom is 1.9927 1023 g.
*Example 15
E
A AM
M ,
Type III : Problems based on percentage composition, molecular formula and empirical formula
N AR
D
Phosphoric acid is widely used in carbonated beverages, detergents, toothpastes and fertilizers. Calculate
F AS
U
the mass percentages of H, P and O in phosphoric acid if atomic masses are H = 1, P = 31 and O = 16.
Solution:
Given:
To find: O F S
Atomic mass of H = 1, P = 31 and O = 16
The mass percentage of hydrogen, phosphorous, oxygen in H3PO4
T E
Formula: %(by weight) =
Mass of element in one mole of compound 100
T U Gram molecular weight of compound

I
Calculation: Molecular formula of phosphoric acid: H3PO4
T
N S Molar mass of H3PO4 = 3 (1) + 1 (31) + 4 (16)
I = 3 + 31 + 64
= 98 g mol1
3
Percentage of Hydrogen = 100
98
= 3.06 %
31
Percentage of phosphorus = 100
98
= 31.63 %
64
Percentage of oxygen = 100
98
= 65.31 %
Ans: Mass percentage of hydrogen, phosphorous and oxygen in phosphoric acid are 3.06%, 31.63% and
65.31% respectively.
28

*Example 16
Calculate the mass percentage composition of the elements in nitric acid (H = 1, N = 14, O = 16).
Solution:
Given: Atomic mass of H = 1, N = 14 and O = 16
To find: The mass percentage of H, N and O in HNO3
Gram molecular weight of compound
Calculation: Molecular formula of nitric acid : HNO3
Molar mass = 1 (1) + 1 (14) + 3 (16) = 1 + 14 + 48 = 63 g mol1
1
Percentage of hydrogen = 100
63
= 1.59 %
14
Percentage of nitrogen = 100
63
= 22.22% E S
Percentage of oxygen =
48
100
N C
63
= 76.19% I E
C
respectively.
R. L S
Ans: Mass percentage of hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen in nitric acid are 1.59%, 22.22% and 76.19%
Example 17
A
N BI
T HA
,
Calculate the mass percentage of different elements present in sodium sulphate (Na2SO4). (NCERT)
E
A AM
Solution:
Given: M
Molecular formula of sodium sulphate = Na2SO4
N AR
D
To find: The mass percentage of Na, S and O in sodium sulphate
F AS
U
Gram molecular weight of compound

O F S
Calculation:Atomic mass of Na = 23, S = 32, O = 16
Molar mass of Na2SO4 = 2 (23) + 1 (32) + 4 (16)
T E = 46 + 32 + 64
= 142 g mol1
T U 46
100 = 32.39 %
T I Percentage of sodium =
142
N S Percentage of sulphur =
32
100 = 22. 54 %
I Percentage of oxygen =
142
64
100 = 45.07 %
142
Ans: Mass percentage of sodium, sulphur and oxygen in sodium sulphate are 32.39, 22.54 and 45.07
respectively.
*Example 18
Analysis of vitamin C shows that it contains 40.92% carbon by mass, 4.58% hydrogen and 54.50% oxygen.
Determine the empirical formula of vitamin C.
Solution:
Given: Analysis of vitamin C shows,
Percentage mass of carbon = 40.92%
Percentage mass of hydrogen = 4.58%
Percentage mass of oxygen = 54.50%
29

To find: The empirical formula of vitamin C

Calculation:
% of carbon 40.92
Moles of carbon = = = 3.41
Atomic mass of carbon 12
% of hydrogen 4.58
Moles of hydrogen = = = 4.58
Atomic mass of hydrogen 1
% of oxygen 54.50
Moles of oxygen = = = 3.406 3.41
Atomic mass of oxygen 16
3.41 4.58 3.41
Ratio of number of moles of C:H:O = =1: = 1.34 : =1
3.41 3.41 3.41
Ratio = 1 : 1.34 : 1
Multiply by 3 to get whole number

Ratio = 3 : 4.02 : 3 3 : 4 : 3
The empirical formula of compound Vitamin C is C3H4O3.
E S
Ans: Empirical formula of Vitamin C is C3H4O3.
N C
Example 19 I E
C
.
Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron which contains 69.9% iron and 30.1% oxygen by mass.
S
R
(NCERT)
L
Solution:
Given: A
N BI
T HA
Percentage mass of iron = 69.9 %
Percentage mass of oxygen = 30.1 %
To find:
Calculation:
E
A AM
M
% of iron
,
The empirical formula of an oxide of iron
69.9
N AR
D
Moles of iron = = = 1.25
Atomic mass of iron 55.85
F AS
Moles of oxygen =U % of oxygen
=
30.1
= 1.88
F S
O
Ratio of number of moles of Fe : O =
E
1.25
1.25
= 1:
1.88
1.25
=1.50
U T
Ratio = 1 : 1.50
I T
Multiply by 2 to get whole number
S T
Ratio = 2 : 3
The empirical formula is Fe2O3
I N
Ans: The empirical formula of an oxide of iron is Fe2O3.
Example 20
Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in the sample of blue vitriol (CuSO4.5H2O)
Solution:
To find: The percentage of water of crystallization in the sample of blue vitriol
Formula:
Weight of water in one mole of vitriol
% of H2O =
Molar mass of vitriol
Calculation: Molecular mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 63.5 + 32 + (4 16) + (5 18) = 249.5
For formula,
90
% of H2O = 100 = 36.07%
249.5
Ans: The percentage of water of crystallization in blue vitriol is 36.07%.
30

#Example 21
An inorganic compound contained 24.75% (w/w) potassium and 34.75% (w/w) manganese and some other
common elements. Give the empirical formula of the compound (K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, O = 16 u)
Solution:
Given: Atomic mass of K = 39 u, Mn = 59 u, and O = 16 u.
Percentage of potassium and manganese = 24.75 % and 34.75 % respectively.
To find: The empirical formula of the given inorganic compound
Calculation: Percentage of potassium = 24.75 %
Percentage of manganese = 34.75 %

Total percentage = 59.50 %
Remaining must be that of oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 59.50 = 40.50 %
% of potassium 24.75
Moles of potassium = = = 0.635
Atomic mass of potassium 39
E S
Moles of manganese =
% of manganese
Atomic mass of manganese
=
34.75
59
= 0.589
N C
% of oxygen 40.50 I E
C
.
Moles of oxygen = = = 2.53
S
R
L
A
0.635 0.589 2.53

A = 1.08 : 1 : 4.29 1 : 1 : 4
H
Ratio of K : Mn : O = : :
N BI
T 0.589 0.589 0.589
E ,
Ans: The empirical formula of given inorganic compound is KMnO4.
A AM
M
N AR
#Example 22
D
Phosphoric acid used in carbonated beverages contain 3.086% (w/w) hydrogen and 31.61% (w/w)
F AS
U
phosphorous and remaining oxygen. If the atomic masses of hydrogen, phosphorous and oxygen are 1.01 u,
31.0 u and 16 u respectively and if the molar mass of phosphoric acid is 98.03 g mol1, what is the molecular
F S
formula of phosphoric acid?
Solution: O
Given:
T E
Atomic mass of H = 1.01 u, P = 31.0 u and O = 16 u
The molar mass of phosphoric acid = 98.03 g mol1
T U
Percentage of hydrogen and phosphorus = 3.086 % and 31.61 % respectively.
To find:
T I The molecular formula of phosphoric acid
N S
Calculation: Percentage of hydrogen = 3.086 %
Percentage of phosphorous = 31.61 %
I
Total percentage = 34.696 %
Remaining amount is oxygen
Percentage of oxygen = 100 34.696 = 65.304 %
% mass of hydrogen 3.086
Moles of hydrogen = = = 3.05
Atomic mass of hydrogen 1.01
% mass of phosphorous 31.61
Moles of phosphorous = = = 1.019
Atomic mass of phosphorous 31
% mass of oxygen 65.304
Moles of Oxygen = = = 4.08
3.05 1.019 4.08
Ratio of H: P: O = : : =3:1:4
1.019 1.019 1.019
31

Hence, the empirical formula of phosphoric acid = H3PO4

Empirical formula mass = 3 (1.01) + 1 (31) + 4(16)
= 3.03 + 31 + 64
= 98.03 g mol1
Molar mass 98.03
The ratio r = = =1
Empiricalformula mass 98.03
Molecular formula = r Empirical formula
= 1 H3PO4
= H3PO4
Ans: The molecular formula of phosphoric acid is H3PO4.
Type IV : Problems based on stoichiometry
Example 23
Solution: E S
Calculate the mass of iron which will be converted into oxide (Fe3O4) by the action of 18 g of steam on it.
The chemical equation representing the reaction is:

N C
3Fe + 4H2O Fe3O4 + 4H2
I E
C
.
[3 56] [4 18]
S
R
[168 g] [72 g]
L
A
Thus, 72 g of steam reacts with 168 g of iron.
A
N BI
T H
168
18 g of steam will react with 18 = 42 g of iron
72
E ,
Ans: Mass of iron which will be converted into oxide by action of 18 g of steam is 42 g.
A AM
M
N AR
Example 24
D
How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate (CuSO4)? (NCERT)
F AS
U
Solution:
S
1 mole of copper can be obtained from 1 mole of copper sulphate
O F
Atomic mass of copper = 63.5 u
Molar mass of copper sulphate = 1 (63.5) + 1 (32) + 4 (16)
T E = 63.5 + 32 + 64
T U = 159.5 g mol1
I
63.5 g of copper can be obtained from 159.5 g of copper sulphate
T 63.5
N S Amount of copper that can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate is

159.5
100 = 39.81 g
I
Ans: 39.81 g of copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate.
Example 25
1.5 g of an impure sample of sodium sulphate dissolved in water was treated with excess of barium chloride
solution when 1.74 g of BaSO4 was obtained as dry precipitate. Calculate the percentage purity of the
sample.
Solution:
1.5 g of impure Na2SO4 1.74 g of BaSO4
Treated with BaCl2
The chemical equation representing the reaction is:

Na2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2NaCl
[(2 23) + 32 + (4 16)] [137 + 32 + (4 16)]
[46 + 32 + 64] [137 + 32 + 64]
[142 g] [233 g]
32

To calculate the mass of Na2SO4 from which 1.74 g of BaSO4 is obtained:

233 g of BaSO4 is produced from 142 g of Na2SO4.
142
Mass of Na2SO4 from which 1.74 g of BaSO4 would be obtained = 1.74 = 1.06 g
233
The mass of pure Na2SO4 present in 1.5 g of impure sample = 1.06 g
To calculate the percentage purity of the impure sample:
1.5 g of impure sample contains 1.06 g of pure Na2SO4
1.06
100 g of the impure sample will contain 100 = 70.67 g of pure Na2SO4
1.5
Ans: Percentage purity of the sample is 70.67 %.
Example 26
Calculate the amount of lime Ca(OH)2 , required to remove hardness of 50,000 L of well water which has
been found to contain 1.62 g of calcium bicarbonate per 10 L .
Solution:
E S
Calculation of total Ca(HCO3)2 present:
10 L of water contains 1.62 g of Ca(HCO3)2
N C
50,000 L of water will contain
1.62
50,000 = 8100 g of Ca(HCO3)2 I E
C
.
10
S
R
Calculation of lime required:
L
A
The balanced equation for the reaction:
A
H
Ca(OH)2
N BI
T
Ca(HCO3)2 + 2CaCO3 + 2 H2O
[1 mole] [1 mole]
[40 + (1 + 12 + 48 ) 2]
[40 + 122]
[162]
M E ,
[40 + (16 + 1) 2]
A AM
[40 + 34]
[74]
N AR
D
162 g of Ca(HCO3)2 requires 74 g of lime.
F AS
U 74
Mass of lime required by 8100 g of Ca(HCO3)2 = 8100 g = 3700 g = 3.7 kg
S
162
O F
Ans: The amount of lime required to remove hardness of 50,000 L of well water, with 1.62 g of calcium
bicarbonate per 10 L is 3.7 kg.
T E
Type V : Problems based on limiting and excess reactants
Example 27T U
T I
Gold reacts with chlorine at 150 C as per balanced chemical reaction, 2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3. 10 g each
S
of gold and chlorine are sealed in a container and heated at 150 C till the reaction is complete. Name the
N
I
limiting and excess reactants. Also calculate the amount of AuCl3 formed and the mass of the excess
reactants left behind.
(Atomic masses: Au = 196.97 u, Cl = 35.45 u)
Solution:
The reaction of gold with chlorine to produce AuCl3 is 2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3. 2 moles of gold reacts with 3
moles of Cl2 to given 2 moles of AuCl3 will be obtained.
2Au + 3Cl2 2AuCl3
[2 196.97 g] + [3 35.45 2] [2(196.97 + 3 35.45)]
[393.94 g] + [212.7 g] [606.64]
[606.64 g] [606.64 g]
2
Theoretical ratio of moles of gold to chlorine = = 0.667
3
33

Actual amount is 10 g of Au and 10 g Cl2

10
Number of moles of Au in 10 g = = 0.0508
196.97
10
Number of moles of Cl2 in its 10 g = = 0.141 mol of Cl2
70.90
0.0508
Actual ratio of moles of gold to chlorine = = 0.36
0.141
Theoretical ratio of moles of Au to Cl2 is 0.667 and actual ratio of moles of Au to Cl2 is 0.36
Thus actual ratio is smaller than theoretical ratio
Au is the limiting reactant, and Cl2 is the excess reactant.
2 moles of Au react with 3 moles of Cl2
0.0508 3
0.0508 moles of Au will react with = 0.0762 moles of Cl2
2
Moles of Cl2 remaining = 0.141 0.0762
= 0.0648 moles of Cl2 E S
Mass of Cl2 reacted = 0.0762 70.90 = 5.40 g (70.90 g is molar mass of Cl2)
N C
Mass of Cl2 left behind = 10 5.40
I E
= 4.6 g
C
2 moles of Au give 2 moles of AuCl3
R. L S
A
0.0508 mole of Au will give = 0.0508 mole of AuCl3
A
H
Mass of AuCl3 formed = 0.0508 303.32 (Molar mass of AuCl3 = 303.32 g)
N BI
T
= 15.409 g AuCl3
E ,
Ans: Au is the limiting reactant, while Cl2 is the excess reactant. The amount of AuCl3 formed is 15.409 g and
A AM
M
the mass of the excess reactant (Chlorine) left behind is 4.6 g.
N AR
D Additional Theory Questions
F AS
U
Q.1. Define:
S
i. physical chemistry. Refer Q.4.i.
ii. F
inorganic chemistry. Refer Q.4.ii.
O
iii. organic chemistry. Refer Q.4.iii.
v. T E
iv. analytical chemistry. Refer Q.4.iv.
biochemistry. Refer Q.4.v.
T U
T
i. I
Q.2. Explain the following:
Pure substance. Refer Q.8.i.
N Sii. Mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.

I
Q.3. Define the following with suitable examples:
i. Homogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.a.
ii. Heterogeneous mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.b.
*Q.4. State and explain the law of conservation of mass. Refer Q.22.i.
Q.5. State and explain the law of definite composition / proportions. Refer Q.22.ii.
Q.6. State and explain the law of multiple proportions. Refer Q.22.iii.
*Q.7. State and explain Gay Lussacs law of combining volumes of gases. Refer Q.22.iv.
*Q.8. Define elements, compounds and molecules. Refer Q.13.i.a, Q.13.ii.a. and Q.30.ii.a.
Q.9. Show that molar gas volume at STP is 22.414 L or 0.022414 m3.
OR
Prove that 1 mole of any gas at STP always has a volume of 22.414 L. Refer Q.37.(iii to vi)
34

Practice Problems 13. A compound containing sodium, sulphur and

oxygen has the following percentage
Type I composition
1. The relative abundance of various isotopes of Na = 29.11%, S = 40.51% and O = 30.38%
silicon is: Si (28) = 92.25%, Si (29) = 4.65% and molecular weight 158. Find the empirical
and Si (30) = 3.10%. Calculate the average formula.
atomic mass of silicon. Type IV
Type II 14. 1.0 g of a mixture of carbonates of calcium
2. How many molecules and atoms of sulphur and magnesium gave 240 cm3 of CO2 at STP
are present in 0.1 mole of S8 molecules? calculate the percentage composition of the
mixture.
3. Calculate the number of moles of iodine in a
sample containing 1.0 1022 molecules. Type V
4. Calculate moles of Ammonia in 0.1284 kg of
Ammonia.
15.
to produce NH3(g) E S
50.0 kg of N2(g) and 10.0 kg of H2(g) are mixed
5. O2 is present in one litre flask at a pressure of

i. Calculate the NH3(g) formed.
N C
7.6 1010 mm of Hg. Calculate no. of O2
ii.
reaction if any. I E
Identify the limiting reagent in this
C
.
molecules at 0 C.
S
6.
following:
A A R
Calculate the number of moles in the
L
Multiple Choice Questions
H
1.0 Prominent scientists
N BI
T
i. 9.0 102 kg water
89.6 dm3nitrogen at STP
,
ii. 1. The law of combining volumes of gases was
iii. 0.5 g hydrogen E formulated by _______.
A AM
M
iv. 7.1 102 kg chloride ions. (A) Avogadro (B) Gay-Lussac
N AR
D (C) Aristotle (D) Joseph Priestley
7. Calculate the number of moles in the
F AS
following: 1.1 Introduction
i. U
0.108 kg of water
S
2. The branch of chemistry which deals with
ii.
O F
0.277 kg of carbon
iii. 1.058 105 kg of sodium ions
carbon compounds is called _____ chemistry.
(A) organic (B) inorganic
T E
iv. 1.7 102 kg of hydrogen sulphide
(C) carbon (D) bio
8.
i.
T U
Calculate the weights of the following:
0.3 mole of carbon
1.2 Importance and scope of chemistry
T I
ii. 0.1 mole of hydrogen chloride 3. _______ is used for the treatment of
N S iii. 2.4 moles of bromide ions parkinsons disease.
I
9. Calculate the number of molecules in the
following
(A) L-dopa
(C) Cisplatin
(B) Taxol
(D) Tamiflue
i. 4.5 105 kg of chlorine 1.3 Historical approach to particulate nature of
ii. 0.28 dm3 of oxygen at STP matter
Type III 4. The phlogiston theory was suggested for
_______.
10. Calculate the percentage composition of the (A) neutralisation reaction
following compound: (B) oxidation reaction
i. Urea CO(NH2)2 ii. CuSO4.5H2O (C) reduction reaction
11. Calculate the mass percentage composition of (D) combustion reaction
copper pyrites CuFeS2 5. Electrochemical equivalent has unit ____.
12. Calculate the percentage composition of (A) kg m s1 (B) kg m2 s1
1
glucose (C6H12O6). (C) kg C (D) kg m1 s2
35

6. A ______ is a simple combination of two or 1.5 Daltons atomic theory

more substances in which the constituent
substances retain their separate identities. 13. _____ proposed some symbols for some
common atoms and molecules.
(A) compound (B) mixture
(A) Democritus (B) Newton
(C) alloy (D) amalgam
(C) Thomson (D) Dalton
7. Which one of the following is NOT a mixture?
1.6 Concepts of elements, atoms and molecules
(A) Iodized table salt
(B) Gasoline 14. A/An _____ is an aggregate of two or more
(C) Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) atoms of definite composition which are held
(D) Distilled water together by chemical bonds.
(A) ion (B) molecule
8. Magnitude of pico is _______. (C) compound (D) mixture
(A) 1012 (B) 1015
12 1.7 Atomic and molecular masses
(C) 10 (D) 1015
1.4 Laws of chemical combination 15. One mole of oxygen weighs______.
E S
9. The sum of the masses of reactants and
(A) 8 g
(C) 16 g
(B) 32 g
N C
(D) 6.023 1023 g
products is equal in any physical or chemical
16. I E
The number of atoms present in a molecule of
C
.
reaction. This is in accordance with _______.
S
a substance is called ________.
R
(A) law of multiple proportion
L
A
(B) law of definite composition (A) atomicity (B) volume
A
H
(C) density (D) mass
N BI
T
(C) law of conservation of mass
(D) law of reciprocal proportion 1.8 Avogadros law
10. E
A AM ,
A sample of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) has
M
the following percentage composition :
17. The number of molecules in 22.4 cm3 of
nitrogen gas at STP is _______.
N AR
D
Ca = 40 %; C = 12 %; O = 48 % (A) 6.023 1020 (B) 6.023 1023
If the law of constant proportions is true, then (C) 22.4 10 20
(D) 22.4 1023
F AS
U
the weight of calcium in 4 g of a sample of
18. The number of molecules present in 8 g of
S
calcium carbonate from another source will be
_______.
O
(A) 0.016 g
F (B) 0.16 g
oxygen gas are_______.
(A) 6.022 1023 (B) 3.011 1023
T E
(C) 1.6 g (D) 16 g (C) 12.044 10 23
(D) 1.505 1023
11.
T U
Two elements, A and B, combine to form two 19. 11.2 cm3 of hydrogen gas at STP,
T Icompounds in which a g of A combines with contains_______ moles

(A) 0.0005 (B) 0.01
N S b1 and b2g of B respectively. According to

law of multiple proportion _____. (C) 0.029 (D) 0.5
I (A) b1 = b2
(B) b1 and b2 bear a simple whole number ratio
20. 4.4 g of an unknown gas occupies 2.24 L of
volume under STP conditions. The gas may
(C) a and b1 bear a whole number ratio be_______.
(D) no relation exists between b1 and b2 (A) CO2 (B) CO
(C) O2 (D) SO2
12. At constant temperature and pressure, one litre
of nitrogen gas reacts with three litres of 21. Under similar conditions, oxygen and nitrogen
hydrogen gas to produce two litres of are taken in the same mass. The ratio of their
ammonia gas. This is in accordance with volumes will be_______.
_______. (A) 7 : 8 (B) 3 : 5
(A) law of multiple proportion (C) 6 : 5 (D) 9 : 2
(B) law of definite composition
22. Atomicity of ozone is_____.
(C) law of conservation of mass
(A) 1 (B) 2
(D) law of combining volumes of gases (C) 3 (D) 4
36

23. 19.7 kg of gold was recovered from a 32. Two elements X (atomic mass = 75) and Y
smuggler. How many atoms of gold were (atomic mass = 16) combine to give a
recovered? (Au = 197) compound having 75.8% of X . The formula
(A) 197 (B) 6.02 1023 of the compound is _______.
(C) 6.02 1024 (D) 6.02 1025 (A) XY (B) X2Y
(C) XY2 (D) X2Y3
24. The number of atoms in 4.25 g of NH3 is
approximately_______. Answers to Practice Problems
(A) 1 1023 (B) 1.5. 1023 1. 28.11 u.
23
(C) 2 10 (D) 6.022 1023
2. 6.022 1022 molecules, 4.82 1023 atoms of
25. What is the mass of 0.5 mole of ozone sulphur
molecule? 3. 0.0166 mol
(A) 8 g (B) 16 g
4. 7.55 moles
(C) 24 g (D) 48 g
5. 2.68 1010
E S
26. Mole triangle is the relationship between the
mass of a gas, the number of moles, the 6. i. 5 moles ii.
N
4.0 moles C
volume of gas at S.T.P. and the _______. iii. 0.25 moles iv.
I E 2 moles
(A) number of electrons 7. i. 6 moles
SC .
ii. 23.08 moles
R
(B) number of molecules iii. 4.6 104 mole iv. 0.5 mole
(C) pressure at S.T.P
AL A
H
3
8. i. 3.6 10 kg ii. 3.65 103 kg
T I
(D) temperature at S.T.P
iii. 0.192 kg
,B
1.9 Percentage composition and molecular
9. E Ni. 3.82 1020 ii. 7.52 1021
M
formula
M
DA A
10. i. % of carbon = 20%
AR
27. The percentage of oxygen in NaOH is % of oxygen = 26.67%
_______.
N % of nitrogen = 46.67%
F F AS
(A) 40 (B) 60
U % of hydrogen = 6.67%
S
(C) 8 (D) 10
ii. % of Cu = 25.45%
28. O
Which of the following has same molecular
E
formula and empirical formula?
% of S = 12.83%
% of O = 57.72%
(A) CO2
U T (B) C6H12O6 % of H = 4.00
(C) C2H4
T (D) all of these 11. Cu = 34.64%, Fe = 30.44%, S = 34.9%
29. TI
The empirical formula of C2H2 is _____. 12. C = 40.0%, H = 6.67%, O = 53.33%
INS (A) C2H4

(C) CH4
(B) CH
(D) C4H10
13.
14.
Na2S2O3
CaCO3: 57.5%, MgCO3: 42.5%
1.10 Chemical reactions and stoichiometry
15. i. 56.67 kg
30. _____ reactant is the reactant that reacts ii. Hydrogen
completely but limits further progress of the
reaction. Answers to Multiple Choice Question
(A) Oxidizing (B) Reducing 1. (B) 2. (A) 3. (A) 4. (D)
(C) Limiting (D) Excess 5. (C) 6. (B) 7. (D) 8. (A)
9. (C) 10. (C) 11. (B) 12. (D)
31. If 0.5 mol of BaCl2 is mixed with 0.2 mol of
13. (D) 14. (B) 15. (B) 16. (A)
Na3PO4, the maximum number of moles of
17. (B) 18. (D) 19. (A) 20. (A)
Ba3(PO4)2 that can be formed is________.
21. (A) 22. (C) 23. (D) 24. (D)
(A) 0.7 (B) 0.5
25. (C) 26. (B) 27. (A) 28. (A)
(C) 0.3 (D) 0.1 29. (B) 30. (C) 31. (D) 32. (D)
37

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Chapter 01: Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

01 Some Basic concepts of chemistry

ii. T E also an exporter of food commodities.

Q.4. What are the various branches of chemistry?

T U v Tamiflue For treatment of swine flu.

Q.10. What is dephlogisticated air? Who named it?

R.Hf Nickel Ni Ruthenium

ii. Compounds and elements:

Q.20. What are derived units?

Prefix O F Symbol Magnitude Meaning (multiply by)

1.4 Laws of chemical combination

T E Cupric carbonate prepared in the laboratory 51.35 38.91 9.74

N S Hence, Berthollets objections were ruled out.

94.12% by weight of oxygen

T U Daltons symbols for some elements and compounds

T I = [19.9924 u 90.92 + 21.9914 u 8.82 + 20.994 u 0.26] /100 = 20.1713u

1.8 Avogadros law

*Q.40. Explain how an atom of an element is distinguished from its molecule.

O F (1 Volume) (1 Volume) (2 Volume)

T E Formation of HCl molecule

Q.42. What is Avogadro Number (NA)?

6.022 1023 6.022 1023 6.022 1023 6.022 1023

22.4 L 22.4 L 22.4 L 22.4 L

1 mole of different gases having different

N S (molar mass) 22.4 dm 3

where, W is mass and M is molar mass of the gas.

Number of molecules = n Avogadro number = n NA = n 6.022 1023.

1.9 Percentage composition and molecular formula

N S compound is called the molecular formula of the compound.

Two hydrogen molecules + One oxygen molecule Two water molecules

Formation of water molecules

Q.48. Describe in brief representation of chemical symbols in a chemical equation.

Q.49. What are reactants and products in a chemical reaction?

*Q.51. Write a note on chemical stoichiometry. E S

Type I : Problems based on average atomic mass

Isotope Isotopic mass (g mol1) abundance

Calculation: Let the % abundance of 10B isotope = x.

Type II : Problems based on Avogadro number and mole concept

N S = 1.5055 1023 molecules

60 g of urea has 4 6.022 1023 atoms of hydrogen.

T U = 2.5 22.414 = 56 L or dm3

iv. 1.2 moles of methane (CH4):

T U Gram molecular weight of compound

To find: The empirical formula of vitamin C

Hence, the empirical formula of phosphoric acid = H3PO4

The chemical equation representing the reaction is:

N S Amount of copper that can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate is

The chemical equation representing the reaction is:

To calculate the mass of Na2SO4 from which 1.74 g of BaSO4 is obtained:

Actual amount is 10 g of Au and 10 g Cl2

N Sii. Mixtures. Refer Q.8.ii.

Practice Problems 13. A compound containing sodium, sulphur and

5. O2 is present in one litre flask at a pressure of

N S iii. 2.4 moles of bromide ions parkinsons disease.

6. A ______ is a simple combination of two or 1.5 Daltons atomic theory

T Icompounds in which a g of A combines with contains_______ moles

N S b1 and b2g of B respectively. According to

INS (A) C2H4

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