Islamic Studies (Islamabad) 27:3 (1988)

THE PROBLEM OF ISLAMIC GNOSTICISM.

A REVIEW ARTICLE
PR. CHARLES ALIJAP-ALI

INTROPUCTION
There has been a growing interest in recent years amongst
the scholars of lslam on the relation between Gnosticism and Islam,
wth a special concentration on IsmZ'ili theological material. R. A.
Butler (of Loyola Hall, Lahore) reviewed Henry Corbin's Cydkae
T h u a n d I & n a ' ~G n o a l which showed possible interest on this
issue m Paklstan also. 1, therefore, felt that it was very important
to critically mtroduce Heinz Halm's book, KOSMOLOGlE UNP HEILS-
LEHRE DER FRUEHEN ISMA' ILIY A; DEUTSCHE MORGENLANDISCHE
GESELLSCHAFT (Wlesbaden: Kommissionsverlag Franz Steiner GMBH,
1978) whlch though now quite old is still a very significant work
for the development of scholarship in this area within Pakistan.

Slnce the concern for Gnosticism is quite new in scholarship

on lslsrn. ~t is necessary to give an introduction to the salient
features and the geographical location of this phenomenon, and
also glve some background to the available bibliographical sources.

THE EARLY MUSLLM CONQUEST OF THE

REGIONS UNDER GNOSTIC INFLUENCE
As early as 634 A.D., al-)pl:ah in lraq had fallen to the
Muslims under the command of Khiilid ibn al-Walid, following which
Khalid was diverted to face the Byzantine m i e s in Syria, which
he conquered by 636 A.D. During the Syrian expedition, the larger
lraqi front had been left pretty much unattended by Khiilid ibn
al-Wafid. The Sassanians, seeing the relative ease with which Syria
had been subdued, wanted to stop the Musk Arab armies from
making any new headway in their territories. So, under the
leadership of Rustam, they mounted an offensive against the
Muslims. The Persian army was, however, defeated in 637 A.D. at
al-@disiyah by the Muslims under Sa'd ibn abi-WaqqZs, and within
the month Ctesiphon, the Persian capital city* also fell to the
Muslims. This then opened the door for t h e Muslim conquest of
Persia, which was nearly completed by 643 A.D.

Expanding westwards after conquering Syria, the Muslim

armies under 'Amr b. al-'A5 had conquered most of Egypt by 642

Dr Muhammad Hamidullah Library, IIU, Islamabad. http://iri.iiu.edu.pk/

196 Islamic S t u d i e s . 27:3 (1988)

A.D.= Thus Egypt, Syria A d Iraq were conquered by the Muslim

armies by the mid-seventh century. All these regions/countries had
been significant centres of the religious currents associated with
Gnosticism.
. -
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF THE PIEOBLEMS IN THE SlllDY, OF GNOSTICISM
The biggest problem we face when talking about Gnosticism is
how t o define it. There are as many definitions as there are people
defining it. A Gnontir (from the Greek G n o a , meaning "knowledge")
is one who knows. Strictly speaking, one cannot refer to a Gnostic
religion in the sense one can refer to Christian and Islamic
religions; there is no universal organisation or structure holding the
different groups together, nor a dogmatic framework, uniform
cultic practices, not even a sense of shared identity or recugnised
boundaries. Even the origin of the phenomenon is disputed.
Generally speaking, one can say that the Continental school
studying Gnosticism posits a pre-Christian origin to Gnosticism.'
Against this position, the Anglo-Saxon School, in general, asserts
that Gnosticism is a Christian heresy, or even the ultimate
hellenization of Christianity itself. Gnosticism, in this view there-
fore, has a purely post-Christian orip;in.. Although there are
obviously different doctrinal and philosophical configurations which
constitute the various groups we call. Gnostics, a t the same time
there are some common traits which help classify a group as being
Gnostic.

I will, therefore, try to follow a definition of Gnosticism

which will help us as we go through this paper. I will try to avoid
an ideal typical definition of Gnosticism, which draws elements from
the various groups and constructs an unified synthetic definition
which may have elements from the various groups but be truly
representative of none. I will, rather, try and follow a definition
which is based much more on elements and concepts common to all
rather than an unified transcendent definition by which we judge
the qualities of all.

The problem of definition was confronted headlong a t the

Conference on Gnosticism held a t Messina in 1966. There they
defined G n o u as the knowledge of the divine mysteries reserved
for a certain elite people. Gno&&hrn itself was defined as a
system which possesses the following coherent system of
characteristics:

A. Divine Spa&
1. The presence of divine spark in human beings which is
derived from the divine realm and fallen in this world of birth,
death and fate.
I s l a m i c S t u d i e s . 27:3 (1988) 197

2. This spark needs to be awakened by the divine counterpart

of the self and reintegrated into the divine itself.

1. The devolution of the divine - downward movement of the

divine - whose periphery enters into a crisis and thus produced
(directly or indirectly this world.

2. The divine cannot ignore this world as it needs to recover

its pneuma (spirit), or restore the pee1coma (the fullness of the
divine world), etc.

Both the notions of the divine spark and the cosmology and
theology lead to an extremely dualistic conception of reality which
is based on an extreme monism of the divine.=

It is presumed, on the basis of the available historical

evidence, that by the beginning of seventh century Gnosticism, as
an open religion with its cultic practices, itself had been almost
completely wiped out of Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It had lost the
fight against "orthodok" Christianity and the Church. A theology
which was essentially anti-Gnostic in mature had established itself
as the orthodox theology of the Church, and the main Gnostic
sects, such as Barbelognostics, Ophites and Valentinians, had
disappeared.
We are perhaps most indebted to the great find of coptic-.
gnostic codices at Naga Hammadi (in upper Egypt) in December 1945
for most of our current knowledge of the Gnostic sects in Egypt
and perhaps other areas as well. The Naga Hammadi codices were
perhaps a part of a library or a collection of papyri which a
Gnostic community in the fourth century was forced to hide for
security and posterity in the face of the persecution from orthodox
Cnristianity. '

The other site 01 irqortance for the study of Gnosticism is

the area around the Euphrates river. After the apparent conversion
of Constantine I to Christianity in 312 A.D. (he was actually
baptised in 337 A.D.), and the emergency of Christianity as the
state religion, there was intermittent persecution of various sects
operating in the newly established "Christendom," i.e. the Christian
Roman Empire. The region around lower Euphrates was just outside
the influence of the Roman Empire and the powerful arm of the
Byzantine State Church was not able to reach it. So we see a
flourishing of Gnosticism in this area; the Mandean (Aramaic for
Gnostic) sect, the only known surviving gnostic group, was located
here. Their sacred texts are the other main source of our
198 I s l a m i c Studies. 27:3 (19881

knowledge about the Gnostics. And the area they come from is very
important for our present study, as we shall show later.

Besides these two actual Gnostic sources, most material we

have on Gnosticism is from anti-Gnostic sources. And in this
material, apart from the neo-platonic polemic of Plotinus,' the
other source of our knowledge about the teachings and practice of
Gnosticism, also equally polemical in nature, are the writings of the
early Church Fathers, such as Irenaeus, Hippulytus, Origen,
Epiphanius Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria.

THE GMGRAFWY (UIWER EUPHRATES) OF GNOSTICISM AND CONTACT

WITH ISLAM
The Sassanian Empire, under whose jurisdiction the area
around the lower Euphrates fell, had its own state religion which
had been established, a t the latest, in the reign of Bahram I1
during the period 275-292 A.D." Even though initially the
Sassanian empire had allowed the persecution of the religious
dissenters (especially the Manicheans), by the fourth century not
only the heretical Nestorian Churches, but also the various Gnostic
sects with Christian and Jewish backgrounds had found a safe
haven from orthodox Christian persecution in the Sassanian Persia.
For example, after originally facing persecution in Persia and later
in the Roman empire, the Manicheans had found a haven in Persia.
The head of this religious sect had his seat in Babylon.

Certainly Babylon for a long time had been an unimportant

provincial city, but under the later Sassanid rule it became the
capital city of Ctesiphon. Under the Muslim rule of the 'Abbiisid
dynasty in the reign of al-Man$r, Babylon andlor its immediate
vicinity became their capital city of Baghdad (762 A.D.). Baghdad
was near al-KCifah, a very important city for the Shi'i Islam and in
the early Caliphate struggles.
Given these facts, it is no surprise, that it is here in Iraq
(in the area around the lower Euphrates and in the vicinity of the
old cities of BabylodCtesiphon, al-Hirah and al-KCifah), that the
young Islam came into contact with the Gnostic teachings of
various sects and had to come to grips with these teachings. For
even if the actual Gnostic sects had by this time disappeared.
their teachings and some of their practices must have survived
among some of the heretical Christian and Jewish groups. It is also
quite certain, that some of the indigenous religious groups which
were not under the pressure of persecution from the orthodoxy of
Judaism and Christianity were still Gnostics even i f they did not
call themselves by this designation. One could further argue, that
even among the orthodox communities in Christianity and Judaism
some of the configurations of Gnostic teachings must have
survived, a t least amongst certain members of these communities.
I s l a m i c S t u d i e s , 27:3 (1988)

The strength of these hypotheses is dependent on whether

one takes Gnosticism as only a singular histvrical reality, or as a
phenomenon whizh comes to the fore over and over again in
various periods of history, or a cynbination of the two. If it is
seen only as being historical, then one has the task to locate its
vrigin in one specific period, and then see the connecting line of
its development in history. If i t is seen only as a "phenomenon,"
then i t does not have to have a specific origin or a continuous
line in history, but a phenomenon within religion which comes to
the fore during certain periods within a religious context. If,
however, as I believe is the case, i t is a combination of history
and phenomenon, then we have to see both a specific history,
acertain line of development, and a phenomenon within religion
which erupts a t certain periods.

Following the last line ~f reasoning, one is neither forced t o

see continuity where no apparent one exists, nor is one left with a
phenomenon which has no real historical relation with other such or
similar phenomena within a religious context.

So which Gnosticism may be a specific historical occurrence

we can see traces of similar phenomena in the orthodox religious
traditions. James M. Robinson is, therefore, correct in saying that,
"Later Jewish mystical traditions, traced especially by Gershom
Scholem, have shown that, inconsistent though i t seems, Gnostic
trends have continued to carry on a clandestine existence within
the context of normative J ~ d a i s m . "If
~ ~there was actually Gnostic
element in some Islamic sects, our approach would also help
explain it better than either the purely historical one or the
purely phenomenal one.

HElNZ H A M AND THE "ISLAMIC GNOSTICISM"

A. 'AH the Centre of lslannjc Sectarianisn and Islamic
C;nosticisn

As with most sects in Islam, so also the notion of Islamic

Gnosis is seen t o be mostly a ShTI phenomenon. Some scholars have
seen, or at least used, the term Gnosis for Su& Islam also, especi-
ally in the Sufi manifestation. By and large, however, the term
Islamic Gnosis is applied rather loosely, and the distinction between
Gnostic teachings and neo-Platonic teachings are blurred.
Fmm the beginning the issue of Gnosticism is irrevocably
connected with the Fourth Caliph, ' ATi ibn AbI TZlib, the cousin
and son-in-law of the Prophet, and one of his earliest followers.
As the Imam, 'AIT stands in the centre of speculation and hope of
the Islamic Gnostics. Any discussion of Islamic Gnosticism must,
therefore, analyze not only various Shi'i sects and their theologico-
philosophical currents in order to show similarity and dissimilarity
200 I s l a m i c S t u d i e s , 27:3 (1988)

with pre-Islamic Gnosticism and neo-Platonic teachings (which

Heinz Halm achieves superbly), but must include in the analytical
continuum a thorough study of the political background and
aspiration of the respective parties under consideration (which Halm
fails t o do a t all).

While not following Goldziher c ~ m p l e t e l y ,I~would

~ still like
to contend that because the emergence of the sects in Islamic
history is so inextricably bound up with the political circumstances
of the time, i t is a t least problematic, if not false, to start talking
of Islamic sect or Islamic Gnosticism without seriously taking into
consideration the political element. Certainly the period which is
under consideration by Halm is much later than the initial
emergence of the sects, but I wish t o contend that most of these
sects continued t o have political aspirations, and some of them
were involved throughout their existence in activities which were
politically subversive, if not openly rebellious, for example the
Kharijites and the Assasins. This is especially true of those groups
which are associated under the broad rubric of IsmZ'iliyah and
which the author under discussion focuses on.

Further, I also think that i t is the political aspiration of

those sects which are associated with Islamic Gnosticism, which
makes them very distinct from almost all pre-Islamic Gnosticism and
also the various neo-platonic movements, which are assumed by
most scholars t o be of an a-political character. This I think is
also a very important point for seeing both the continuity and
change and the completely new element which Islam introduces into
the historico-phenomenological movement called Gnosticism.

These last few points are the most severe criticism that I
have of Halm's work under consideration here. The fact that he
does not take these elements into consideration certainly weakens
his overall project. However, as t o the task of defining the
philosophico-theological underpinning of the various sects, this Halm
achieves with very provocative and profound result.

'Ali ibn Abi TZlib was the only Caliph who resided in
al-Kiifah prior to the 'Abbasid revolution, and even after (or
especially after) his death became a popular figure there. During
his brief Caliphate (35-40/656-6611, Kiifah had been a t the centre
of the Muslim rule, and Iraq had been 'AFs main s u m r t in the
civil war against the Syrian governor Mu'Zwiyah (who was from the
clan of Umayyah). As the 'Umayyads got the upper hand, after
the murder of 'AE, they made Damascus the capital city and sent
a governor to Kifah. The memory of the "Iraqi Caliph," 'AIi,
became the crystalization point of all political and religious
opposition to the Umayyad dynasty. While the two sons of ' A E -
al-yasan and al-yusayn - still lived in Madinah and not in Iraq,
the focus of .the Iraqi opposition remained on the "people of the
house (of the Prophet)" - ahe d-bayt. The phenomenon of Islamic
Islamic Studies. 27:3 (1988) 201

Gnosticism is associated with these sects which started in Iraq as

anti-Umayyad political movements and which saw in ' A l i a special
figure for th+ir politico-religious aspirations. And as we mentioned
earlier, Iraq had been the home ground for earlier Gnostic sects.

a Heinz HalmSs Book, its ClutZine and Critkpes

The so called "Islamic Gnosis," inspite of being an allusive

and controversial theme, is frequently treated by those Islamic
scholars who are interested in Islamic theology and philosophy.
Ernest Blochets had introduced this theme in the context of his
study of the "Hermetic traditions in I ~ l a m , " ~Ignaz
' Goldziher was
also looking a t this issue around the same time.ls Since then the
concept of Islamic Gnosis has expanded into other areas (such as
mysticism especially following the early works of R. A. Nicholson)l 5
and above all in the area of the radical Shi'i movements and
especially Ismailism. L. Massignon, H. Corbin and R. Strothrnann1
have made the notion of Gnosis familiar in the study of Islam.

The concept of Gnosis not only fits the soteriological role of

'& in IsmZ'fliyah, but through this role it has also become a
starting point of Gnosis (special knowledge) in the Islamic Gnosti-
cism of late antiquity. This, however, does not make the use of the
tern Gnosticism any simpler, since i t leads t o the confounding
problem of positing a priority of both the elements (i.e.'& and
Gnosis), and the available material does not allow for a
satisfactory solution to this problem. The problem is caused, above
all, by the difficulty and impenetrability of the sources, a situation
common to the study of many of the "heretical" traditions, since
they always try t o camouflage the real intent in order to escape
the condemnation of orthodoxy.

Decisive for a better understanding of these traditions and

the issue of priority have been the works of W. Ivanow, R.
Strothmann and S.M. Stem, and in the recent times the work of B.
Lewis and above all the penetrating work of W. Madelung. Through
their efforts the source material of IsmZ'ilis has been greatly
enlarged so that source critical research has been stimulated, with
the result that in the last two decades a solid historical basis has
been formed for the study of IsmZ'iliyah and their Gnosis. Heinz
Halm's work adds greatly to this historical basis, and is based on
careful and critical studies of IsmZ'iliyah and their Gnosis. He
understands his work to be a part of these continuing efforts and
it has been stimulated by the extensive Tiibingen collt?ction of
Isma'ili manuscripts.

Halm is not only very well acquainted with the Shi'i sources
but has a far reaching insight and knowledge into the Gnostic
traditions of late antiquity, including the Mandeans. In this regard,
his work stands on a very firm footing. The same can be said for
the overall method utilized in the book. With a great deal of care
202 I s l a m i c S t u d i e s , 2 7 3 (1988)

for the oldest available material (including some that is still

unedited). Halm works out the dominant themes in the early Gnostic
and Ismii'ili sources which he develops step by step in order to
show the parallel themes which emerge in the later texts. This
provides us with a well-balanced picture of the current situation
of scholarship around these themes.

In the "Introduction" (pp. 1-17, Halm gives a quick

overview of: 1) the overall research situation of the topic under
consideration; 2) the historical beginnings of the IsmZ'ili and
Qmnati movements in the middle of 3/9 century in Iraq and Syria
(utilizing here the works of Abii h+in and Ibn Rizam); 3) earlier
developments of the research on l s l k i c Gnosticism till the Fatimid
Caliphs (primarily under the influence of the ground breaking
studies by W. Madelung); 4) the problems of the development of the
actual teaching and learning in the IsmZ'iIi and other sects. He
sees his task as the sifting of these texts and traditions for the
older pre-neo-Platonic material (and its mythological conception) of
the lsma'ilis, by stripping the neo-Platonic overlay, which he sees
as foreign to the older material. He also criticises a t this point,
unhistorical methods used in the study of Ismi'iIi Gnosis (esp. H.
Corbin, cf. p. 16). He suggests that a methodically conscientious
historical research will give us a better understanding for the
"ideal typical characterization" of IsmZ'il'i Gnosticism which has to
be derived, unfortunately, from a very fragmentary tradition (p.
17). He therefore looks a t the issue of IsmZ'iIi Gnosticism by
following the complex of motives and teachings which had
established themselves in this movement, and this also becomes the
very sequence of Halm's book.

In a thorough-going manner, Hah goes through a sequence

from cosmolo.gy and other gnostic themes, based on few fragments,
in order to construct a picture of the old IsmZ'iliyah: 1. the series
of Seven h-ophets (pp. 18-37); 2. the Throne and the Alphabets
(pp. 38-52); Kuni and Cladan (pp. 53-66); 3. the "Higher" Five (pp.
67-74); 4. the Blindness of the Demiurges (pp. 75-90); 5. the Seven
and the Twelve (pp. 91-106); 6. the Legends of Adam and the
Anthropological Myths (pp. 101-109); and 7. Fall and the Ascent
of the Soul (pp. 110-115). For this reconstruction Hah is mainly
dependent upon such works as the pre-Fatimid K a b d - K & 6 ,
Ribiieah of ~bii'IsZ al-Murshid, K&b d 6atamt wd-qhanat, amongst
others (pp. 169-173); and from the lsrnii'ili neo-platonic works of
the "Persian School" such as al-Nasafi's K&b d M a w AbG
YZtim al-RZzi's K&b d - z h h and K&b d-i?Fiih, AbG Ya'qiib al-
SijistZhi's Kitdb d-4tihht&, among others (pp. 173-1751: and from
the Fatimid period the K&b hazii'in d-adl8eah, among others (pp.
175-1801; and from the Yemani-Taiyibi sources Ibrahim b. al-Husayn
al-Hamidi's Kanz d-W&d, and others (pp. 181-183).

With the help of the late antiquity Gnostic texts, primarily

Islamic Studies, 27:3 (19881 203

f- the Syrian-lewish (also Egyptian) side, Halm shows how

Gnostic materials allow us to understand the oldest IsmZ'ili teach-
ing and message as a form of cosmology with a soteriological
function. He sees this material as "fragments of a Gnostic art
myths," and shows how they provide "conceptualizations of
myths" and "mythology of conception" (p. 120). In these materials
the creation of the world with its differentiated organisation and
arrangements and dependency (the fundamental order of things and
differentiated functions), is similar to the Gnostic teachings
amongst the IsmZ'ills. This is clearly visible in the schema which
Halm draws and then explains (pp. 116ff.l. He shows the Ismii'ilT
scheme and its parallels in the pre-Islamic Gnostics by showing the
hierarchical arrangements which start with:

1. God (the unknown = Agno&h Tlreon, there can be therefore,

only i= negative theology = .taw@); this part of the divine has two
parts iMdah and k&ah (together the two constitute the will of
God).

2. ~cztimah(Kunl which flows from God (= the Bogoh - the world).

3. Kud (the throne = Sophia - WisdomEnnonk - thought) which

is part of P&~tomaand has four further emanational structures:

a) !&1du4 (the stool) = the demiulge

4. The Cosmos with its division of the Seven or the Twelve

parts.

5. The Earth which has five further sub-divisions:

a) Nm
b) W@Am

C) lmam m h m

This abstracted model is only to show the essence of a unity

between these pre-Islamic and Ismii'ili Gnostic traditions and not a
uniformity between them, and Halm directs his penetrating under-
 204 Islamic S t u d i e s , 27:3 (1988)

standing into these otherwise impenetrable traditions. He points to

the connections between the Jewish ideas in the "'Book of
Creation" (Sebet Jezimh J as paralleling the works of the Valenti~
nian Gnostic, Markos, in their cosmogenic speculations and
alphabetic mysticisms (pp. 48ff.). In this context the central pair
of Kuni-Qadm in IsmZ'X Gnosticism becomes a continuum. Halm sees
the pair as belonging to the oldest characteristics of Is16'iIis (p.
58). The polarity in this pair, he argues, is later reversed by the
neo-Platonic "Persian School" to Qadm-Kuni which are then
. interpreted as "intellect" and "world soul" which leads to the old
tension about the character of the divine devolution (the Fall of
the Soul). This element leads to anthropology and the teaching on
the soul in this system. The idea of a heavenly or spiritual Adam
(or AAnthhapo~- "man") is here bound up with the divine hyposta-
sis Qadm; his fall as the loss of the Paradise is the originary
picture for the earthly Adam; whom the "External Law" expells and
from then on he is not revered by the devil. (For the ambivalent
role of devil - 1bfB and 'Azdz& see p. 105ff.)

The original issue for the Fall is the ignorance of the inner
(concealed or hidden) meaning of religion. The Fall of the Soul is
also equated with "forgetfulness," sleep and ignorance. The return
to Paradise ,is achieved, therefore, through enlightenment,
elucidation, illumination, etc. (pp. 108ff.). This "return home" is a
gift of esoteric knowledge; and its object is first of all the Imam
(of the time) and the Mahdi (QE'h) in the context of the descent
of the soul and its estranged location in the material world (p. 112
ff.). We, therefore, find always an antinomian quality (rejection of
the external Islamic Law) and an anti-cosmogenic tension in the
older IsmZ'X tradition, which in the later (neo-Platonic) literature
is either removed or misinterpreted (pp. 119 f. & 137 f.). This is
indeed very clearly visible in the later estimationof the cosmogeny;
the motive of guilt which the devolution removed, is fully
spiritualised in the neo-Platonic explanation through the concept of
the "Ten lntellects of the Pleroma". In the Taiyibi tradition,
however, there is a caution, in that the original sin is understood
as the hubris of "Three lntellects" against the existing "One
Intellect" (the original creator), (pp. 86ff.I. There is also a
valuation of the Seven (planets) as representation of the outer
(external) Law (p. 106).

The question which emerges from this highly technical

discussion of Halm is, whether the early IsmZ'X (Qarmac) teaching
is incontestably Gnostic in character (pp. 120ff.1, inspite af the
"ideal typical" o v e ~ e w(pp. 116ff.l which Halm so profoundly
draws? The material analysed and the terminology utilized, upto
this part of the book, is essentially Islamic in origin as is the
cultic-sphere (p. 1261, and the Shi'ite character is visible from the
very beginning (p. 123). Yet in all this, one can find a
foundational pattern which has a strong affinity to the Barbeb
Gnostics and the Ophitic Gnosis (p. 123). The terminology itself
Is1arnic Studies, 27:3 (1988) 205

leads one in this direction, for example the Messianic title of 28h
in which Halm sees similarity with the Simonian (Simon Magus) title
ho hebto4, and the Samaritan 2a6jin, (p. 125). I t is also possible
that behind the IsG'iIi tradition about the names of the angels
(cf. p. 93ff) lies a still older material about these names. Hitm
(Abel), Shit (Seth) and A d (Enoch) are also found in the
Mandean hierarchy a t the top of their divine envoys. But this is
not sufficient evidence and the claims made are very meagre and
are dependent, finally, upon seeing a direct line of tradition and
literature between pre-Islamic Gnosticism and Ism3'Tliyah. This
assumption of direct historical links fits in with the historical view
of Gnosticism which 1 find problematic, as I mentioned earlier.

Halm sees certain obvious connections between the Gnosticism

in late antiquity and the Islamic Gnosis (p. 751, but these are not
very easy t o sustain. For though there are obviously many corres-
pondences, differences began to emerge with the Shi'i teachings on
redemption which are largely located in their belief in the Imk.
Belief in a redeemer-figure has few i f any parallels in the various
Gnostic sects; for these Gnostic groups, redemption is generally
located in their conception of the revelation which is seen as a
vehicle of secret knowledge ( g n o d ) . Those who are enlightened by
g n o h can go back to the source of all creation. Halm does arrive
a t a similar coficlusion which our observations pose when he states
that Islamic Gncsis has an independent lslamii Gnostic foundation
which cannot be understood in terms of the evolution and
Islamisation of the earlier gnostic tradition (p. 126). But he sees
the new element in Islamic Gnosticism as emerging around a
conscious founding (or fabrication), perhaps through the work of
the well known propagandist and adapter ' AbdallZh of KhGzistgn.
There are, obviously, all sorts of presuppositions behind these
Islamic or IsmZ'ili Gnostic foundations, but these should not be too
quickly identified with the earlier Islamic heresies simply because
of the location of the Islamic sects in the home lands of these
heresies, i.e. lower Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Syria.
Halm has laid bare with this study the oldest b a c k p u n d of
ImG6iliyah, and in so doing he has also shown definitively that the
neo-Platonic forms are a t best secondary a d o r subordinate in the
ImZ6ili teachings. He has delineated the processes of neo-Platoni-
sation and a t the same time brought them together in one suitable
section (pp. 128-1381. He argues that the late-Platonic teachings
on emanation and souls were originally incorporated, with varying
intensity, in the 1smZ6ili teachings in the first half of the 10th
century A.D., starting with the "Persian School'!. This period
pretty much begins and ends with al-Kimiini (d. 1021) and with
his complete success (pp. 137ff.l. Through him emerges an 1smZ6ili
ideology which is a "perfect synthesis of gnostic mythology and
neo-Platonic speculation" (p. 1381. .

If the role of neo-or-late-Platonism in Ismg'ili tradition is

this clear, then Halm is faced with the difficult problems and
206 Islamic S t u d i e s , 2 7 3 (1988)

issues which emerge in trying to see the relations of IsmZ6iliyah

with other extreme Shi'i sects. If we accept his synthesis between
neo-Platonism and gnostic mythology then we will have to ascertain
the relation between IsmZ'iliyah .and the extreme Shi'i sect as
being dependent upon the level of Platonisation in these sects.

In his second to last chapter, Halm pursues the issue of the

establishment of the Druze with their relation to the distinctive
old teachings of the IsmZ6ilis. He follows mostly the work of D.R.W.
Bryer, The O w 06 t h e Dochine 04 t h e Dmze Religion. Here his
main concern is with the Druze teaching on the Adam figure. Halm
points out the division of the Adam figure into three distinctive
parts (a. the "Universal Adam"; b. the "Rebellious Adam"; and c.
the "Bodily Adam") as being based on the earlier IsmZ'ili tradition
and their inherent antinomian (anti-law) stance as reflected in the
Qarmaii position (p. 139). Halm then looks a t the cosmic hierarchy
of the Druze, which is, at times, dealt with in a very arbitrary
way, .grouping together ideological components lying behind the
Druze and IsmZ6l1iyah without differentiation. In this he may be
reflecting the incoherent and confusing conditions of IsmZ'ili
teaching before the final neo-Platonic hamonisation by al-KimZni,
which he himself wants to correct as we mentioned earlier. This
confusion is alw visible in Halm's rather quick attempt to compare
the Qarmaii teachings about the hierarchy with those of the
IsmZ'Flis, and in the way he too quickly sees a resemblence
between the Druze cosmogeny and the cosmogenies displayed in the
very early IsmZ'ili work W h of Abii 'TsZ (pp. 139ff).
The last chapter deals with the IsmZ'ili teachings and their
relation to the various Kufan GhuEt extremist groups (pp. 142-
168). In order to achieve this, Halm analyzes the well known Umm
d - K d Z b (which was edited by W. Ivanow in 1936). Halm sees the
core of the teachings of these extreme Shi'i p u p s as being
located in the early IsmZ6ili teachings. This is well discussed and is
much more of an original chapter as compared to the previous one,
where he mostly re-articulates Bryer's work. Halm also argues
quite conclusively that the early IsmZ6iliLteachings should be seen
as originating in the 8th century A.D. in Iraq. Halm then goes on
to explicate the IsmZ6ili cosmogenic gnostic myth and its parallel
amongst the Nussams, through a very careful and systematic
development of the dominant themes from the IsmZ'ili KdZb
d - K ~ h 6 (pp. 149-156). He also shows the parallels between the
IsmZ6ilG and the so called "Fivers" [MukhammibMl (pp. 157-162).
According to Halm the Nussairis embody the teachings of both
these sects. Halm, however, does not see any movement the other
way, i.e. the influence of the extreme GhulZt traditions on IsmZ'ili
teachmgs, and sees the development of IsmZ'ili tradition as being
independent of these extreme sects (p. 165). He argues that in
Tracts I and I1 of the KdZb d - K ~ h 6 one sees only a single
version of GhulZt groups and this does not seem to have any
Islamic Studies. 27:3 (1988) 207

influence on the later lsmZ6ili teachings (pp. 165 ff.). The

possibility of such influence first emerges, perhaps under the
missionary activity of the Taiyibis (p. 166). This influence is,
therefore, much later and of no significance t o the founding of the
1smZ6iliyah. In this way Halm has also shed some light on the
problem which has seemed impenetrable. Of course, it is quite
possible that the oldest form of Shi'i is perhaps the GhuEt groups
since they had their centre a t al-Mada' (i.e. Ctesiphon), which we
had shown earlier to be the centre for the Manicheans and also as
the centre for the Mandeans.

~ e that
' a s i t may, Halm has without 'doubt produced a
pioneering work which will move - t h e scholarship on the problem of
the so called "lslamic or 1smZ6ili Gnosis" from mostly speculative
(though not always wrong, as Halm proves) conjectures to a serious
historical-critical level. In this context the problem which we have
pointed out, i.e. his making too easy and too quick connections
between various otherwise unrelated gnostic movements; his lack of
a proper appreciation of, what we have termed as, the historico-
phenomenological approach; and his neglect of the political aspects
of IsmZ'ili history, do not significantly weaken the otherwise
superlative work. Thus anyone pursuing this problem from now on
will have to be thankful t o him for placing some of the related
issues on firmer grounds and opening the door for further
scholarship in this much neglected area.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

1. Hamdaad T & m i c ~ (vol. viiilno. 3, Autumn, 1985, pp. 103-11.

2. For greater details of these conquests the best book is Fred McGraw
Domer, The Ea@ T & m k ConqueAQ, (Princeton, N.J.: Rinceton Uni-
versity Press, 1981); see also Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The V e n t w e 06
T&m: Conocience and W o a y in a Worn Civilization, vol. 1 The
C m d age 06 T&m (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,
1974); and Philip K. Hitti, Hibto4y 06 t h e Atatabo, Tenth Edition (New
Yo&: St. Martin's Press, 1970).
3. See the works of W. Bousset, R. hltmam, H. Jonas, G. @ispel, R.
Reitenstein, G. Widengren, etc.
4. See the works of E.S. Drower, R.M. Grant, B. Layton. R. Mcl. Wilson,
etc.
5. See Bianchi. U., ed., S&c&d E & ~ y h on Gnonticiam, D&m and
Myntetimophy (Leiden: Brill, 1978, also a supplement to the Numen,
381, especially the editors "introduction."
6. See Heinz Halm. D k T&mhche Gnonib: D k Exheme S c k und die
Ld4awiten (Zuerich and Muenchen: Artemis Verlag. 1982). pp. 7 ff.
Kurt Rudolph, in Gnonib: The Naiuae and Hibtoy 06 Gnonticiam, Trans.
by Robert M. Wilson (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 19831,
points out that, "The beginning and end of Gnosis in late antiquity
cannot be pin-pointed exactly. It makes its appearance a t the
beginning of the Christian era and disappears again a t the latest in
 Islamic Studies, 27:3 (1988)

the 6th century, a t least in as far as i t s western manifestations are

concerned." Halm and Rudolph, though apparently in disagreement on
the dating of the end of Gnosis, are talking about different areas
which makes for the disagreement. For while in the West, according
to all evidence, Gnosticism ends around the sixth century i t
obviously seemed to have survived in the East for a longer period.
Rudolph's emphasis on the West does not deal with areas like Syria
and Egypt, where he himself shows the continuing existence of the
Mandean Gnostic to the present in Iraq. See pp. 343ff.
See The Nag' Hammadi LdVtaay, General Editor James M. Robinson (New
York: Harper % Row, Publishers, 1977). especially the "Introduction."
Parts of this collection have been lost, or burnt, or are in a very
bad state, and even codices which are decipherable have not all, as
yet, been fully translated.
A g d the G n o h , M a g d tho&? who MY t h a t t h e Caeaba 06
the Worn h Evil and t h a t t h e ItloM h Bad.
See R.M. Grant. Gno&%i.hm and the Ea/c4y Chhiatianity (New York:
Harper % Row, 1966 second edition); Hans Jonas, The G n o A Religion :
The M w g e 06 t h e Aeien God and the Beginningh 06 CCuiatianity
(Boston: Beacon Press, 1962); and Kurt Rudolph, G n o u .
Cf. Hodgson, Ventclne 06 I&m, p. 127.
The NagL Hammadi Libtaty, p. 7.
See lgnaz Goldziher. Intnoduction b TheoPogy and Law Trans.,
Andres and Ruth Hamori (Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press,
1981). esp. pp. 168ff. Goldziher says that, "In the foreground are
not questions of religion but, i t appears, questions of the
constitution of the state. In a community based on religion, religious
considerations will, however, inevitably pervade political questions,
and political questions will take on the form of religious issues that
give their own coloring to political life.. .. At the beginning of the
.schism, however, political questions were uppermost." (p. 168).
"Etudes sur le gnosticisme musulrnan," Rev& De& m d i Lhk?~&& 2
% 6 (1908 % 1915).
"Neuplatonische und gnositische Elemente in Hadith," Z e i t b c h J t 6 i h
A & y f i b g i e , 22 (1909).
The M y h 06 I&m (London: G. Bell and Sons Ltd., 19141, esp. ch.
3.
Especially see Louis Massignon, "Die Urspriing die Bedeutung des
Gnostizismus im Islam." and "Der gnostische Kult der Fatima in
Schiitischen lslam. EaanoA k h b u c h (1937 % 1938). pp. 55-77 and
161-173, respectively. H. Corbin, "CyclicaI Time in Mazdaism and
Ismailism," and "Divine Epiphany and Spiritual Rebirth in Ismailian
Gnosis" Man and T h e (Papers from the Eranos Yearbooks 3 % 51, pp.
115-172 and pp. 69-160 (New York: Bollingen Series XXX, 1957 and
1964 respectively)- and "De la Gnose antique a la Gnose ismaelienne,"
Atti del XTI Congamo V& (Rome: Accad. Naz.dei Lincei.. 1957).pp.
105-150. And Rudolf Strothmann, Gnooia-Texte dea 7.,5mWen, ( Giitt-
ingen, 1943). and "Kleinere ismailitische Schriften," t6Pamic R m a t c h
A ~ o c i a t i o nMibc&hny, 1 (1949). pp. 121-163.