EENS 2110 Mineralogy

Tulane University
Prof. Stephen A. Nelson

Properties of Light and Examination of Isotropic Substances

This document last updated on 21-Oct-2011

The optical properties of crystals are, next to x-ray diffraction and direct chemical analyses, the
most reliable properties available to distinguish and identify minerals. The optical properties
depend on the manner that visible light is transmitted through the crystal, and thus are dependent
on crystal structure, crystal symmetry, and chemical composition of the mineral.

In order to understand the optical properties of crystals we must first understand something about
light and how it interacts with matter.

Light

Light is electromagnetic radiation that has properties of waves. The electromagnetic spectrum
can be divided into several bands based on the wavelength. As we have discussed before, visible
light represents a narrow group of wavelengths between about 380 nm and 730 nm.
Our eyes interpret these wavelengths as different colors. If only a single wavelength or limited
range of wavelengths are present and enter our eyes, they are interpreted as a certain color. If a
single wavelength is present we say that we have monochromatic light. If all wavelengths of
visible light are present, our eyes interpret this as white light. If no wavelengths in the visible
range are present, we interpret this as dark.

Interaction of Light with Matter

Velocity of Light and Refractive Index

The energy of light is related to its frequency and velocity as follows:

E = h = hC/

where E = energy
h = Planck's constant, 6.62517 x 10-27 erg.sec
= frequency
C = velocity of light = 2.99793 x 1010 cm/sec
= wavelength

The velocity of light, C, in a vacuum is 2.99793 x 1010cm/sec. Light cannot travel faster than this,
but if it travels through a substance, its velocity will decrease. Note that from the equation given
above-
 C =

The frequency of vibration, , remains constant when the light passes through a substance. Thus,
if the velocity, C, is reduced on passage through a substance, the wavelength, , must also
decrease.

We here define refractive index, n, of a material or substance as the ratio of the speed of light in a
vacuum, C, to the speed of light in a material through which it passes, Cm.

n = C/Cm

Note that the value of refractive index will always be greater than 1.0, since Cm can never be
greater than C. In general, Cm depends on the density of the material, with Cm decreasing with
increasing density. Thus, higher density materials will have higher refractive indices.

The refractive index of any material depends on the wavelength of light because different
wavelengths are interfered with to different extents by the atoms that make up the material. In
general refractive index varies linearly with wavelength.

Materials can be divided into 2 classes based on how the velocity of light of a particular
wavelength varies in the material.

1. Materials whose refractive index not depend on the direction that the light travels are
called isotropic materials. In these materials the velocity of light does not depend on the
direction that the light travels. Isotropic materials have a single, constant refractive index
for each wavelength. Minerals that crystallize in the isometric system, by virtue of their
symmetry, are isotropic. Similarly, glass, gases, most liquids and amorphous solids are
isotropic.

2. Materials whose refractive index does depend on the direction that the light travels are
called anisotropic materials. These types of materials will have a range of refractive
indices between two extreme values for each wavelength. Anisotropic materials can be
further divided into two subclasses, although the reasoning behind these subdivisions will
become clear in a later lecture.
a. Minerals that crystallize in the tetragonal and hexagonal crystal systems (as well as
some plastics) are uniaxial and are characterized by 2 extreme refractive indices
for each wavelength.

b. Minerals that crystallize in the triclinic, monoclinic, and orthorhombic crystal

systems are biaxial and are characterized by 3 refractive indices, one of which is
intermediate between the other two.

Air, since it is a gas, is isotropic. The refractive index of air is usually taken as 1.0, although its
true value is 1.0003.
Reflection and Refraction of Light

When light strikes an interface between two substances with different refractive indices, two
things occur. An incident ray of light striking the interface at an angle, i, measured between a line
perpendicular to the interface and the propagation direction of the incident ray, will be reflected
off the interface at the same angle, i. In other words the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence.
If the second substance is transparent to light, then a ray of
light will enter the substance with different refractive index,
and will be refracted, or bent, at an angle r, the angle of
refraction. The angle of refraction is dependent on the angle of
incidence and the refractive index of the materials on either
side of the interface according to Snell's Law:

ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)

Note that if the angle of incidence is 0o (i.e. the light enters

perpendicular to the interface) that some of the light will be
reflected directly back, and the refracted ray will continue
along the same path. This can be seen from Snell's law, since
sin(0o) = 0, making sin (r) = 0, and resulting in r = 0.

There is also an angle, ic, called the critical angle for total internal reflection where the
refracted ray travels along the interface between the two substances.

This occurs when the angle r = 90o. In this case, applying

Snell's law:

ni sin (ic) = nr sin (90o) = nr [since sin (90o) = 1]

sin (ic) = nr/ni

Dispersion of Light

The fact that refractive indices differ for each wavelength of light produces an effect called
dispersion. This can be seen by shining a beam of white light into a triangular prism made of
glass. White light entering such a prism will be refracted in the prism by different angles
depending on the wavelength of the light.
 The refractive index for longer wavelengths (red)
are lower than those for shorter wavelengths
(violet). This results in the a greater angle of
refraction for the longer wavelengths than for the
shorter wavelengths. (Shown here are the paths
taken for a wavelength of 800 nm, angle r800 and for
a wavelength of 300 nm, angle r300 ). When the
light exits from the other side of the prism, we see
the different wavelengths dispersed to show the
different colors of the spectrum.
Absorption of Light

When light enters a transparent material some of its energy is dissipated as heat energy, and it
thus looses some of its intensity. When this absorption of energy occurs selectively for different
wavelengths of light, they light that gets transmitted through the material will show only those
wavelengths of light that are not absorbed. The transmitted wavelengths will then be seen as
color, called the absorption color of the material.
For example, if we measure the intensity of
light, Io, for each wavelength before it is
transmitted through a material, and measure the
intensity, I, for each wavelength after it has
passed through the material, and plot I/Io versus
wavelength we obtain the absorption curve for
that material as shown here. The absorption
curve (continuous line) for the material in this
example shows that the light exiting the material
will have a yellow-green color, called the
absorption color. An opaque substance would
have an absorption curve such as that labeled
"Dark", i.e. no wavelengths would be
transmitted.
Sunlight, on passing through the atmosphere has absorption curve as shown, thus we see it as
white light, since all wavelengths are present.

Polarization of Light

Normal light vibrates equally in all direction perpendicular to its path of propagation. If the
light is constrained to vibrate in only on plane, however, we say that it is plane polarized light.
The direction that the light vibrates is called the vibration direction, which for now will be
perpendicular to the direction. There are two common ways that light can become polarized.
 The first involves reflection off of a non-metallic
surface, such as glass or paint. An unpolarized beam
of light, vibrating in all directions perpendicular to its
path strikes such a surface and is reflected. The
reflected beam will be polarized with vibration
directions parallel to the reflecting surface
(perpendicular to the page as indicated by the open
circles on the ray path). If some of this light also
enters the material and is refracted at an angle 90o to
the path of the reflected ray, it too will become
partially polarized, with vibration directions again
perpendicular to the path of the refracted ray, but in
the plane perpendicular to the direction of vibration in
the reflected ray (the plane of the paper, as shown in
the drawing).
Polarization can also be achieved by passing the light through a substance that absorbs
light vibrating in all directions except one. Anisotropic crystals have this property in
certain directions, called privileged directions, and we will discuss these properties when
we discuss uniaxial and biaxial crystals. Crystals were used to produce polarized light
in microscopes built before about 1950. The device used to make polarized light in
modern microscopes is a Polaroid, a trade name for a plastic film made by the Polaroid
Corporation. A Polaroid consists of long-chain organic molecules that are aligned in one
direction an placed in a plastic sheet. They are placed close enough to form a closely
spaced linear grid, that allows the passage of light vibrating only in the same direction as
the grid. Light vibrating in all other directions is absorbed. Such a device is also called
a polarizer.

If a beam on non-polarized light encounters a polarizer, only light vibrating parallel to

the polarizing direction of the polarizer will be allowed to pass. The light coming out on
the other side will then be plane polarized, and will be vibrating parallel to the polarizing
direction of the polarizer. If another polarizer with its polarization direction oriented
perpendicular to the first polarizer is placed in front of the beam of now polarized light,
then no light will penetrate the second polarizer. In this case we say that the light has
been extinguished.
Polaroid sunglasses use these same principles. For example, incoming solar radiation is
reflected off of the surface of the ocean or the painted hood of your car. Reflected light coming
off of either of these surfaces will be polarized such that the vibration directions are parallel to
the reflected surface, or approximately horizontal (as in the first method of polarization
discussed above). Polaroid sunglasses contain polarizers with the polarization direction
oriented vertically. Wearing such glasses will cut out all of the horizontally polarized light
reflecting off the water surface or hood of your car.

The Polarizing Microscope

In optical mineralogy we use a microscope called a polarizing microscope. Such a microscope is

equipped with two polarizers that are normally oriented so that their polarization directions are
perpendicular to one another.
Light from a light source located
below the tube and stage of the
microscope is initially unpolarized.
This light first passes through the
lower polarizer (usually just called
the polarizer), where it becomes
polarized such that the light is
vibrating from the users right to left.
These directions are referred to as
East (right and West (left). The light
then passes through a hole in the
rotatable stage of the microscope and
enters the lower lens, called the
objective lens.

Mounted within the microscope tube

is a second polarizer, called the
analyzer, that can be rotated or
pushed so that in can be in the light
path (inserted position) or not in the
light path (analyzer out position).
The analyzer has a polarization
direction exactly perpendicular to that
of the lower polarizer These
directions are usually referred to as
North - South. If the analyzer is in,
then the plane polarized light coming
from the lower polarizer will be
blocked, and no light will be
transmitted though the ocular lens
above.
If the analyzer is out, so that it is not in the light path, then the polarized light will be
transmitted through the ocular lens.

Next time we will see how this microscope is used to examine isotropic substances and
determine their refractive indices.
Isotropic Substances

As discussed above, isotropic substance are those wherein the velocity of light or the refractive
index does not vary with direction in the substance. Substances such as gases, liquids, glasses,
and minerals that crystallize in the isometric crystal system are isotropic. We here introduce the
concept of the optical indicatrix then look at what we see when we look at isotropic substances
through the polarizing microscope. We then see how to determine the refractive index of
isotropic substances as a means to identify them, and then take a first look at uniaxial materials.

The Isotropic Indicatrix

The concept of the optical indicatrix is important as a visual means of looking at the way
refractive index varies with direction in a substance. For isotropic minerals and substances the
indicatrix is pretty trivial, since the refractive index does not vary with direction.
The optical indicatrix is simply a three dimensional object constructed
by drawing vectors of length proportional to the refractive index for
light vibrating parallel to the vector direction from a central point.
The ends of all of the vectors are then connected to form the
indicatrix. For isotropic minerals the indicatrix is a sphere as can be
seen here. The indicatrix can be placed anywhere within or on a
crystal so long as the crystallographic directions in the indicatrix are
moved parallel to themselves. Again, for the isotropic indicatrix, this
is fairly trivial since the refractive indices do not correspond to
crystallographic directions and the refractive indices are the same in
all directions, but the usefulness of the indicatrix concept will become
much more clear when we look at anisotropic substances.

Isotropic Substances and Polarized Light

As discussed last time, the polarizing microscope has two polarizers. The lower polarizer (often
just called the polarizer) is above the light source, and thus creates polarized light that vibrates
in the East West direction. The upper polarizer, called the analyzer, is polarized to create
polarized light vibrating at 90o to that produced by the lower polarizer. Thus, if there is only air,
an isotropic substance, between the two polarizers, the E-W vibrating light is completely
eliminated at the analyzer, and no light passes through the ocular lens. Isotropic substances do
not change the vibration direction of light as the light passes through the substance.
So, if we place a mineral grain on a
glass slide (glass is also isotropic), and
view the grain through the ocular lens
with the analyzer not inserted in the
light path, we will be able to clearly see
the grain. If the grain selectively
absorbs light of certain wavelengths,
then the grain will show its absorption
color.

If we now insert the analyzer in the

light path, the light coming out of the
grain will still be polarized in an E-W
direction, since isotropic substances do
not change the polarization direction,
and the analyzer will cut out all of this
light. Thus, no light coming out of the
mineral grain will pass through the
analyzer. The mineral is thus said to be
extinct in this position.

Similarly, if we rotate the stage of the

microscope, and thus rotate the grain, it
will remain extinct for all rotation
positions. (of course this is also true
for the glass slide on which the grain
rests, since glass is also isotropic).
This is the primary means to determine whether or not a substance is isotropic. That is, rotate
the grain on the microscope stage with the analyzer inserted. If the grain remains extinct
throughout a 360o rotation of the stage, then the mineral or substance on the microscope
stage is probably isotropic.
Determination of Refractive Index for Isotropic Solids:The Immersion Method

In isotropic substances, there are only two optical properties that can be determined. One of
these is the absorption color, as discussed above. The other is the refractive index. Tables of
refractive indices for isotropic minerals, list only the refractive index for one wavelength of
light. The wavelength chosen is 589 nm, which corresponds to a yellow color. Such a
wavelength would be given off of a sodium vapor lamp. Since these are expensive and generate
much heat, sodium vapor lamps are not generally used in optical mineralogy. Instead we use
white light. Still, as we shall see later, we can determine the refractive index for 589 nm.

The determination of the refractive index of an isotropic substance is made by making a

comparison with a substance of known refractive index. The comparison materials used are
called refractive index oils. These are smelly organic oils that are calibrated over a range of
refractive indices from 1.430 to 1.740 at intervals of 0.005. As you will see in lab, grains of the
unknown substance are placed on a glass slide, a cover glass is placed over the grains, and a
refractive index oil is introduced to completely surround the grains. This is called the
immersion method.
The grains are then observed with the analyzer
not inserted. If the grain has a refractive index
that is very much different from the refractive
index of the oil, then the grain boundaries will
stand out strongly next to the surrounding oil.
The grain will then be said to show high relief
relative to the oil. High relief indicates that the
refractive index of the grain is very much
different from the refractive index of the oil.
It does not tell us if the refractive index of the
grain is less than or greater than the oil.
If the refractive index of the grain and the oil are closer, then the outline of the grain will not
stand out as much from the oil. In this case, the grain is said to low relief relative to the oil.
Again, low relief only indicates that the grain and oil have similar refractive indices, and does
not indicate that the grain as a lower or higher refractive index than the oil.

If the refractive index of the grain is exactly the same as the refractive index of the oil, the
boundaries of the grain will not be visible. That is to say that the grain will completely
disappear in the oil. In this case the grain is said to have no relief relative to the oil.

In order to determine whether the grain or the oil has a higher refractive index, a method called
the Becke Line Method is used.

The Becke Line Method

A grain surrounded by oil when viewed through the microscope focused slightly above the
position of sharpest focus will display two lines, one dark and one bright that concentric with
the border of the grain. The brighter of these lines is called the Becke line and will always
occur closest to the substance with a higher refractive index. This can be used to determine if
the grain or the oil has the higher refractive index.
To use this method, one first focuses the microscope
as sharply as possible on the grain of interest. It is
also useful to use the iris diaphragm to cut down the
incoming light as much as possible. This will make
the Becke line stand out better. Then using the fine
focus dial adjustment the microscope stage is lowered
(or the objective lens is raised) slightly out of focus.
During this increase in focal distance one observes a
moving bright Becke line. If the Becke line moves
inward, the refractive index of the grain is greater
than the refractive index of the oil.

It is important to remember that the Becke line test is

performed by increasing the distance between the
grain and the objective lens. Thus, you should not
memorize which way to turn the focusing knob,
because it may be different with different brands of
microscopes.
Note also that if the focal distance is decreased, rather than increased, then the opposite results
will be obtained, that is with decreasing focal distance the bright Becke line will move into the
substance with lower refractive index.
For a grain with a refractive index less than that of the
oil, the opposite effect will be observed. When raising
the objective lens or lowering the stage so that the
grain goes slightly out of focus, if the bright Becke line
moves into the oil, then the oil has a refractive index
greater than that of the grain.

This method can thus be used to start to narrow down

the refractive index of the grain. For example, lets say
that we first put grains of an unknown mineral in an oil
with a refractive index of 1.540. In this oil, let's say
the Becke line test shows that the oil has a higher
refractive index than the grain. We could then choose
for our next test to put the unknown grains in an oil
with a lower refractive index. If the relief is very high,
then we would know to choose an oil with a much
smaller refractive index.
Thus, by performing several tests in several different oils, we could eventually find an oil that
has a refractive index that exactly matches that of the grain. In such a case the grain would have
no relief relative to the oil and would thus disappear in the oil.

But, this would not necessarily be true of the Becke lines. Recall from above that we said that
refractive indices for grains (and also oils) are reported for a specific wavelength of light. That
wavelength is 589 nm, which corresponds to yellow. Since we are using white light as an
illuminator for our grain, the Becke line will be different for different wavelengths or colors of
light.

This can be seen by examination of dispersion

chart, as shown here. This is simply a plot of
refractive index versus wavelength. Typical oils
used in optical mineralogy generally show a
dispersion curve with a steeper slope than that
of minerals. Thus, when we have an exact
match of refractive index between the grain and
the oil for yellow light, we will still see a orange
to red colored Becke line that will be move into
the grain, and blue to violet colored Becke line
that will move into the oil.

One other property we can determine for all minerals (including anisotropic minerals) is
cleavage or fracture. This can be seen because it is usually necessary to crush or break minerals
to obtain a size suitable for mounting in oils. This property can best be seen with the analyzer
not inserted.
Minerals or glasses that show concoidal fracture will have
curved grain boundaries. If a single cleavage direction is
present, then it will show as parallel grain boundaries.
Sometimes, the cleavages can be seen as breaks within a
grain as well, although this is more common in thin sections
than in grain mounts. Two cleavage directions will show as
intersecting straight sided grain boundaries. Three or more
cleavage directions should be visible as well, but it must be
remembered that the microscope view is nearly 2-
dimensional, so you may be able to see only 2 cleavage
directions at once.
Summary of Observations of Isotropic Minerals

Absorption color if present (analyzer out)

Cleavage or fracture if present (analyzer out)

Isotropic Character - with the analyzer inserted, the grain will be extinct during a
complete 360o rotation of the microscope stage.
Relief relative to oil (analyzer out)

o high relief indicates that the oil and the grains have very different refractive
indices
o low relief indicates that the oil and grain have refractive indices that are closer
 o no relief indicates that the oil and grain have the same refractive indices
Refractive Index Determination (analyzer out) - use the Becke Line test to narrow the
difference between the refractive index of the unknown mineral and an oil until an exact
match is made between the indices of the grain and the oil. An exact match will make
the grain disappear in the oil and the Becke line test will show a orange - red Becke line
moving into the grain and a blue - violet Becke line moving into the oil.

Next time we will look at the class of anisotropic minerals called uniaxial minerals.

Examples of questions on this material that could be asked on an exam

1. Define the following: (a) visible light, (b) monochromatic light, (c) refractive index, (d)
isotropic substance, (e) anisotropic substance, (f) dispersion of light, (g) absorption
color.

2. What is Snell's Law and why is it important?

3. Explain why a grain of an isotropic substance will remain extinct on the microscope
stage when both the analyzer is inserted on the polarizing microscope.
4. Explain what is meant by the following terms (a) high relief, (b) low relief, (c) positive
relief, and (d) negative relief.
5. Explain how the Becke line can used to determine if a grain on the microscope stage has
a refractive index greater or less than the surrounding refractive index oil.
6. What is the significance of colored Becke lines?
7. What optical and other properties can be determined from examination of an isotropic
substance with the polarizing microscope?

Return to EENS 2110 Page

What is Light?
Light is that form of energy or portion of electromagnetic radiation which makes object visible to our
eye. The branch of physics which deals with the nature of light, its sources, properties, effects and
vision is called optics.

In other words we define optics - the branch of physics that studies the physical properties of light.
Today optics is an important research area in modern physics. The study of optics is divided into two
main fields namely geometrical optics and physical optics.

Geometrical optics treats propagation of light in terms of rays and is valid only if wavelength of
light is much lesser than the size of obstacles. It concerns with the image formation and deals with
the study of simple facts such as rectilinear propagation, laws of reflection and refraction by
geometrical methods.

Physical optics is further divided into two parts namely wave optics and quantum optics. Wave
optics concerns with explanation of observed phenomena such as diffraction, interference, and
polarization by treating light as a wave. Quantum optics treats light as particles called "photon".
In order to explain several phenomena associated with emission and absorption of light such as
Photoelectric effect, Comption effect, Raman effect, and LASER etc.

Planck Relation (E = hv) and Einstein theory of relativity (E = mc 2) [Albert Einstein

developed a theory about the relationship of mass and energy.] developed "quantum
theory of light".

What is electromagnetic radiation?

Electromagnetic radiation has a dual nature as both particles and waves. One way to look at it is
as changing electric and magnetic fields which propagate through space, forming an
electromagnetic wave. This wave has amplitude, which is the brightness of the light, wavelength,
which is the color of the light, and an angle at which it is vibrating, called polarization .

Refraction of Light:
Light bends when it moves at an angle from one transparent substance, such as air, to another
substance, such as water. This bending of light is called refraction. We call the substances that light
can move through mediums. Water, glass, and air are mediums. Light refracts at different angles
depending on the density of the medium. The angle between the light ray and the normal as it
leaves a medium is called the angle of incidence. The angle between the light ray and the normal
as it enters a medium is called the
angle of refraction.

The index of refraction, n, is a ratio

that compares the speed of light in a
vacuum to the speed of light in another
medium.The speed of light in all other
media is less than in a vacuum.
Therefore, n is always larger than one.

n = c/v where c = speed of light in a

vacuum = 3 X 108 m/s

In optics, refraction occurs when

waves travel from a medium with a
given refractive index to a medium with another at an angle. At the boundary between the media,
the wave's phase velocity is altered, usually causing a change in direction. Its wavelength increases
or decreases but its frequency remains constant.

Refraction is the bending of light that takes place at a boundary between two mediums having
different indices of refraction. The boundary is where one medium meets another medium.
Refraction is due to a change in the speed of light as it passes from one medium to another. Given
figure illustrates this concept.

The angles of incidence and refraction are measured relative to a line perpendicular to the boundary
between the mediums called the normal. The mediums that the light passes from and to are
transparent. The light will bend based on a relationship called Snell's Law.

Figure: Refraction of Light

Snell's Law:
In 1621, a Dutch physicist named Willebrord Snell (1591-1626), derived the relationship between
the different angles of light as it passes from one transparent medium to another. When light passes
from one transparent medium to another, it bends according to Snell's law which states:

n1sin1 = n2sin2
where:
n1 is the refractive index of the medium the light is leaving.
1 is the incident angle between the light ray and the normal to the meduim to medium interface.
n2 is the refractive index of the medium the light is entering.
2 is the refractive angle between the light ray and the normal to the meduim interface.

The incident and refracted rays are on opposite sides of the normal at the point of incidence. The
incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray are coplanar. As the light slows down it will bend
toward the normal line and as it speeds up it will bend away.

The absolute index of refraction for a given medium is defined as: = c/v where c is the speed of
light in a vacuum and v is the speed of light in the medium. The refractive index of a vacuum is 1.

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Reflection of Light Assignment Help

Reflection of Light
When a ray of light after incidenting on a boundary separating two media come back into
the same media, then this phenomenon, is called reflection of light.

(i) i = r

(ii) After reflection, velocity, wave length and frequency of light remains same but
intensity decreases.

(iii) There is a phase change of if reflection takes place from denser medium.

Reflection from a Plane Mirror

The image formed by a plane mirror is virtual, erect, laterally inverted, equal in size that
of the object and at a distance equal to the distance of the object in front of the mirror.

Deviation ( ) :
Deviatio produced by a plane mirror and by two inclined plane mirrors.

Images by two inclined plane mirrors:

When two plane mirrors are inclined to each other at an angle q, then number of images
(n) formed of an object which is kept between them.

(i) ;

If 360o/q even integer

(ii) If 360o/q odd integer then there are two possibilities

Solved example 1: A plane mirror is approaching you at a speed of 10 cm/sec. You can
see your image in it. At what speed will your image approach you

(A) 10 cm/sec (B) 5 cm/sec (C) 20 cm/sec (D) 15 cm/sec

Solution: (C) Suppose at any instant, plane mirror lies at a distance x from object. Image
will be formed behind the mirror at the same distance x.

When the mirror shifts towards the object be distance 'y' the image shifts = x + y (xy)
= 2y

So speed of image = speed of mirror

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Light wave and Optics wave Assignment Help

Light or visible light is the portion of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the
human eye, responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light has a wavelength in a range
from about 380 or 400 nanometres to about 760 or 780 nm, with a frequency range of
about 405 THz to 790 THz. In physics, the term light often comprises the adjacent
radiation regions of infrared (at lower frequencies) and ultraviolet (at higher), not visible
to the human eye.

Primary properties of light are intensity, propagation direction, frequency or wavelength

spectrum, and polarization, while its speed, about 300,000,000 meters per second
(300,000 kilometers per second) in vacuum, is one of the fundamental constants of
nature.

Light, which is emitted and absorbed in tiny "packets" called photons, exhibits properties
of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the waveparticle duality. The
study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.

Wave Optics
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Wave Optics Wavefront.

(a) A wavefront is the locus of all the points in space which receive light waves from a
source in phase. If the source of light is a point source and the medium is homogeneous
and isotropic, the wavefront will be spherical in shape. However, at very large distance
from the point source, the shape of the wavefront changes from spherical to a plane
wavefront.

(b) Shape of the wavefront may also change due to its passage through a refracting
medium such as a lens.

(c) A wavefront is always normal to the light rays.

(d) A wavefront does not propagate in the backward direction.

Cylindrical wavefront. When the source of light is linear in shape, cylindrical wavefront
is formed.

Plane wavefront. A small part of a spherical or cylindrical wavefront originating from a

distant source

can be considered as a plane wavefront

Huygens' Principle.

(i) Each point on a given primary wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets, sen

ding out disturbances (waves) in all directions in a similar manner as the original source
of light does.

(ii) The new position of the wavefront at any instant (secondary wavefront) is given by
the forward envelope to the secondary wavelets at that instant. Huygens' construction
(See Fig.)

Reflection on the Basis of Wave Theory.

The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is called angle of reflection.
The two laws of reflection are : (0 Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.

(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane. Proof using Huygens' Principle. Consider a plane wave AB incident at
an angle i on a reflecting surface MN. If v is the speed of the wave in the medium and t is
the time taken by the wavefront to cover the distance BC, then BC = vt

To construct the reflected wavefront we draw an arc (representing reflected wavefront) of

radius vt from the point A. Draw a tangent on the arc (i.e., reflected wavefront). We
obtain AE - BC = v t

From the triangles ECA and BAC we will find that they are congruent. This is the law of
reflection. Thus Zi=Zr

Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory

The phenomenon of change in the path of light as it travels from one medium to another
is called refraction. Its two laws are : (0 The incident ray, the normal to the refracting
surface at the point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

(ii) For a given pair of media and for light of a given wavelength, the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is constant. Hence, laws of
refraction are established on the basis of wave theory.

Proof using Huy gens' Principle. We will now use Huy gens' principle to derive the laws
of refraction. Let PP' represent the surface separating medium 1 and medium 2. Let Vj
and v2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively. Take a
We draw an arc (representing refracted wavefront) of radius v2t from the point A in the
second medium. Draw a tangent on this arc. . CE gives refracted wavefront. From the
triangles ABC and AEC we obtain

BC V m

sin i =-= ...(1)

AC AC

a AE V and sin r =-=---..(2)

AC AC

where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively. Thus

sin* = VL (3)

sin r v2

Now, if c represents the speed of light in vacuum, then,

b, = - ...(4)
V
1

c
andn. - ...(5)
2
v2

In terms of the refractive indices, equation 3 can be written as sin i = n2 sin r This is the
Snell's law of refraction

Behaviour of a Prism, Lens and Concave Mirror Towards a Plane Wavefront.

Prism bends an incident wavefront towards its base after it passes through the prism.

Convex lens. When a plane wavefront passes through a convex lens it gets converted into
a converging spherical wavefront.

Concave mirror. After reflection from a concave mirror plane wavefront turns into a
converging spherical wavefront.

Visible light waves:

The visible light waves are the electromagnetic waves. The visible light waves produce
by the accelerating charge particle. As the charge particle is accelerated, it produces
electric and magnetic fields, which are changing in nature, and they produce
electromagnetic waves. There is a wide range of electromagnetic waves out of which one
part is called as visible light waves.

Visible Light Waves:

The visible light is in the very narrow region of electromagnetic spectrum. The visible
light waves can be detected by human eye. The frequency of visible light waves is
ranging from 4 1014 Hertz to 8 1014 Hertz. The wavelength range of visible light
waves lies between 400 nanometer to 700 nanometer. The visible light waves consists of
seven colored light such as violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. The visible
light waves are produced by atomic excitation. The visible light waves emitted or
reflected from objects around us provide the information about the world surrounding us.
Characteristics of Visible Light Waves:
The characteristics of visible light waves are given below:

(i) The visible light waves are produced by accelerating or oscillating charged particles.

(ii) The visible light waves do not require any material medium for their propagation.

(iii) The visible light waves are transverse in nature.

(iv) The visible light waves travel in free space with a speed of 3 108 metre per second.

(v) In visible waves the sinusoidal variation in both electric and magnetic fields vectors
occurs simultaneously.

(vi) The direction of electric and magnetic fields variations are perpendicular to each
other.

(vii) The velocity of visible light waves depends entirely on the electric and magnetic
properties of the medium in which they travel and is independent of the amplitudes of the
field vectors.

(viii) The velocity of visible light waves in any dielectric medium is less than 3 108
metre per second.

(ix) The visible light wave carry energy, which is, divided equally between electric field
and magnetic field vectors.

(x) The electric field vector is responsible for the optical effects of an electromagnetic
wave and it is called as light vector or optic vector.
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Light Geometric Optics
Light is a form of energy that produces the sensation of vision. Light itself invisible.
When it falls on an object the scattered light enters the eye and the object becomes
visible. In this process the light undergoes modifications exhibiting its properties. Optics
is the study of these interactive properties of light. The path along which light energy
travels is called a ray. In a homogeneous medium a ray may be represented by a straight
line with an arrow head in the direction in which the energy travels. The study of light
based on the concept of rays with the help of geometrical principles is called Geometrical
Optics.

Laws of Geometric Optics for Light

Geometrical optics is based on three general laws . (1) The law of rectilinear
propagation of light. (2) The laws of reflection . (3) The laws of refraction.
Law of rectilinear propagation of light : In a homogeneous medium light travels
along a straight line.
Reflection and Refraction : When light travelling in a medium is incident on a surface
separating the medium from another medium it will undergo the following changes:
(I) a part of the light comes back into the same medium from the surface in a definite
direction. This part of the light is called reflected part and this phenomenon is called
reflection.
(ii) Another part of the light enters the second medium at the surface which is the
refracted part and the phenomenon is called refraction.
Types of Reflection
1) When the separating surface is plane, a parallel beam of light incident on it will remain
parallel even after reflection as shown in the figure below. This type of reflection is said
to be regular. Reflection from a plane mirror is an example of this type.

2) If the separating surface is uneven, the normal at different points will be in different
directions. But the incident rays of light at different points obey the laws of reflection. So,
the rays that were parallel before reflection will be reflected in random directions as
shown ind the second figure above. This kind of reflection is called diffuse reflection. We
can see an object due to diffuse reflection of light by the object.
Light Geometric Optics : Refraction
Refraction of light is the bending of light when it travels from one medium to another
medium. The various phenomena that occur when light travels from one medium to
another medium. If the second medium is denser with respect to the first, then according
to Snell , sin(i) / sin(r) = v1 / v2 . Where i , r are the angles of incident and refracted rays,
v1 , v2 are the velocities of light in the two media.
Reflection and Refraction of light Assignment Help
Physics - Reflection and Refraction of light

Reflaction:

When a wave of light after incidenting on

a boundary separating two media come
back into the same media, then this
phenomenon, is called reflection of light.

(i) i = r

(ii) After reflection, speed, wave length

and frequency of light remains same but
intensity decreases.

(iii) There is a medium change of if

reflection takes place from denser
medium.

Refraction:

The bending of the light wave passing from one medium to the other
medium is called refraction.

(i) The refraction of light held on going from one medium to another
because the speed of light is different in the two media.

(ii) Larger the difference in the speeds of light in the two media, greater
will be the amount of refraction.

(iii) A phase in which the speed of light is more is known as optically rarer
medium and a medium is which the speed of light is less, is known as
optically denser medium.
(iv) When a light wave goes from a rarer phase to a denser medium, it
bends towards the normal.

(v) When a light wave goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it
bends away from the normal.

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Help with Assignments

Reflection from a Plane Surface
Reflection from a Curved Surface
Mirror formula and Magnification
Snell's law
Refractive Index
Real and Apparent Depth
Refraction Through a Glass Slab
Total Internal reflection
Refraction from spherical surface
Lens
Lens Immersed in a Liquid
Cutting of Lens
Defects in Lens
Overview of Global Warming

Additional Effects of Global Warming and the Future

Outlook of Global Warming
By Nicole Lindell, Contributing Writer

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ACES2014 April 22-24th 2014 in Abuja Nigeria

(Continued from Page 1)

Spread of Diseases Due to Global Warming

Global warming will also enhance the spread of diseases. As northern countries warm,
disease-carrying insects migrate north, carrying viruses with them that we have not yet
built immunity for. For example, in Kenya, where significant temperature increases have
been recorded, disease-bearing mosquito populations have increased in once cooler,
highland areas. Malaria is now becoming a nation-wide epidemic.

Floods and Droughts and Global Warming

Strong shifts in precipitation patterns will ensue as global warming progresses. Some
areas of the earth will become wetter, while others will experience heavy droughts. Since
warmer air brings heavier storms, there will be an increased chance of stronger and more
life-threatening storms. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate, Africa,
where water is already a scarce commodity, will have less and less water with warmer
temperatures and this issue could even lead to more conflict and war.

Global warming has caused heavy rains in the United States due to warmer air having the
ability to hold more water vapor than cooler air. Floods that have impacted the United
States since 1993 alone have caused over $25 billion in losses. With increased floods and
droughts, not only will our safety be affected, but also the economy.

Economic Disaster

Since disaster relief takes a heavy toll on the world's economy and diseases are expensive
to treat, we will suffer financially with the onset of global warming. After disasters such
as Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans, one can only imagine the cost of more hurricanes,
floods, and other disasters occurring worldwide.

Population Risk and Unsustainable Development

Projected sea-level rise will greatly affect low-lying coastal areas with large populations
in developed and developing countries worldwide. According to National Geographic, the
cost of adaptation to a newer climate could result in at least 5% to 10% of gross domestic
product. As mangroves, coral reefs, and the general aesthetic appeal of these natural
environments are further degraded, there will also be a loss in tourism.

Similarly, climate change impinges on sustainable development. In developing Asian

countries, a cyclic disaster occurs between productivity and global warming. Natural
resources are needed for heavy industrialization and urbanization. Yet, this
industrialization creates immense amounts of greenhouse gases, thus depleting the natural
resources needed for further development of the country. Without finding a new and more
efficient way to use energy, we will be depleted of our natural resources needed for our
planet to thrive.

Future Outlook of Global Warming: What can we do to help?

Studies performed by the British government show that to avert potential disaster in
relation to global warming, greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced by approximately
80%. But how can we preserve this vast amount of energy that we are so accustomed to
using? There is action in every form from governmental laws to simple everyday tasks
that we can do ourselves.

Climate Policy

In February 2002, the United States government announced a strategy to reduce

greenhouse gas emissions by 18% over a 10-year period from 2002-2012. This policy
involves reducing emissions through technology improvements and dissemination,
improving the efficiency of energy use, and voluntary programs with industry and shifts
to cleaner fuels.

Other U.S. and international policies, such as the Climate Change Science Program and
the Climate Change Technology Program, have been reinstated with a comprehensive
objective of reducing greenhouse gas emissions through international cooperation. As the
governments of our world continue to understand and acknowledge the threat of global
warming to our livelihood, we are closer to reducing greenhouse gases to a manageable
size.

Reforestation

Plants absorb the greenhouse gas Carbon Dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere for
photosynthesis, the conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms.
Increased forest cover will help plants remove CO2 from the atmosphere and help
alleviate global warming. Although having a small impact, this would help reduce one of
the most significant greenhouse gases contributing to global warming.

Personal Action

There are small actions that we can all take in order to help reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. First, we can reduce electricity use around the house. The average home
contributes more to global warming than the average car. If we switch to energy-efficient
lighting, or reduce energy needed for heating or cooling, we will make a change in
emissions.

This reduction can also be made through improving vehicle-fuel efficiency. Driving less
than needed or buying a fuel-efficient car will reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Although it's a small change, many small changes will someday lead to a bigger change.

Recycling whenever possible greatly reduces the energy needed to create new products.
Whether it is aluminum cans, magazines, cardboard, or glass, finding the nearest
recycling center will aid in the fight against global warming.

Global Warming and The Road Ahead

As global warming progresses, natural resources will be further depleted, and there will
be risks of wildlife extinctions, melting of the polar ice caps, coral bleaching and
disintegration, floods and droughts, disease, economic disaster, sea level rise, population
risks, unsustainable land, and more. As we live in a world characterized by industrial
progress and development aided by the help of our natural environment, we are also
risking depletion of this natural environment and thus of our world as we know it. With a
rational balance between protecting our environment and developing human technology,
we will live in a world where we can simultaneously progress the capabilities of mankind
with the beauty and necessity of our natural environment.
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How does sunlight affect my mood?
Topics
Mental Health
Emotional Health
How does sunlight affect my mood?

A Answers (3)

Follow

Mehmet Oz, MD, Cardiology, answered

When the northern hemisphere is far from the sun during the winter months, some
of us experience chemical changes in our brains that lead to depression. Its called
seasonal affective disorder, or SAD, and it affects 10% of Americans. Fortunately,
there is an innovative solution to combat it. High-powered light-makers (not sun
lamps, which emit dangerous ultraviolet radiation) mimic the suns effect on your
brain, stabilizing serotonin, the chemical related to depression. Exercise also can
help by releasing mood-boosting endorphins. Less
Five Things You Need to Know about Photo Lighting

The Surfer - Copyright 2012 by William Beem

Photo Lighting Basics

Light. We cant take photos without it, and yet it seems to be poorly understood by so
many photographers. Something that has so much influence on our photos deserves a
look at its basic characteristics. When you think about what light is, and isnt, you can use
it to create more interesting photos.

1: Light is Light
Some photographers get hung up on the difference between natural light and artificial
light. The problem is that theres no such thing as artificial light. Its all electromagnetic
radiation. Light is just the part of electromagnetic radiation that is within the visible
spectrum, but it behaves the same as any other radiation. There are only two ways to
create light. Atoms create incandescent lights when they release thermal vibrations as
electromagnetic radiation after being heated. Electrons create luminescent light when
they release energy as electromagnetic radiation. Both of these types of light happen in
nature from fire, sunlight, fire-flies or even algae.
You dont need to think about these things when creating photographs. Just dont let
misinformation and myths sway you against a type of light because of its source. Light is
light.

2: Quality of Light.
Rather than being concerned about the source of the light, pay more attention to the
quality of the light. Photographers talk about light being hard or soft, as an indication of
the shadows cast on our subject. It really has more to do with the direction of light and
how it reflects.

Light travels in a straight line until it hits something that causes it to reflect. Direct light
from a single source can produce dark shadows and shiny, specular reflections.A specular
reflection happens when light hits a flat surface and bounces off at the same angle of
incidence (meaning if it hit the surface at a 45 degree angle, it will reflect at a 45 degree
angle). Direct light is hard light.

A diffuse reflection happens when light hits an uneven subject. The light still reflects at
the angle of incident, but the uneven surface introduces more angles to cause reflection in
different directions. Thats why soft boxes have a diffuser in front to spread the light
around. As light hits the diffuser, the rough surface changes the direction of some light
particles, preventing shiny surfaces and filling in areas in shadow to create soft light.

3: Size Matters
The size of your light source, relative to your subject, determines how hard or soft the
light is on your subject. The sun is a large source of light, but its distance reduces its size
relative to your subject. In comparison, a soft box next to your subject is a much larger
source of light relative to your subject.

Thats why a diffuser must be close to your subject to create soft light. As you move the
diffused light source farther away from your subject, the less diffused light hits your
subject. Why? Because that light is traveling in different directions. That leaves you with
the direct light traveling toward your subect, even from a soft box. If you want soft light,
use a large, diffuse source. If you want hard light, use a small, direct source.

4: Direction of Light
Many times, were used to perceiving light coming from above. The sun spends most of
its time overhead. Many buildings have overhead lighting. Its natural for us. Maybe
thats why we have such a strong reaction to sidelight. Its unexpected and may have
dramatic results. Perhaps thats why we love seeing the sunrise or sunset. Its a brief
period of day that signals change. Light from below seems unnatural, though, invoking a
sense of dread or fear. Under-lighting creates strange shadows where we arent used to
seeing them.
The direction of your light can greatly influence the mood of your scene.

5: Color of Light
Temperature affects the color of light, and therefore, how we perceive it. In nature,
incandescent light changes color from red to orange, and then to yellow, as temperature
increases. We respond instinctively to the color of light cool blue light or warm orange
glow. We can make a person seem sickly by using green light, or the picture of health
using daylight. The color of light affects how the human mind perceives a scene. Thats
why theatrical productions use color on lights to set a mood for a scene. Its in our nature
to respond to color.

The Biggest Influence

Everything we see is a reflection of light. By understanding and using these basic
characteristics of light, we can dramatically improve the results of our photos.

Need more information? What Every Photographer Should Know shows you exactly
how to make your photos more creative by teaching control of your exposure and how
lenses affect the result. Go to Suburbia Press to get started with this inexpensive eBook
immediately.
To describe the differences
between types of light like
visible and x-ray, scientists
often talk about the length of
the light's waves or
"wavelength." The various
types of light that make up
the electromagnetic spectrum
differ in the length of their
waves. However, this doesn't
mean the entire length of the
wave train. The length of a
light's wave or the
wavelength is the distance
between two nearest peaks
(the highest places) or two
nearest troughs (the place
where it dips the lowest).

Test yourself on this diagram One common unit used to measure the length of light waves is not
The length of this wave is... feet or inches but rather something called an angstrom. You'll find
out more about angstroms later on.
Australian National Algae Culture Collection - Methods
Light Notes on physical and subjective units of measure
Physical Units
Light is a form of energy, and can be measured
in energy units (joules, calories) or in quantum
units (quanta, einsteins). Conversion between
these units is wavelength dependent.
6 x 1023 quanta = 1 mole of light (or 1einstein in
old terminology)
Power is the rate at which light is generated,
transmitted or absorbed, and is measured in watts
(1 watt = 1 joule sec-1) or einsteins sec-1
Intensity of a beam of light is defined as the power
per unit cross section, and is measured in watts rn-2
or einsteins m-2sec-1
6 x 1017 quanta m-2sec-1 =1 microeinstein (E) m-
2
sec-1
Light intensity is measured for example with a
LICOR light meter or a QSL (quantum scalar
irradiance) meter. (the QSL type is considered
more accurate because of its spherical rather than
flat plate collector).
These units are preferred for most
purposes in photo-chemistry and photobiology.
They are used for measuring environmental light
intensities eg. in limnology and oceanography.
Useful range for micro-algal culture
20-200 mol. photons m-2 s 1
Direct sunlight ( midday in tropics) is
approximately 1700 mol. photons m-2 s 1
Subjective Units
Light can be measured subjectively, based
on the brightness seen by the human eye.
Units include candles, lumens, footcandles and
lux.
A source of light has a luminosity of one
candle if its output appears to match that of a
standard candle.
Luminous flux is equivalent to power. A
source of one candle gives off a luminous flux
of one candle power or 4 lumens.
Luminous intensity
The intensity at a distance of:
-one foot from a standard candle is one
footcandle
-one metre from a standard candle is one
metre candle or one lux.
NB. 1 footcandle = 10.8 lux
Luminous intensity is measured with
eg. a foot-candle meter, a type of photographic
exposure meter. Ads by OnlineBrowserAdvertisingAd Options
These units are based on human vision
and are therefore useful in specifying safe and
comfortable levels of illumination eg. schools
and offices.
NB. In other contexts, these units can be
misleading. For example, certain
photosynthetic bacteria, utilizing infrared
light, will not grow under bright fluorescent
lamps which are deficient in infrared;
however, tungsten lamps of dimmer
appearance, but rich in infrared emission, will
support much better growth.
 Note: Conversion of physical units to subjective units depends on the relative visibility of
different wavelengths, ie certain wavelengths are more visible to the human eye than others.
Therefore as the conversion between lux and mol. photons m -2 s 1 is wavelength dependent
conversions should be approximated only;

eg; X mol. photons m-2 s 1 = Lux x ~0.0165 or...1000 Lux = 16-20 mol. photons m-2 s 1

Reference sClayton, R. K. (1970). Light and Living Matter. Volume 1. The Physical Part. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York .

Hershey, D. R. 1991. Plant Light Measurement & Calculations. The American Biology
Teacher 53:351-53.

Morel, A. and Smith, R. C. 1974. Relation between total

quanta and total energy for aquatic photosynthesis. Limnol. Occanogr 19:591-
600.
How is the speed of light measured?
Before the seventeenth century, it was generally thought that light is transmitted
instantaneously. This was supported by the observation that there is no noticeable lag in
the position of the Earth's shadow on the Moon during a lunar eclipse, which would
otherwise be expected if c were finite. Nowadays, we know that light moves just too
quickly for the lag to be noticeable. Galileo doubted that light's speed is infinite, and he
devised an experiment to measure that speed by manually covering and uncovering
lanterns that were spaced a few miles apart. We don't know if he ever attempted the
experiment, but again c is too high for such a method to give an even remotely accurate
answer.

The first successful measurement of c was made by Olaus Roemer in 1676. He noticed
that, depending on the EarthSunJupiter geometry, there could be a difference of up to
1000 seconds between the predicted times of the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, and the
actual times that these eclipses were observed. He correctly surmised that this is due to
the varying length of time it takes for light to travel from Jupiter to Earth as the distance
between these two planets varies. He obtained a value of c equivalent to 214,000 km/s,
which was very approximate because planetary distances were not accurately known at
that time.

In 1728 James Bradley made another estimate by observing stellar aberration, being the
apparent displacement of stars due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun. He
observed a star in Draco and found that its apparent position changed throughout the
year. All stellar positions are affected equally in this way. (This distinguishes stellar
aberration from parallax, which is greater for nearby stars than it is for distant stars.) To
understand aberration, a useful analogy is to imagine the effect of your motion on the
angle at which rain falls past you, as you run through it. If you stand still in the rain
when there is no wind, it falls vertically on your head. If you run through the rain, it
comes at you at an angle, and hits you on the front. Bradley measured this angle for
starlight, and knowing the speed of the Earth around the Sun, he found a value for the
speed of light of 301,000 km/s.

The first measurement of c that didn't make use of the heavens was by Armand Fizeau in
1849. He used a beam of light reflected from a mirror 8 km away. The beam was aimed
at the teeth of a rapidly spinning wheel. The speed of the wheel was increased until its
motion was such that the light's two-way passage coincided with a movement of the
wheel's circumference by one tooth. This gave a value for c of 315,000 km/s. Leon
Foucault improved on this result a year later using rotating mirrors, which gave the much
more accurate value of 298,000 km/s. His technique was good enough to confirm that
light travels slower in water than in air.

After Maxwell published his theory of electromagnetism, it became possible to calculate

the speed of light indirectly by instead measuring the magnetic permeability and electric
permittivity of free space. This was first done by Weber and Kohlrausch in 1857. In
1907 Rosa and Dorsey obtained 299,788 km/s in this way. It was the most accurate value
at that time.

Many other methods were subsequently employed to further improve the accuracy of the
measurement of c, so that it soon became necessary to correct for the refractive index of
air since c is light's speed in a vacuum. In 1958 Froome obtained a value of 299,792.5
km/s using a microwave interferometer and a Kerr cell shutter. After 1970 the
development of lasers with very high spectral stability and accurate caesium clocks made
even better measurements possible. Up until then, the changing definition of the metre
had always stayed ahead of the accuracy in measurements of the speed of light. But by
1970 the point had been reached where the speed of light was known to within an error of
plus or minus 1 m/s. It became more practical to fix the value of c in the definition of the
metre and use atomic clocks and lasers to measure accurate distances instead. Nowadays,
the speed of light in vacuum is defined to have an exact fixed value when given in
standard units. Since 1983 the metre has been defined by international agreement as the
distance travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a
second. This makes the speed of light exactly 299,792.458 km/s. (Also, because the inch
is now defined as 2.54 centimetres, the speed of light also has an exact value in imperial
units.) This definition only makes sense because the speed of light in vacuum is
measured to have the same value by all observers; a fact which is subject to experimental
verification (see relativity FAQ article Is the speed of light constant?). Experiments are
still needed to measure the speed of light in media such as air and water.

This table gives some of the best measurements according to Froome and Essen:

Date Author Method Result (km/s) Error

1676 Olaus Roemer Jupiter's satellites 214,000
1726 James Bradley Stellar Aberration 301,000
1849 Armand Fizeau Toothed Wheel 315,000
1862 Leon Foucault Rotating Mirror 298,000 +-500
1879 Albert Michelson Rotating Mirror 299,910 +-50
1907 Rosa, Dorsay Electromagnetic constants 299,788 +-30
1926 Albert Michelson Rotating Mirror 299,796 +-4
1947 Essen, Gorden-Smith Cavity Resonator 299,792 +-3
1958 K. D. Froome Radio Interferometer 299,792.5 +-0.1
1973 Evanson et al Lasers 299,792.4574 +-0.001
1983 Adopted Value 299,792.458

Sources of information:
Twentieth Century Physics, Vol 2, IOP/AIP press.

Hutchinson Science Library.

The Velocity of Light and Radio Waves, Froome and Essen.

Lumens, Illuminance, Foot-candles and bright shiny
beads .

In defining how bright something is, we have two things to consider.

1. How bright it is at the source- How Bright is that light?

2. How much light is falling on something a certain distance away from the light.

Lets' do some definitions now

We're in America, so we are going to talk about units of measurement that concern
distance in feet and inches. So, we will use some terms that folks in Europe don't use.
We're going to talk about "foot-candles".

This one's simple. Get a birthday cake candle. Get a ruler. Stick the candle on one end of
the ruler. Light the candle. Turn out the lights. Sing Happy Birthday to Doc. It was his
47th on the 23rd. OK, quiet down. Enough of that nonsense. One foot-candle of light is
the amount of light that birthday cake candle generates one foot away.

That's a neat unit of measurement. Why? Say you have a lamp. You are told it produces
100 foot candles of light. That means at one foot from the lamp, you will receive 100 foot
candles of light.

But here's where it gets tricky. The further away you move the light from what you want
to illuminate, the less bright the light seems! If you measure it at the light, it's just as
bright. But when you measure at the object you want illuminated, there is less light! A
Physics teacher is going to tell you that light measured on an object is INVERSELY
PROPORTIONAL to the distance the object is from the light source. That's a very
scientific and math rich way of saying, the closer you are to the light bulb, the brighter
that bulb is. Or, think of it this way. You can't change how much light comes out of your
light bulb. So, to make more light on an object, you have to either move the light closer,
or add more lights.

Now, lets get to LUMENS.

A LUMEN is a unit of measurement of light. It measures light much the same way.
Remember, a foot-candle is how bright the light is one foot away from the source. A
lumen is a way of measuring how much light gets to what you want to light! A LUMEN
is equal to one foot-candle falling on one square foot of area.

So, if we take your candle and ruler, lets place a book at the opposite end from the candle.
We'd have a bit of a light up if we put the book right next to the candle, you know. If that
book happens to be one foot by one foot, it's one square foot. OK, got the math done
there. Now, all the light falling on that book, one foot away from your candle equals
both.1 foot candle AND one LUMEN!

Ahh, we've confused you. Let's split off from this and talk about the difference between
RADIANCE and ILLUMINANCE.

RADIANCE is another way of saying how much energy is released from that light
source. Again, you measure it at the source. Unless you're talking about measuring the
radiance of something intensely hot, like the Sun. Then you might want to measure it at
night, when it's off.

ILLUMINANCE is what results from the use of light. You turn your flashlight on in a
dark room, and you light something up. That's ILLUMINANCE. Turning on a light in a
dark room to make the burglar visible gives you ILLUMINANCE. It also gives you
another problem when you note the burglar is pointing your duck gun at your bellybutton.

Illuminance is the intensity or degree to which something is illuminated and is therefore

not the amount of light produced by the light source. This is measured in foot-candles
again! And when people talk about LUX, it's illuminance measured in metric units rather
than English units of measure. To reinforce that, LUX is the measurement of actual light
available at a given distance. A lux equals one lumen incident per square meter of
illuminated surface area. They're measuring the same thing, just using different
measurement units.

Pretend you're an old photographer, like O. Winston Link, or Ansel Adams. These two
gods of black and white photography (and a print made by either can fetch quite a hefty
sum of money these days) used a device called a light meter to help them judge their
exposure. (There is another way of judging exposure-that's when someone whispers in
our ear at a cocktail party, "You silly twit, your fly's come undone!").

These light meters were nifty devices. You could use it to show how much light was
falling on an object, light from the sun, and reflected light energy from every thing else.
Or you could use it to show how much light energy was reflected off the object itself.

All this brings back two points. Well, three.

The first point is if we measure the output of a light at the source that gives us one thing.

The second point is that we use an entirely different unit of measure if we are measuring
the results of that light's output.

The third point is the instructor is right off his trolley, isn't he?

Now back to the book at the end of the ruler.

We've measured two different things. We have a unit of measure for how much light is
produced. We Yankees express that as a foot-candle. Being lazy, we use it all over the
place.

More Confusion! Candlepower!

Candlepower is a way of measuring how much light is produced by a light bulb, LED or
by striking an arc in a Carbon-Arc spotlight. Is it a measure of how much light falls upon
an object some distance away? No. That's illuminance. Is it a measure of how well we see
an object that is illuminated by that light source? No. That's something all together
different, and we are not going there!

Nowadays we use the term CANDELA instead of candlepower. Candlepower, or

CANDELA is a measure of how much light the bulb produces, measured at the bulb,
rather than how much falls upon the thing you want to light up. Further confusing the
matter is beam focus. That's how much candlepower can be focused using a reflector/lens
assembly. Obviously, if you project all your light bulbs intensity at a given spot, or
towards something, it will be more intense, and the illuminance will be higher.

And here comes the confuser! A candlepower as a unit of measure is not the same as a
foot-candle. A candlepower is a measurement of the light at the source, not at the object
you light up.

And a candela is the metric equivalent of the light output of that one candle, based on
metric calculations. And since using a candle is rather imprecise, the definition was
amended to replace a light source using carbon filaments with a very specific light
source, see the following: The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a
radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. The above from the
National Institute of Standards Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.

Candlepower is a measure of light taken at the source-not at the target. Foot-candles tell
us how much of that light is directed at an object we want to illuminate.

Now, lets convert the lumens, a metric unit of light measurement, to candlepower.

We understand a candle radiates light equally in all directions, its output, in this
consideration is not focused by any mechanical means (lenses or reflectors). Pretend for a
moment that a transparent sphere one meter in radius surrounds your candle. We know
that there are 12.57 square meters of surface area in such a sphere. Remember your Solid
Geometry classes?

That one candle (1 Candlepower/Candela) is illuminating equally the entire surface of

that sphere. The amount of light energy then reflected from that surface is defined thusly:
The amount of energy emanating from one square meter of surface is one lumen. And if
we decrease the size of the sphere to one foot radius, we increase the reflected energy
12.57 times of that which fell on the square meter area.

LUX is an abbreviation for Lumens per square meter. Foot-candles equal the amount of
Lumens per square feet of area.

So, that one candlepower equivalent equals 12.57 lumens.

And for you figuring out LED equivalents, first you must know how many lumens your
LED's each produce. Then divide that value by 12.57 and you have candlepower of the
LED. You don't have foot-candles, remember foot-candles are illuminance. And we are
measuring radiance.

Summing it all up:

Candlepower is a rating of light output at the source, using English measurements.

Foot-candles are a measurement of light at an illuminated object.

Lumens are a metric equivalent to foot-candles in that they are measured at an object you
want to illuminate.

Divide the number of lumens you have produced, or are capable of producing, by 12.57
and you get the candlepower equivalent of that light source.

We've now converted a measurement taken some distance from the illuminated object,
converted it from a metric standard to an English unit of measure, and further converted it
from a measure of illumination to a measure of radiation!

This has been an ideal proof of the superiority of the metric system. Then again, the
metric system is a product of those wonderful folks that brought us:

Renault, Peugeot, Citroen, and Air busses. Not to mention simply awful Bordeaux.

And, if you're happy with this, send those little gems to:

Robert H (Doc) Bryant 3408 Thomas Ave Midland, Texas 79703-6240

I hope you have enjoyed this as much as I have. You ought to see me up in front of a
classroom. My classes are absolute laugh riots. But people learn!

Doc Bryant is not an employee of TheLEDLight.com

Online Calculators - Light Measurement Unit Conversion
Calculators
ILT is pleased to provide these free, easy-to-use calculators for converting between
various light measurement units. Please visit our LIGHT MEASUREMENT product
page if you need light measurement equipment. Finally, please download a FREE copy of
the ILT LIGHT MEASUREMENT HANDBOOK or use the FREE online ILT LIGHT
MEASUREMENT TUTORIAL.

Foot-Candles/Lux Converter

Use this converter to either convert your Foot-Candle detector sensitivity factor to Lux or
vice-versa for continuous measurement in the opposite unit or convert a single reading
already taken in Foot-Candles to Lux or vice-versa.

Lux or Foot-candles to Total Lumens Converter

Use this online calculator to calculate the approximate total lumen output of a light
source based on measurements taken in Lux or Foot-candles at a specific distance. Please
note that this is a geometry conversion and and can only be used to get the
APPROXIMATE total lumen output.

Inverse Square Law Calculator

Use this calculator to find out how an irradiance/illuminance measurement taken at a

particular distance from a source will change as the distance to the source increases or
decreases.

Beam Intensity Typical/Custom Measurement Range Calculator

This calculator will calculate typical beam intensity min/max ranges for a system you
may be interested in purchasing based on your intended measurement distance to help
determine if it will meet your measurement specifications/requirements. This calculator
may also be used to calculate the min/max measurement ranges in beam intensity as well
as new sensitivity factors to measure directly in beam intensity based on your existing
systems sensitivity factor in foot-candles/lux.
Exposure Value (EV)/Lux Converter

Use this online calculator to convert exposure values (EV) to Lux and Lux to EV

QNDS Self-Calibration Calculator

Use this calculator to obtain a new calibration sensitivity factor for a detector when a
neutral density filter (QNDS1, QNDS2 OR QNDS3) is added to the assembly in the field.

Watts/m2 or W/cm2 to Total Watts Converter

Use this online calculator to calculate the approximate total watt output (optical power)
of a light source based on irradiance measurements taken in W/m2 or W/cm2 at a specific
distance. Please note that this is a geometry conversion and and can only be used to get
the APPROXIMATE total watt output (optical power).

Moles (Einsteins) / Lux Converter

Use this online calculator to convert Moles (Einsteins) which is Photosynthetic Photon
Flux (PPF) to Lux (illuminance) or Lux to PPF based on the measurements taken and the
type of light source.
How do I light thee? Let me count the
rays...
I am the first to admit having trouble envisioning photons fluttering
through space, let alone remembering how beam candle power relates
to footcandles. So I use a crutch. Physicists will cringe, but this model
serves for the needs of human-scale lighting situations. It casually
glosses over many details of physics and geometry but should provide
a basic understanding which the reader can refine with further study.

My crutch is light rays. I imagine that a light source, a candle for

example, emits actual countable rays of light. Not a sea of photons or
waves of electromagnetic flux, but thousands of individual rays of light.
My rays are straight lines extending in every direction from a light
source. They may be refracted through lenses, reflected by surfaces,
and absorbed.

Raw light is measured in lumens. Think of a lumen as a ray. A light

source, like a flame or a filament, produces a certain number of
lumens. Imagine the source having some number of rays going out in
all directions. A candle has a few rays. A tungsten lamp has many rays.

The Luminous Intensity of a source is the number of lumens or rays it

emits. Luminous intensity, candlepower, is expressed in units of
candles or candelas. Candles are really a measure of lumens per
steradian, which is a cone shaped sector of the total space around the
light source. Since steradians are geometry and not lighting, I don't
worry about them and simply think of candlepower as a measure of the
number of rays emanating from the source.

And how exactly do we count the rays? Imagine placing a card in the
path of these rays and counting how many lumens, or rays, hit the
card. In a dark room there are not very many. In a bright room there
are a lot. The density of the rays in a field of light, as measured by how
many strike a card of a fixed size, is the illuminance, or amount of
illumination.

Imaginary illumination measuring cards come in three standard sizes: 1

meter square, 1 foot square, and 1 centimeter square. When
measuring the density of a field of evenly distributed light rays,
obviously more light rays will fall on a bigger card, so different unit
names are used to identify which size card is used. Footcandles are
the measure of how many rays fall on a 1 foot square card. Lux is the
measure of how many rays fall on a one meter square card, and phots
use a tiny card 1 centimeter square. These three units; lux, phot, and
footcandle; all measure exactly the same thing: illumination, but at
different scales. Just like feet and meters both measure distance.

Using our measuring card we can count how many rays are coming
from a light source. But there is a problem. As we move our card
farther away from the source, the rays diverge and we count fewer and
fewer actually falling on the card. Since light travels in straight lines,
when the card is moved twice as far from the source the rays will have
diverged so far that we would need a card twice as wide and twice as
tall to catch all of the same rays: four times the area of the original
card. Moving farther out to three times the distance and we will need a
card three times as wide and three times as tall, or nine times the area
of the original card to catch all of the same rays at the greater
distance.

Mathematicians describe this relationship by stating that the size of

the card increases with the square of the distance, meaning the size
card needed at each distance is the square of the distance from the
source. Two times as far requires a card having four times as much
area. Three times as far requires nine times the area. Distance squared
equals the required card area. If instead of looking at the size of the
card at each distance, we look at how many rays fall on a card of the
original size we see that at two times the distance we get 1/4 the
number of rays, and at three times the distance we get 1/9 the number
of rays (since it would take a card nine times as big to collect them all.)
The amount of light falling on the card is the reciprocal, or inverse, of
the square of the distance. This is the famous inverse square law.

In stage lighting the inverse square law is most often applied to

determine in advance how much illumination a fixture will deliver from
a particular distance. If we know the beam candlepower of the fixture
(from the manufacturer's data) and the distance for which we want to
calculate the illumination, we can simply divide the candlepower in
lumens by the distance squared. If we measured the distance in feet,
the answer will be in footcandles. If we measured in meters, it will be in
lux. If we measured in centimeters it wil be in phots. And that's why
there are different illumination units.

For extra credit we'll tackle the measurement of light reflected by a

surface such as a painted wall or a costume or a face. This is called the
luminance, or brightness, of the surface. Note that a large wall and a
small face can have the same brightness, therefore we do not want to
measure the total amount of light reflected from the wall, but the
amount of light reflected from a standard measuring area so that we
can compare the brighness of different surfaces regardless of size.
Note also that this is an inside-out measuring situation. Previously we
were using a card of a standard area to count rays diverging from a
point source. When measuring brightness we will count rays arriving at
one point (our eye) from a surface area of a standard size.

We sit in the auditorium and look at the stage. Rays fall on a uniformly
painted flat and are scattered by it. Some go one way, some another,
and from each square foot of the flat, some number of rays come to
our eye and are counted. This is the brightness of the flat in foot-
lamberts. If we count the number of rays from one square meter we
are measuring the brightness in meter-lamberts, also known as nits.
Don't ask. The number of rays reflected from an area one square
centimeter is lamberts.

Of course this is a simplified case. Depending on how the flat is painted

and lighted we will see different brightnesses across its surface. The
point is that the way those different brightnesses are measured or
expressed is in units of lamberts (or foot-lamberts or meter-lamberts,)
which are defined by the simpler example of measuring a uniform
surface illuminated by a uniform field of light.

Final confusing detail for those who care: brightness is measured in

candles per area, not lumens per area, because the receptor is a point
(the eye) rather than an area (the card). Basically, if you could
measure area on a point it would be in steradians. So in the inside-out
measurement of brightness, we use candles (lumens per steradian,
you'll recall) instead of straight lumens.

Lastly, keep in mind that these are technical terms, but some have less
precise common usage. Forgive the director who asks for brighter
lighting when it is technically the scene that needs to be made
brighter, perhaps by increasing the intensity of the illumination.

The nuts and bolts...

Basic measuring unit:

lumen, which is an energy of 1/683 joules per second, measured at a
wavelength of 555 nanometers.

Luminous intensity of a point source:

candles or candelas = lumens per steradian. These units differ very
slighly, but are close enough to be equivalent for stage lighting
purposes. If Regis asks about steradians when you are on that
millionaire show, the correct answer is "A solid angle subtending an
area of R squared at distance R from the apex."
Illumination of a surface by a point source:
lux = lumens per square meter
footcandles = lumens per square foot
phots = lumens per square centimeter

Brightness reflected or emitted from a surface:

lamberts = candles per square centimeter
foot-lamberts = candles per square foot
meter-lamberts or nits = candles per square meter

Special thanks to Gayle Jeffery and Alan P. Symonds for editorial input.
Drop me a note if you would like to add your name to this list by
suggesting further clarifications or corrections.

-Eric Cornwell
I. Introduction
Light, or the visible part of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, is the medium
through which human beings receive a major portion of environmental information.
Evolution has optimised the human eye into a highly sophisticated sensor for
electromagnetic radiation. Joint performance between the human eye and visual cortex, a
large part of the human brain, dwarfs recent technical and scientific developments in
image processing and pattern recognition. In fact a major part of the information flow
from external stimuli to our brain is transferred visually. Photometry deals with the
measurement of this visible light energy.

However, optical radiant energy not only encompasses visible 'light' but radiation
invisible to the human eye as well. The term optical is used because this radiation follows
the laws of geometrical optics.

Radiometry deals with the measurement of all optical radiation inclusive of the visible
portion of this radiant energy.

This tutorial is an introduction to the basic nature of light and color, radiometric,
photometric, colorimetric, reflection and transmission principles, quantities, symbols and
units. Sections covering a sampling of current applications, detectors, electronics and
calibration are included. A list of reference sources is provided for future study.

SI (Systme International) units are used throughout these tutorials. Many international
organizations including the CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) have adopted
this system of units exclusively. The terminology used follows that of the CIE
International Lighting Vocabulary.

Download our Tutorials On Light Measurement. Size: 3 MB

Tutorials

I. Introduction
II. Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
III. Measurement of Light with Integral Detectors
IV. Detector Signal Measurement
V. Theory and Applications of Integrating Spheres
VI. Applications for Light Measurement in Medicine, Technology, Industry and
Environmental Science
VII. Appendix