NATIONAL CADET CORPS (SINGAPORE)

RSN NCC (Sea)

SPECIALISTS SEAMANSHIP COURSE

TRAINING MANUAL
(Issued Free to Cadets)
 PREFACE

Annually, the Part C NCC Sea Cadets will undergo the RSN
NCC Specialist Seamanship Course at the Institute of Maritime
Operations & Systems (IMOS) to qualify for the RSN NCC Badge.
The course will generally cover topics from Seamanship Core Syllabus.

This Training Manual is compiled to assist the cadets undergoing

the course and contains notes from the topics covered during the course.
The notes are extracted from Training Manuals from Institute of
Maritime Operations & Systems (IMOS), General Naval Training
Centre (GNTC) and Institute of Naval Technology and Operations
(INTO).

In additional, this manual may also serve as a reference to Sea

Cadets when preparing for the Proficiency Tests and may also be used
in conjunction with CAI packages provided to all units.

The security classification of the manual is UNCLASSIFIED.

We welcome your comments or suggestions for improvements to

this manual. Please contact HQ NCC (Sea) Office, (TEL: 6477 3557) to
provide valuable feedbacks to further improve the Training Manual

HQ NCC acknowledges the effort of the following for making

the compilation of this manual possible:
MAJ (NCC) OLIVER TAN
2LT LOKE JUN JIE
3SG (NS) LAWRENCE TAN
S/CLT YVONNE CHIA

First Compiled: 8 OCT 2001

First Revised: 2 JAN 2004
Second Revised: 1 JAN 2008
 RSN- NCC (Sea)
Specialists Seamanship Course
Training Manual
This section is classified
GENERAL KNOWLEDGE
"RESTRICTED" and will
CHAPTER 1 STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION OF RSN ORG
not 1 ORG
be made 5 in the
available
online version. Please refer
CHAPTER 2 RSN SHIP/WEAPON RECOGNITION toSHIP 1 for
your unit SHIP 5
the contents.

CHAPTER 3 NAUTICAL TERMS TERMS 1 TERMS 5

CHAPTER 4 SHIPBOARD ROUTINE ROUT 1 ROUT 4

SEAMANSHIP

CHAPTER 1 HANDLING OF HAWSER

Measurement RW 1 RW 1
Types of construction of fibre rope RW 1 RW 1
Type of natural cordage RW 2 RW 2
Type of man-made cordage RW 2 RW 3
Care of rope RW 3 RW 3
Methods of handling hawser RW 4 RW 6

CHAPTER 2 BENDS AND HITCHES BENDS 1 BENDS 7

CHAPTER 3 BACK AND EYE SPLICE SPLICE 1 SPLICE 4

CHAPTER 4 RIGGING

Shackles RIG 1 RIG 2

Blocks RIG 3 RIG 5
Plank stage and Bosuns Chair RIG 6 RIG 7
Fender and Fendering RIG 8 RIG 9
Anchors RIG 10 RIG 11
General Fitting RIG 12 RIG 13

CHAPTER 5 ELEMENTARY NAVIGATION

Navigational Chart NAV 1 NAV 9

Navigation Equipment NAV 10 NAV 15
Tides and Tidal Streams NAV 16 NAV 25

CHAPTER 6 BUOYAGE SYSTEM BUOY 1 BUOY 16

CHAPTER 7 INTERNATIONAL REGUALATION FOR

PREVENTION COLLISION AT SEA

Part A General ROR 1 ROR 3

Part B Steering and Sailing Rules ROR 4 ROR 17
Part C Lights and Shapes ROR 18 ROR 41
Part D Exemption ROR 42 ROR 42

CHAPTER 8 SURVIVAL AT SEA SAS 1 - SAS 16

* This Manual consist of 148 pages, excluding the cover page, preface and content page.
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HANDLING OF HAWERS

1. INTRODUCTION
A hawser is any long length of heavy rope, cordage or wire, which is specially
fitted and supplied as part of the ship outfit.

2. MEASUREMENT
Ropes are measured by its diameter in millimetre or circumference in inches and
supplied in coils of 220 meters.

3. TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION OF FIBRE ROPES

Most ropes are of hawser-laid type of construction. Other common constructions
are the braided or plaited. The braided construction is very common with rock or
mountain climbing sport. The less common constructions are: shroud-laid and cable-laid

Figure 1: Different Construction of Fibre Ropes

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4. TYPES OF NATURAL CORDAGE

There are a few types of natural cordage: manila (most common), sisal, hemp and
choir. However, natural cordage is getting less popular due to its durability and the
tendency to rot easily.

a. Manila
Strongest natural fibre rope, made from fibre of abaca plant. Shipped from
Manila of Philippines.

b. Sisal
Made from Agave sisalana plant. Less durable/flexible as compare than
manila.

c. Coir
Weakest amount natural fibre ropes which is made from fibres of coconut
husk.

5. TYPES OF MAN-MADE CORDAGE

There are few main types: polyamide (nylon), polyester, polypropylene and
polyethylene.

a. Polyamide (Nylon)
Polyamide ropes are produced from coal. Polyamide ropes becomes heavy in
water, resulting them to sink and becoming unsuitable for rescue lines.

It is approximately two and a half times stronger than manila in equal

comparison. Under safe working load usage, the rope will stretch 25% and
have excellent recovery to its original length. A stretch of over 50% will cause
the rope to break apart.

Due to its excellent elasticity it is very suitable for use as towing hawser and
mooring ropes.

b. Polyester
In comparison it is 2 times stronger than manila and as strong as polyamide.
However it lacks polyamide elasticity and ability to absorb shock. On the
other hand it retains almost its full strength and durability even when in
contact with water.

Under safe working load usage, the rope will stretch 14% and have excellent
recovery to its original length. A stretch of over 36% will cause the rope to
break apart.

Polyester is suitable to use as replenishment lines, safety nets, signal halyard

sand pickup ropes.

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c. Polypropylene

In comparison it is 2 times as strong as an equal size manila. The lightest rope

amount all the man-made fibre cordage. Polypropylene retains it strength
even when wet and will definitely float.

Due to the rope characteristic of being able to float and light, it makes itself a
good choice to be use as a messenger, recovery line and boat ropes.

d. Polyethylene

This rope is similar to polypropylene. It is approximately one and a half times

strong than manila. It stretches 33% before breaking apart.

6. CARING OF ROPE

A good quality rope will last a long time, if it is taken care properly.

a. A rope should be inspected frequently for cuts, worn areas, and

discolouration. As the above mention may indicate chemical deterioration
which might occur from sun exposure or contact chemicals. Although
synthetic ropes wont rot like natural ropes they are still susceptible to
deterioration.

b. Rope should be protected from dirt and abrasion. Too much abrasion can
cause a rope to wear quickly. Dirt embedded in the rope fibres would slowly
wear the rope from within. Both causing the rope to be unreliable.

c. When handling rope try avoiding dragging or pulling the rope over jagged
or sharp edges.

d. Wash the rope after exposure to sea water. A rope that isnt rinsed of sea
water will never truly be dry as the residual salt embedded in the fibres will
continually to absorb moisture from the air.

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7. METHODS OF HANDLING HAWERS

a. Coiling
A rope is coil when it is required to be immediately accessible and
untangle when needed.
Here are the different ways to coil a rope:

Coiling Down
Cordage is very resilient and will absorb a number of turns in its
length without being snarled if the length is sufficient and the turns
correspond with the lay of the rope, if the turns are against the lay,
however, it will quickly become snarled. Therefore, right-hand lay is
always coiled down right-handed.

Figure 2: Coiling Down

To coil a small line in the hand

When coiling a right-hand lay rope in the RIGHT hand, the rope
should be held with the right thumb pointing towards the end. When in
the LEFT hand, the rope should be held with the left thumb pointing
towards the bight.

Figure 3: small line coil in the hand

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Coiling a rope
The function of coiling is that the rope will be immediately
accessible and untangle when needed.

Figure 4: Coiling a Rope

b. Faking
A rope which may have to be paid out quickly should be faked
down in a long fakes as stowage space as allows.

Figure 5: Faking
c. Cheesing
When neat stow is required for a short end of a rope, it may be
cheesed down. This method should never be used when the rope will be
required to render quickly through a block.

Figure 6: Cheesing

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d. Belaying a rope
When a rope has to be castled off under strain, it cannot be secured
with a knot. It is therefore belayed to a fitting such as a cleat, staghorn or
bollard which is made for the purpose. When belaying a natural rope,
only half turn is taken before commencing the figure of eight turns.
However, when belaying a man-made fibre rope, a full turn is taken before
commencing the figure of eight turns.

Figure 7: Belaying on a cleat

Figure 8: Belaying on a staghorn

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BENDS AND HITCHES

1. INTRODUCTION
Various bends and hitches are means to make fast a rope so that it would
hold under strain and yet be cast off easily when required.

2. SELECTION OF KNOTS
One of the main reasons for selecting one knot rather than another is the
relative strength of the knots. Other characteristics such as speed and ease of tying,
bulk and reliability will also influence the choice.

3. STRENGTH OF KNOTTED ROPES

All knots, bends and hitches reduce the strength of a rope in the portion of
it where the knot, bend or hitch is made. This reduction varies from 40 to 60
percent, and it should be borne in mind when putting a load on a knotted rope.

For example, two 24 mm diameter manila ropes were joined by a reef knot,
the working load of the knotted ropes should be reduced from 0.66 tonnes to 0.33
tonnes.

4. TERMS USED
The following terms are used when describing the formation of the various
bends and hitches:

Figure 1: Terms used in describing bends and hitches

Bight: The middle part of a length of rope. This term also refers to a loop of rope,
and to make a bight is to form a loop.

End: The short length at either end of a rope, which may be formed into an eye,
or used for making a bend or a hitch with which to secure it. The end of the rope
is, also that length of rope left over after making such an eye, bend and hitch. The
bare end or fag is the extreme end of a length of rope.

Working End: The end of the rope which is being worked on.

Standing End: The portion of the rope which is opposite to that of the working
end.
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Seizing: A seizing is used to fasten two ropes or two parts of the same rope,
securely together, to prevent them from moving in relation to each other.

Stopping: It is a light fasting for temporarily holding in place a rope or any other
object. It is not meant to bear any strain other than that required to keep the rope
or other object in place.

Whipping: The binding round that bare end of a rope to prevent the strands from
fraying.

5. ELEMENTS OF BENDS AND HITCHES

Most bends and hitches consist of a combination of the two or more of the
elements.

Figure 2: Elements of bends and hitches

6. VARIOUS BENDS AND HITCHES

a. Reef Knot
It is used as a common tie for bending together two ropes of
approximately equal size and material. It is not liable to come undone
when there is no strain on the knots, but it is not reliable if the ropes are of
unequal size or very slippery. It is also the best known knot for typing
triangular bandages as it is flat.

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Figure 3: Steps to tie a reef knot [Left over Right, Right over Left]
b. Figure of Eight
It is used to prevent a rope from unreeving through an eye or a
block. It is also used as a temporarily stopper.

Figure 4: Steps to tie figure of eight

c. Clove Hitch
It is used to secure a rope to a spar, rail or similar fitting and also
for many other purposes. It will slip along the spar or rail if subjected to a
sideways pull. It can be made with the bight of a rope.

Figure 5: Steps to tie clove hitch

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d. Timber Hitch
The timber hitch is used to secure a ropes end to a spar or bale.

Figure 6: Steps to tie timber hitch

e. Timber Hitch and Half hitch

Used to tow, hoist or lower a spar. If the spar is tapered it should
be towed or hoisted thick end first, with the timber hitch at the thin end
and the half hitch at the thick end.

Figure 7: Timber and Half Hitch

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f. Rolling Hitch
The rolling hitch is used to securing a rope to a spar when the pull
is expected to be from one side or the other, and to a rope under strain.
Rolling hitch is tie different when the pull is expected from different side.
(See diagram below)

Figure 7: Rolling Hitch

g. Sheet Bend
The sheet bend is used to secure ropes end to a small eye. It is also
used to join rope of different sizes. It will not slip and is easily undone.

Figure 8: Steps to tie sheet bend

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h. Round Turn and 2 half hitches

It is used to secure a heavy load to spar, ring or shackle such as the
buoy shackle of a mooring buoy. It will never jam and can be cast off quickly.

Figure 9: Round Turn and Two Half Hitches

i. Fishermen Bend
It is normally used for bending a rope or hawser to the ring of an
anchor as it will jam. It is more suitable for a jerking pull, but will tend to jam
and it not easily cast off.

Figure 10: Fishermen Bend

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j. Bowline
This is the most useful knot for making a temporary eye in ropes of all
sizes. It is used for bending a heaving line to a berthing hawser a, acts as a
lifeline around a mans waist and for a great variety of similar purposes. Every
seaman should be able to tie a bowline round an eye confidently with his eyes
closed.

Figure 10: Bowline on the end

Figure 11: Bowline on the waist

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BACK AND EYE SPLICES

1. INTRODUCTION
A splice is used to join two lengths of rope of equal diameter, to make a
loop at the end of a rope or to bind the end of a rope to prevent fraying. Splices
are strong, and once completed are permanent.

2. CROWN KNOT
When finished, the crown knot leaves three strands pointing back along
the rope. It is used to begin a Back Splice and as a basis for more complicated
knots, but seldom on its own.

Making a Crown Knot

a. To form a crown knot, whip the rope at a distance from its end equal to 10
to 12 times its diameter. To make a Back Splice, the distance to whip is 20
times its diameter.

b. Then unlay the strands to the whipping.

c. Whop their ends and spread them out in the form of a star, with the centre
strand farthest away from the body.

d. Next bring strand C to the front to form a loop (See figure 1(i))

e. Next, place strand A over C and behind B (See figure 1 (ii))

f. Thread strand B through the loop of C (See figure 1 (iii))

g. Finally, pull all strands taut until knot is tidy and uniform (See figure 1(iv))

Figure 1: Steps to tie crown knot

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3. BACK SPLICE

Uses
Back splice is used to finish the ends of the rope which is not required to
be reeved through a block. Back splice will increase the thickness of the rope. It
prevents the rope from unlaying.

Construction
Unlay the rope at a distance from its end approvimately 20 times the
diameter of the rope. Then unlay the strands to the whipping and whip the end of
each strand. For natural fibre cordage, 3 complete tucks are required and for man-
made fibre cordage, five tucks are required.

Step 1
Make a crown knot. (See figure 2 (i))

Step 2
Then tuck each strand over one strand and under the next, to the left and against
the lay of the rope. (See figure 2 (ii))

Step 3
After each strand is tucked, pull the strands taut and tidy up this first tuck until
each tuck it uniform.

Step 4
Repeat this tucking twice more. Always tuck to the left, using the next strand to
the left. (See figure 2 (iii))

Figure 2: Steps to tie back splice

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4. EYE SPLICE

Uses
Eye splice is used to make a permanent eye in the end of rope. For natural
fibre cordage, 3 complete tuck are required and for man-made fibre cordage, five
tucks are required.

Construction
Whip the rope at a distance from its end equal to 20 times the diameter of
the rope. Then unlay the strands to the whipping and whip the end of each strand.
Mark the strand as: A for left, B for centre and C for right.

Step 1
Mark rope where its intended for the
crown of the eye and twist it so that the strands
are opened up a bit. Now you have 3 strands
exposed which are labelled a, b and c.

Step 2
Tuck the strand B(centre) from right to
left, under the nearest strand of the standing
part labelled as b Remember to start with the
center strand first.

Step 3
Tuck strand A(left) from right to left,
under the next strand of the standing part
labelled as a. Noticed that it passes over center
strand b.

Figure 3A: Steps to tie eye splice

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Step 4
Turn the rope right over to bring the
remaining strand C on top.

Step 5
Tuck strand C from right to left under the
unoccupied strand of the standing part. Pull
the strand taut and tidy up this first tuck until
each tuck is uniform.

Step 6
Repeat this tucking twice more. Always tuck
to the left, using the next strand to the left.
Always ensure that each complete tuck is pull
taut before starting the next tuck.

Figure 3B: Steps to tie eye splice

Step 7
A completed 3 tucks eye splice. This spliced can be finished off with dogging or
tapering.

Figure 4: Completed Eye Splice

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RIGGING

a. SHACKLES

INTRODUCTION

Shackles are coupling links used for joining ropes or chains together or to
some fittings. They are usually made from wrought iron or mild or stainless steel.
Those which are U shape are called STRAIGHT shackles and those which have
curve sides are called BOW shackles. A straight shackle is stronger than a bow
shackle.

PARTS OF A SHACKLE

a. Lug : The end of a shackle

b. Jaw : The space between the lugs

c. Crown : The top of a shackle opposite the jaw

d. Clear: The inside width of a shackle

e. Bolt : The piece with which the jaws is closed.

CROWN

BOLT
CLEAR

JAW
LUG

Figure 1: Part of a Shackle

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TYPES OF SHACKLES

Straight Shackle Securing To- Buoy Shackle

Figure 2: Straight Shackle Figure 5: Securing To- Buoy Shackle

Forelock Shackle Lugged Anchor Shackle

Figure 3: Forelock Shackle Figure 6: Lugged Anchor Shackle

Lugless Joining Shackle Joggle Shackle

Figure 4: Lugless Joining Shackle

Clenched Shackle Figure 7: Lugged Anchor Shackle

Figure 5: Clenched Shackle

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b. BLOCKS

INTRODUCTION
A block is a portable pulley made of wood, metal or wood and metal.
Modern blocks are also made from synthetic materials.

PARTS OF BLOCK

a. Shell: The main body of a block

b. Sheave: The wheels over which the rope runs

c. Pin: On which the sheaves turns

d. Eye: The fitting by which the block is secured to the required position

e. Crown: The top of the block where the eye or hook is fitted

f. Arse or tail: The bottom of the shell

g. Cheeks: The sides of the shell

h. Swallow: The opening between the sheave and shell through which the
rope passes

i. Becket: The eye is sometimes fitted at the tail

EYE
CROWN

SHELL

SWALLOW

PIN
(Under tally
plate)
SHEAVE

CHEEK

ARSE/TAIL
BECKET

Figure 8: Parts of a block

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GENERAL INFORMATION FOUND ON A BLOCK

1. Pattern number
2. Makers name
3. Number of sheave
4. Size of cordage or wire rope
5. Safe working load
6. Number of sheaves
7. Means of attachment (eye, hook or swivel etc.)

CLASSIFICATION OF BLOCK

a. Wooden block are classified by their size, which is their length

from crown to tail measured round the shell. An ordinary wooded block
will take a rope 1/3 its size.

b. Metal blocks are classified by their size of the rope for which
each is designed. This is marked on a plate on the check (Tally Plate).

c. Block may have more than one sheave, a single block, a double
block, a treble and so on.

TYPES OF BLOCK

Internal Bound(IB) Block

This block has a shell partly wood and

partly metal. It is the modern type of
wooden block. Figure 9: Internal
Bound(IB) Block

Metal Block

It is usually build up of steel plates and

fitting. There are 2 types: BUILD-UP type
which can be disassembled and the CAST
type which cannot be dismantled. Figure 10:
Metal
Block

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Synthetic-resin Bounded Fibre Block

Figure 11: Synthetic-resin Bounded Fibre Block

Snatch Block

These are single block either metal or

internally bound. Part of the shell is
hinged to allow the bight of a rope to Figure 12: Snatch
be inserted into the swallow from one Block
side. They should not be used when a
solid block can be used as safety of life
depends on them.

Clump Block

It is either wooden or mental and has

an extra large swallow. Figure 12:
Clump Block

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c. PLANK STAGE AND BOSUNS CHAIR

PLANK STAGE

1) Uses
The plank stage is used to support men working over the shipside or on the
superstructures and funnels.

2) Construction
A soft eye is either spliced or made with a bowline in one end of each
lanyard and then placed under the end of the stage with a half hitch taken round
each horn. The ends of the lanyard are secured to a strong fitting or cleat.

HORN

Figure 13: Plank Stage

BOSUNS CHAIR

1) Uses
A Bosuns chair is used to lower a man (sitting) down a mast or funnel,
over the side, etc.

2) Construction
It consists of a piece of wood about 18 inch long and 15 wide and 1
thick. It has two holes at each end through which two strops are roved and
spliced underneath. A thimble is then spliced into the bights of both strops and
the gantline either spliced into the bight of the both strops and the gantline
either shackled into the thimble or secured with a double sheet bend.

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Figure 14: Bonsuns Chair

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANK STAGE AND BONSUNS CHAIR

Plank Stage Bonsuns Chair

It has horns and is more suitable for
working over the shipside.
It can be used to support up to 2 men
working
It needs to be attended by a man on the
main deck.
It is used for lowering a man from
aloft.
It is used to support one man sitting
down.
It can be lower and position by
controlling the gantline which the
person sitting on could do.

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d. FENDER AND FENDERING

INTRODUCTION
A ship going along side another ship or jetty requires a resilient
fender to absorb the initial impact but the fender must be sufficiently unyielding
to provide protection and sufficient separation to allow for any overhanging
structure, proud propellers etc. Fenders are categorised under three groups. They
are follows:

a. Portable Fender
As the name implies, this type of fender are portable and they are
carried onboard ships.

1. Rattan Fender
They are made of rattan and can be obtained in various
dimensions. These are the most common fenders and widely used
in the RSN.

2. Pneumatic Fender
This type of fender is ideal for hulled ships lying alongside
the wharf or each other. They must not be used when going
alongside unless great care is taken. These type of fenders coast
more than the rattan fenders.

3. Apply Ring Fender

These types of fender are made of lengths of junks cheese
down one turn on tope of the other, to form a ring which is lashed
round the ringbolt hitching. They are often used on the sides of
Landing Ship Tanks or Tug Boat

Pneumatic

Apple Ring Rattan

Figure 15: Portable Fender

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b. Port Fender
These types of fenders are mainly used in harbour. The following
are examples of port fenders:

1. Catamaran
This is a strongly constructed rectangular wooden or steel
raft used in shipyard between ship, jetty and also between ships.
Catamaran fender is not suitable for light-hulled ships unless the
resilience is increased by rigging D-shaped rubber section along
each bearing face.

2. Spar Fender
Spar fender consists of balk of timber, such as an old pile
or the trunk of a tree, fitting with a swivel and lanyard at the ends
and used for fendering at pier or jetty. This type is not suitable for
light hulled ships.

Figure 16: Port Fendering- Compression Catamaran

c. Fixed Fender
Consists of vertical bulks of timber or suspended rubber to solid walls
of berth fendering to ships coming alongside

Figure 17: Fixed Fender at Port

e. ANCHORS

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INTRODUCTION

Anchors are used to hold the vessels temporarily to the sea bed in shallow
water. The length of chain or rope which is attached to the anchor is known as
cable.

PARTS OF ANCHOR

ANCHOR RING

SHANK

PEA OR BILL

FLUKE

TRIPPING PALM
CROWN

GRAVITY
SHACKLE
(IF FITTED)

Figure 18: Part of an Anchor

HOW AN ANCHOR HOLDS

Figure 19: How an anchor holds

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TYPES OF ANCHOR

ADMIRALTY STOCKLESS ANCHOR AC 17

Figure 23: AC 17
Figure 20: Admiralty Stockless Anchor
It is used by submarines. It is designed for
Commonly used by ship as a bower anchor. stowage in the bottom of the hull of
submarines vertically.
ADMIRALTY PLAN ANCHOR AC 14

Figure 21: Admiralty Plan Anchor Figure 24: AC 14

It is older than admiralty stockless anchor. It is introduced and classified in 1943. It

It can be kept in a hawsepipe, stowed on has a greatest holding pull (10 times).
the deck.
DANFORTH ANCHOR CANADIAN QUICK RELEASE(CQR)
(Close Stowing)

Figure 22: Danforth Anchor Figure 22: Canadian Quick Release

It has a stock passing through the crown to It is usually used by small yachts and
prevent the anchor rolling when the fluke crafts.
dig into the bottom.

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f. GENERAL FITTINGS

1. BOLLARDS
It is fitted on board vessel, jetty, and wharf for securing vessels. Bollards
come in 2 forms: Single or twin.

Figure 23: Single Bollard (Left) and Double Bollard (Right)

2. CLEAT
Cleats are usually used for smaller ropes and they can be mounted
horizontally or vertically.

Figure 24: Cleat

3. STAGHORN
It serves the same purpose as bollards.

Figure 25: Staghorn

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4. FAIRLEAD
Berthing lines lead from a vessel to a jetty or another vessel pass through
the fairlead. It also serves to prevent the ropes from chaffing.

Figure 26: Fairlead

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ELEMENTARY NAVIGATION

CHARTS
A chart is an essential tool for navigation at sea. Charts are issued to cover a large or
small area of sea and costal regions of the land, emphasizing natural and artificial
obstructions to safe sailing and anything sailors can use to find their way.

A chart which represents small area is called a large-scale chart while one which covers a
large area is called a small scale chart.

1. TYPES OF PROJECTION
A projection is a means of representing a sphere surface on a plane.

MERCATOR CHART (most common in Singapore)

It is the most useful chart to the navigator as it permits the track of a ship to
be in a straight line between its starting point and its destination. The information
presented on the chart represents the plan (top) view of the area.

GNOMONIC CHART
Gnomonic charts are commonly use in the north and south poles.

2. TYPES OF CHARTS

In Singapore, 4 main types of charts are being used:

a. LOCAL CHARTS: produced by the Maritime and Port Authority of

Singapore (MPA).

b. The Republic of Singapore Navy uses BRITISH ADMIRALTY CHARTS

when operating out of Singapore.

c. CHARTS FOR SMALL CRAFT are produced by MPA and are used by
pleasure and harbour craft operating in Singapore Straits and adjacent waters.
New editions are printed annually incorporating changes. It consists of about
22 charts and other port information.

d. BRITISH ADMIRALTY MPA CHARTS are for Eastern and Western

approaches to Singapore. It is produced by hydrographical department of
MOD (Navy), UK.

e. DUAL BADGED ADMIRALTY CHART jointly published by UKHO and

MPA. New Singapore Charts (4040 4044) are some examples.

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The charts may be printed or in electronic forms.

ELECTRONIC CHARTS

Charts are also available in electronic form for use with chart plotter.
They allow navigation to be done on screen and to incorporate data form
other instruments.

The advantages of this chart are numerous as it allows the user to

identify positions, courses and distances by manipulating a cursor. The
position shown on the Global Positioning Systems (GPS) set can be shown
directly on the chart.

However, the main setback is: it is susceptible to power failure and

therefore paper charts must be on board as a backup. GPS systems, though
often accurate, should not be relied upon primarily for navigation.

3. CHART SCALES

Charts are available in various scales. Small-scale charts cover whole seas or
oceans. They are used for overall planning and for plotting position on long passages.
1: 200,000 is considered small-scale.

4. CHART INFORMATION

All information, which will aid the navigator, is reproduced on a chart.

Abbreviations and symbols are used to indicate all the necessary information.

a. NUMBER OF CHART

This is shown outside the tope left-hand and bottom right-hand

corners of the charts. It is also shown in the thumb-label on the reverse of the
chart.

Example: 501, 4040

b. TITLE OF CHART

This is shown in the most convenient place so that no essential

navigational information is obscured by it and also in the thumb-label on the
reverse side of the chart.

c. DATE OF PUBLICATION

This is shown in the middle of the lower margin of the chart.

Example: Published at Admiralty 30 Oct 1930

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d. NEW EDITION

When a chart is revised throughout and modernised in style, a new

edition is published, the date of the new edition is being shown on the right of
the original date of publication.

Example: New Edition 2 Jan 1957

e. BLOCK CORRECTION

When a chart is having too many changes they can come up with a
new print of a certain amount of grid and issue to all mariners. The mariners
just required to pass the corrected grid chart onto their old chart.

f. DATE OF SMALL CORRECTION

When a chart is corrected from the information given in an Admiralty

notice to mariners the number and date of the correction that is completed
must be entered in the bottom left-hand corner of the chart.

Example: 1996-23-50-73 1997-12-46-98-103 1998-32-54

g. TEMPORARY OR PRELIMINIARY NOTICES

Temporary means the changes will only be valid for the specified
period only (e.g. 3 months).
Preliminary means the changes is still in progress. Upon completion,
the change will be reflected in the Notice to Mariners (as small correction).

h. TYPES OF MAP PROJECTION

Most charts are in Mercator and Gnomonic projections. This

information is usually shown below the Title of the chart.

i. SCALE OF CHART

The natural chart is shown beneath the title. A scale of kilometre is

shown in the side margin of certain charts larger than 1:100 000 to facilitate
the plotting from radar display graduated in this way.

j. TIDAL INFORMATION

Tidal information from various parts of the chart is printed in a table

(known as TIDAL DIAMOND TABLE) at a suitable position on the chart.

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TIDAL DIAMOND TABLE

The tidal diamond table contains a grid of thirteen rows and three
columns for each Diamond.The rows are the hours of the tidal cycle showing
the 6 hours from low water to high water, high water itself and the 6 hours
from high water to low water.

The column shows the bearing of the tidal stream and its speed, in
knots, at both spring tide and neap tide. The times on the table are related to
the high water of the Standard Port displayed on the table.

Hours Geographical 126.40N

Position A 10403.69E

6 300 0.2 0.1

5 290 0.5 0.3
High Water

Directions of Streams (degrees)

4 290 0.6 0.3
Before

Rates of spring tides (knots)

Rates of neap tides (knots)

3 290 0.6 0.3
2 293 0.6 0.3
1 300 0.6 0.3

High Water 316 0.4 0.2

1 080 0.2 0.1

After High

2 118 0.8 0.4

Water

3 120 1.0 0.5

4 117 0.7 0.4
5 108 0.4 0.2
6 010 0.1 0.1
Figure 1: Tidal Diamond Table

TIDAL DIAMOND

Tidal diamonds are symbols on charts that indicate the direction and
speed of tidal streams at that particular region. The symbols are made up of a
letter of the Roman alphabet in a rhombus, printed in purple ink. On any chart
each tidal diamond will have a unique letter starting from "A" and continuing
alphabetically.

TIDAL
DIAMOND

Figure 2: Tidal Diamond

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k. SOUNDINGS / CHARTED DEPTH

The unit in use is stated in bold lettering below the title of the chart. It
is also shown in magenta outside the bottom right and top left- hand corners
of metric charts.

The numbers on the contour lines represent the depth of the seabed on
the line. Typical charts have contours in multiples of five metres.

l. DRYING HEIGHT

Drying height is the vertical distance of the seabed that is exposed by

the tide, above the level of the sea at the lowest astronomical tide. Drying
heights are represented by underlined numbers on the chart.

m. CHART DATUM

It is the level below which depths are given on a chart. It is usually

the lowest level to which the tides will fall.

n. DATE OF PRINTINGS
This is shown by the date in the thumb-label on the reserves of the
chart.

Example: Printed on 204th day of 1965 it is written as 204.65.

o. SURVEY DATA
This will be given under the title of the chart accompany by survey
done by which authority and date it is carry out.

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Figure 3
SECTION OF CHART FOR SMALL CRAFT
TOP RIGHT QUARTER
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Figure 4
SECTION OF CHART FOR SMALL CRAFT
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5. DETERMINING POSITIONS AND DISTANCES

a. POSITION

The position of any spot on the earth can be described by its latitude
and longitude- the lines of an imaginary grid laid on the earths surface. The
grid lines running east to west and parallel to the equator are known as
parallels of latitude (equator itself is 0 latitude).

The lines running north to south, between the North and South Poles,
are called meridians of longitude. The prime meridian (0 longitude) runs
through the Greenwich Royal Observatory in the UK, from which it takes its
name.

Lines of latitude and longitude are measured by the angle that

they form at the center of the earth, in degrees (), minutes (), and tenths of a
minute. There are 60 in 1, and 360 in a circle.

Figure 5: Explanation of Longitude and Latitude

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b. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Navigational charts have latitude and longitude scales printed at their

edges, with grid lines going across them. This allows positions to be easily
measured and plotted. When positions are described, latitude is given first in
N or S, followed by longitude in E or W.

Example, 50 48.7N 117.3 W

c. DISTANCES

To measure the distance from Point A to B, use a divider and then

measure the distance at the latitude scale at the right side of the chart.

Figure 6: Using divider to measure distance

NOTE: nautical mile is the unit of measurement of distant at sea. A nautical

mile is equal to one minute of latitude (standardized at 1852 metres). 60
nautical miles is equal to 1 degree or 60 minutes. One nautical mile is divided
into 10 cables and each cable is 185 metres.

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NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT

1. COMPASS

A compass is the most important navigation instrument on board a vessel. It

is the primary means of identifying direction, enabling you to steer a course and to
plot position by taking bearings of navigational marks and shore objects. The
compass is also used to check the bearing of other vessels to help avoid collision.

Two types of compasses are usually used Magnetic and Gyro compasses.

a. GYRO COMPASS
The gyro compass is a rapidly spinning wheel or gyro. The axis of
which is made to point approximately true north. Thus the compass will
indicate the true north by pointing along the true meridians. Therefore
bearings taken with a gyro compass are true bearings and the course
indicated on the gyro compass is the true course. A gyro compass is
carried aboard larger ships with several repeaters for taking bearings.

b. MAGNETIC COMPASS
There are 2 types: a steering compass for steering a course
and a hand held bearing compass for taking bearings of objects and
other vessels.

1) CONVENTIONAL COMPASSES
Conventional compasses have two or more bar magnets
attached to the underside of a circular card, marked in degrees around
its edges. The card is mounted on a pivot and in encased in a glass or
plastic bowl filled gimbals keep the card level when the boat heels.
As the compass is turned, the magnets align with the magnetic north
and south. A reference mark, called a lubber line is marked on the
inside of the bowl. The course or bearing is read against the lubber
line. A light should be fitted to allow the compass to be used at night.

2) FLUXGATE COMPASS
Fluxgate compass dispense with cards, pivots, and liquids and
use an electronic circuit to senses the lines of magnetic force. The
reading is displayed as digital readout to the nearest degree. The
apparent accuracy implied by a digital read out should be treated with
caution. Fluxgate compasses must be kept level, or significant errors
can occur that will not be obvious from the display. Fluxgate
compasses are often used to automatically provide heading
information to other electronic instruments, such as chart plotters,
GPS, and radar sets.

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3) STEERING COMPASS
When sitting the compass, it is very important that it can be
seen directly by the helmsman. It should be mounted with the lubber
line on or parallel to, the boats fore and aft line. For this reason,
wheel-steered boats usually have the steering compass in a binnacle
(casing) on top of the wheel pedestal.

To minimise the effect of deviation, the compass must be

away from the engine, large ferrous-metal object and moveable
magnetic items such as drink cans.

4) HAND HELD BEARING COMPASS

Most steering compasses are not sited in a position that allows
bearing to be taken all around the boat, so a portable hand bearing
compass is often used. To use a hand bearing compass, line up the
lubber line with the object for which the bearing is being measured,
such as a vessel or buoy, and read off the bearing.

Figure 7: Typical Marina Compass

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c. COMPASS VARIATION
Almost everywhere on earth the bearings to true and magnetic
north are different. This angle is called variation. It is given in
compass degrees either Easterly or Westerly, and it changes as you
move around the globe. Variation, again, is not fixed. In most areas
variation changes by 1 minute (1/60 of a degree) annually. This shift
is indicated on the charts on the printed compass rose, along the
variation in a recent year.

Figure 8: Compass Variation

Figure 9: Compass Variation 2

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d. COMPASS DEVIATION

The magnetic compass is also affected by the presence of

metallic substance within the vessel e.g. the metallic hull, which is
constructed by steel. This may cause the compass needle to deviate
form the actual magnetic bearing and this angle is called Deviation.
The direction in which the compass actually point is known as the
compass north to distinguish from magnetic north and true north. If
the compass north lies east of the magnetic meridian, the deviation is
said to be Easterly, if west it is said to be Westerly.

Figure 10: Compass Deviation

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2. PARALLEL RULER
Parallel ruler is used to transfer a direction (bearing line) form the charts
compass rose to the part of the chart on which the navigator is working. First the ruler
is line-up on either the True or Magnetic compass rose. The ruler is then walked
across the chart to the appropriate area.

Figure 10: Parallel Ruler

3. DIVIDERS
Dividers are for measuring distances on the charts. Dividers are similar to a
drawing compass except that both legs are pointed. To use a divider, open it to span
the appropriate area, and then read off the distance using the charts latitude scale.

Figure 11: Dividers

4. ECHO SOUNDER
Electronic echo sounder can accurately measure the depth of the water from
the boat position.

Briefly this is how the echo sounder works:

A sound signal is send out through a transducer installed in the ships bottom. It
travels through the water until it bounces off an object, and its echo is received by
hydrophone located near the transducer. An instrument convert the time lag between
the sending and reception of the signal into visual sounder, a blip of light is shown on
a graduated scale. The depth may be displayed digitally in meter.

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5. GLOBAL POSTITIONING SYSTEM (GPS)

The satellite navigation system, GPS was fully operational in 1996. The
system has 27 satellites (24 in use, 3 spare) on 6 different orbital planes so that at any
time, at every spot on the globe, at least 3 satellites are above the horizon and with
the distance to the satellite known, can determine the position of the ship. It
automatically displays positions; calculate boats speed and heading, figure distance
and bearing. The GPS is commonly used in a course plotter, which display the local
chart and the boats position on the GPS screen or radar.

Figure 12: Global Positioning System

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TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

1. TIDES

The rise and fall of the vertical height of the sea is called tides. A tide is classified
under two categories. They are Diurnal and Semi-diurnal. A diurnal tide is when
there is a high water and low water at the same place in every two high and low water
at the same place in every twenty four hours.

Spring and Neap tides are terms given to semi-diurnal tides to differentiate the
level of water whenever there is a new or full moon. Spring tide is when the tide is at
its highest while Neap tide is at its lowest.

CAUSES

The moons movement around the earth is on a constant plane and the
distance differs during its orbit through out the month. When the moon comes closest
to the earth during its orbit, the gravitational pull on that part of the water level on
that part and its opposite part of the earth will be raised. The adjacent sides of the
earths water level will be lowered.

2. TIDAL STEAMS

The movement of the horizontal flow of the sea is called streams. These
streams when related to the rise and fall of the local tide are called tidal streams. It
usually flows in and out of harbour and along the coast. The tidal streams that flows
into a harbour with a raising tidal is called the flood or incoming tide. The one
that flows in with a failing tide is called ebb or outgoing tide. Tidal streams flow
fastest where the water is the deeper or the channel narrower.

CAUSES

Tidal streams are caused in response to the tidal raising forces. Its movements
are affected by the current which are caused by the differences of water temperature,
barometric pressure or irregularities in the sea bed. It does not cause any net transfer
of water in its flow.

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3. GENERAL TIDAL INFORMATION FOR SINGAPORE

The rises and falls of tides and the rates of flow can be accurately predicted.
In Singapore, the yearly tidal predictions are available in the Tides Tables and Port
Information publication by Maritime Port Authority, Singapore. As for tides, it
predicts the daily High and Low water and hourly height at various parts of
Singapore. As for tidal streams, it predicts the hourly rate of the flows and the
maximum and slack tidal stream.

In Singapore, the flood streams generally flow westward and Ebb streams
flow Eastward, except in channels or East/West Johor Straits.

Figure 13: General tide information in Singapore

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4. TERMS AND DEFINITION

a) TIDES The vertical oscillation of the sea in response to the tide raising
forces of the moon and sun.

b) TIDAL STREAMS The periodical horizontal oscillations of the sea in the

response to the tidal raising forces of the moon and sun.

c) EDDY An eddy is a circular movement of water, the diameter of which

may be anything from a few inches to a few miles.

d) OVERFALL An overfall is another name for a TIPE-RIP and is caused by a

strong stream near the sea bed which begin to deflect upwards by obstruction
on the bottom, thus causing a confused sea on the surface.

e) TIDAL RACE A tidal race is an exceptionally strong stream, usually

caused by the constricted of water passing round a headland, or where tidal
streams from different directions converge.

f) HIGH WATER The highest level reached by the sea during one tidal
oscillation.

g) LOW WATER The lowest level reached by the sea during one tidal
oscillation.

h) MAXIMUM RATE The greatest rate reached in each of two or more or less
opposing directions by the tidal streams in oscillations.

i) SLACK WATER The periods, preceding an succeeding maximum rate,

when the tidal streams are at weakest.

j) CHART DATUM The low water plane to which the depths of features
permanently covered by the sea and the heights of features periodically
covered and uncovered by the sea are referred. The tidal levels are predicted
high and low heights of the tide are also referred to this plane.

k) HEIGHT OF TIDE The vertical distance between the level of successive

high and low waters

l) RANGE OF TIDE The difference between the levels of successive high and
low waters

m) CURRENT The horizontal movement of water due to causes, mainly

meteorological and oceanographically, other than the tidal raising forces of
the moon and the sun. It may be a progressive or a fluctuating movement.

n) FLOW The combination at any instant of tidal stream and current

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o) FLOOD TIDE A loose term applied either to the raising tide or to the in
going tidal stream. It also would only be strictly applicable to river.

p) MEAN SEA LEVEL The average level of the sea at all stages of the tide as
calculated from a long series of observation.

q) TIDAL OSCILLATION The one vertical oscillation above and below mean
sea level.

r) DIURNAL TIDE Only one high and one low water at one place every 24
hours.

s) SEMIDIURAL TIDE Only two high and two low waters at one place
every 24 hours.

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5. SPRING AND NEAP TIDES

SPRING TIDES

The combined tide raising forces of the moon and the sun have their
GREATEST EFFEECT when the SUN and MOON are IN LINE with the EARTH.

Figure 14: Spring Tides Illustration

NEAP TIDES

The combined tide raising forces will have the LEAST EFFECT when the
SUN and MOON is about at RIGHT ANGLE to each other.

Figure 15: Neap Tides Illustration

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6. RATE OF TIDAL STREAMS SYMBOLS

SYMBOL MEANING
FLOOD Stream

EBB Stream

Interval in Hours after Low water

Interval in Hours after High water

3 Kn
Rate is 3.5 Knots
3 hours after lower water

7. STREAMS AROUND SINGAPORE

SYMBOL GENERAL DIRECTION

WESTWARD

EASTWARD

8. TURBULENCE

What is Turbulence?

It is the disturbance of the even flow of current or tidal stream caused by the
changing topography of the sea bed and surrounding.

CAUSES

It may be caused by:

a. Obstruction such as jetty, pier, wharf, island or breaker.

b. Meeting of opposing currents or streams.

c. Sudden change in depth of water such as, with the formation of portholes
in the seabed.

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Figure 16: Tide Table (Hourly Tidal Heights)

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Figure 17: Tide Table (High and Low Water)

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Figure 18: Tide Table (Tidal Stream Predication)

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Figure 19: Tide Table (Hourly Tidal Stream)

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BUOYAGE SYSTEM

WHAT ARE BUOYS AND BEACONS

Dangers to navigation, such as reefs and shoals are marked by floating markers
known as BUOYS, which are anchored to the seabed. BEACONS are fixed structures
erected on the seabed.

MARITME BUOYAGE SYSTEM

Within the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) buoyage

system there are 5 types of marks which may be used in combination. The mariner can
easily distinguish between these marks by readily identifiable characteristics.

1. LATERAL MARKS

Following the sense of a conventional direction of buoyage, Lateral marks

in Region A utilize red and green colours by day and night to denote the port and
starboard sides of channels respectively. However, in Region B these colours are
reversed with red starboard and green to port when entering harbour. Singapore
has adopted Region A.

A preferred channel mark may be used at the point where a channel divides to
distinguish the conventionally used channel, that is to say the primary route or
channel which is so designated by an Authority.

2. CARDINAL MARKS

Cardinal marks indicate that safe navigable waters lie to the named side of
the mark. Navigators should ensure that their vessel pass north of the mark as far
as possible even though there may be navigable waters on its east and west.
Vessels passing south of the north cardinal mark are likely to be in hazardous
waters.

Cardinal marks do not have a distinctive shape but a normally pillar or

spar. They are always painted in yellow and black horizontal bands and their
distinctive colour cone top marks are always black.

Topmarks colouring:

- Topmarks pointing upward; black band above yellow band

- Topmarks pointing downward; black band below yellow band
- Topmarks pointing away from each other black bands above and below a
yellow band.

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- Topmarks pointing towards each other black band with yellow bands above
and below.
Cardinal marks also have a special system of flashing white lights. The
rhythms are basically all very quick (VQ) or quick (Q) flashing but
broken into varying lengths of flashing phase. Very quick flashing is
defined as a light flashing at a rate of between 80 to 159 flashes per minute
(usually either 100 or 120), quick flashing is a light flashing at between 50
to 79 flashes per minute (usually either 50 or 60).

The characters used for Cardinal marks will be seen to be as follows:

North: Continuous very quick flashing or quick flashing

East: Group flashing of Three very quick or quick flashes

South: Group flashing of Six very quick or quick flashes followed

immediately by a long flash

West: Group flashing of Nine very quick or quick flashes

The concept of three, six, and nine is easily remembered when one associates
it with a clock face. The long flash, defined as a light appearance of not less
than 2 seconds is merely a device to ensure that three or nine very quick of
quick flashes cannot be mistake for six.

It will be observed that two other marks used white lights. Each has a
distinctive light rhythm which cannot be confused with the very quick or
quick flashing light of the cardinal marks.

3. ISOLATED DANGER MARK

The Isolated Danger mark is placed on a danger of small area has

navigable water all around it. Distinctive double black spherical topmarks and
group flashing (2) white lights, serve to associate Isolated Danger marks with
Cardinal Marks.

4. SAFE WATER MARKS

The safe water mark has navigable water all around it but does not mark a
danger. Safe Water marks can be used, for example, as mid channel or landfall
marks.

Safe water marks have an appearance quite different from danger marking
buoys. They are spherical or alternatively pillar or spar with a single red spherical
top-mark. They are the only type of mark to have vertical strips (red and white).

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Their lights, if any, are white using isophase, occulting, one long flash or Morse
A rhythms.

5. SPECIAL MARKS

Special marks are not primarily intended to assist navigation but are used
to indicate a special area or feature whose nature may be apparent from reference
to a chart or other nautical document.

Special marks are yellow. They may carry a yellow X top mark, and any
light used is always yellow. The yellow lights of Special marks do not have any of
the rhythms used for white lights to avoid confusion.

Their shape will not conflict with that of navigational marks. For example,
a special buoy located on the lateral limits of a channel may neither be cylindrical
nor conical but may be a pillar. Special marks may also be lettered or numbered to
indicate their purpose.

6. NEW DANGERS

It should be specially noted that a new danger which is one not yet
shown in nautical documents, may be indicated by exactly duplication the normal
mark until the information is sufficiently promulgated. A new danger mark may
carry a Racon coded Morse D

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MARITME BUOYAGE SYSTEM RULES

1. GENERAL

1.1 Scope

This system provides rules which apply to all fixed and floating marks (other than
lighthouses, sector lights, leading lights and marks, lightships and large
navigational buoys) serving to indicate:

1.1.1 The lateral limits of navigable channels

1.1.2 Natural dangers and other obstruction such as wrecks

1.1.3 Other areas or features of importance to the mariner

1.14 New dangers

1.2 Types of marks

The system of buoyage provides five types of marks which may be used in
combination:

1.2.1 Lateral marks, used in conjunction with a conventional direction

of buoyage, generally used for well defined channels. These
marks indicate the port and starboard sides of the route to be
followed. Where a channel divides, a preferred channel mark may
be used to indicate the conventional route.

1.2.2 Cardinal marks, used in conjunction with the mariners compass,

to indicate where the mariner may find navigable water.

1.2.3 Isolated Danger marks to indicate isolated dangers of limited size

that have navigable water all around them.

1.2.4 Safe Water marks to indicate that there is navigable water all
around their position, e.g. mid-channel marks.

1.2.5 Special Marks not primarily intended to assist navigation but to

indicate an area or feature referred to in nautical documents.

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1.3 Method of characterising marks

The significance of the mark depends upon one or more of the following
features:

1.3.1 By night, Colour and rhythm of light

1.3.2 By day, colour, shape, topmark

2. LATERAL MARKS

2.1 Definition of conventional direction of buoyage

The conventional direction of buoyage, which must be indicated

in appropriate nautical documents, may be earlier:

2.1.1 The general direction taken by mariner when approaching a

harbour, river, estuary or other waterway from seaward, or

2.1.2 The direction determined by the proper authority in consultation,

where appropriate, with neighbouring countries. In principle, it
should follow a clockwise direction around land masses.

2.2 Buoyage Regions

These are two international Buoyage Regions A and B where lateral marks
differ. Singapore has adopted Region A.

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2.3 Description of Lateral Marks used in Region A

2.3.1 Port Hand Marks 2.3.2 Starboard Hand Marks

Colour Red Green
Shape Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark Single red cylinder (can) Single green cone, point upward
Light
Colour Red Green
Rhythm Any except that use by a Any except that use by a
preferred channel buoy preferred channel buoy
(Region A) (Region A)

Figure 1: Port Hand Marks (left) [Region A]

Starboard Hand Marks (right) [Region A]

2.3.3 At the point where a channel divide, when proceeding in the

conventional direction of buoyage, a preferred channel may be
indicated by a modified Port or Starboard lateral mark as follows:

2.3.3.1 Preferred Channel to 2.3.3.2 Preferred channel to

Starboard Port
Colour Red with one broad green Green with one board red
horizontal band horizontal band
Shape Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark Single red cylinder (can) Single green cone, point upward
Light
Colour Red Green
Rhythm Red Composite group Green Composite group
flashing(2+1) flashing(2+1)

Figure 2: Preferred Port Hand Marks (left) [Region A]

Preferred Starboard Hand Marks (right) [Region A]

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2.4 Description of Lateral Marks used in Region B

2.4.1 Port Hand Marks 2.4.2 Starboard Hand Marks

Colour Green Red
Shape Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark Single green cylinder (can) Single red cone, point upward
Light
Colour Green Red
Rhythm Any except that use by a Any except that use by a
preferred channel buoy preferred channel buoy
(Region B) (Region B)

Figure 3: Port Hand Marks (Green) [Region B]

Starboard Hand Marks (Red)[Region B]

2.4.3 At the point where a channel divides, when proceeding in the

conventional direction of buoyage, a preferred channel may be
indicated by a modified Port or Starboard lateral mark as follows:

2.4.3.1 Preferred channel to 2.4.3.1 Preferred channel to

Starboard Port
Colour Green with one broad red Red with one broad green
horizontal band horizontal band
Shape Cylindrical (can), pillar or spar Conical, pillar or spar
Topmark Single green cylinder (can) Single red cone, point upward
Light
Colour Green Red
Rhythm Green Composite group Red Composite group
flashing(2+1) flashing(2+1)

Figure 4: Preferred Port Hand Marks (Green) [Region B]

Preferred Starboard Hand Marks (Red) [Region B]

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2.5 General Rules for Lateral Marks

2.5.1 Shapes
Where lateral marks do not rely upon cylindrical(can) or
conical buoy shapes for identification they should, where
practicable, carry the appropriate topmark.

2.5.1 Numbering or lettering

If marks at the sides of a channel are numbered or lettered,
the numbering or lettering shall follow the conventional direction of
buoyage.

3. CARDINAL MARKS

3.1 Definitions of Cardinal quadrants and marks

3.1.1 The four quadrants (North, East, South and West) are bounded by
the true bearings NW-NE, NE-SE, SE-SW, and SW-NW, taken
from the point of interest.

3.1.2 A cardinal mark is named after the quadrant in which it is placed.

3.1.3 The name of a cardinal mark indicates that it should be passed to

the named side of the mark.

3.1 Uses of Cardinal Marks

A Cardinal Mark may be used, for example:

3.2.1 To indicate the deepest water in that area is on the named side of
the mark.

3.2.2 To indicate the safe side on which to pass a danger

3.3.3 To draw attention to a feature in a channel such as a bend, a

junction, a bifurcation or the end of a shoal.

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Figure 5: Cardinal Marks

3.3.1 North Cardinal Mark 3.3.2 East Cardinal Mark

Colour Black above yellow Black with a single broad
horizontal yellow band
Shape Pillar or spar Pillar or spar
Topmark 2 black cones, one above the 2 black cones, one above the
other, points upward other, base to base
Light
Colour White White
Rhythm VQ or Q VQ(3) every 5s or Q(3) every
10s
3.3.3 South Cardinal Mark 3.3.4 West Cardinal Mark
Colour Yellow above black Yellow with a single broad
horizontal black band
Shape Pillar or spar Pillar or spar
Topmark 2 black cones, one above the 2 black cones, one above the
other points downward other point to point
Light
Colour White White
Rhythm VQ(6) + Long flash every 10s VQ(9) every 10s
Or Q(6) + Long flash every Or Q(9) every 15s
15s

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4. ISOLATED DANGER MARKS

4.1 Definitions of Isolated Danger Marks

An isolated Danger mark is a mark erected on, or moored on or above, an

isolated danger which has navigable water all around it.

4.2 Description of Isolated Danger Marks

4.2.1 Isolated Danger

Marks
Colour Black with one or more
broad horizontal red bands
Shape Optional, but not conflicting
with lateral marks, pillar or
spar preferred
Topmark 2 black spheres, one above
the other
Light
Colour White
Rhythm Group flashing(2) Figure 6: Isolated Danger Marks

5. SAFE WATER MARKS

5.1 Definitions of Safe Water Marks

Safe water marks serve to indicate that there is navigable water all round
the mark; these include centre line marks and mid-channel marks. Such a
mark may also be used as an alternative to a Cardinal or a lateral mark to
indicate a landfall.

5.2 Description of Safe Water Marks

4.2.1 Safe Water

Marks
Colour Red and White vertical
stripes
Shape Spherical; pillar or spar
with spherical topmark
Topmark Single red sphere
Light
Colour White
Rhythm Isophase, occulting, one
long flash every 10s or Figure 7: Safe Water Marks
Morse A

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(a) The double cone topmark is a very important feature of every Cardinal
Mark by day, and should be used whenever practicable and be as large
as possible with a clear separation between the cones.

(b) The double sphere topmark is a very important feature of every

Isolated Danger mark by day, and should be used wherever practicable
and be as large as possible with a clear separation between the spheres.

6. SPECIAL MARKS

6.1 Definition of special marks

Marks not primarily intended to assist navigation but which indicate a

special area or feature referred to in appropriate nautical documents, for
example:

6.1.1 Ocean Data Acquisition System (ODAS) marks

6.1.2 Traffic separation marks where use of conventional channel
marking may cause confusion.
6.1.3 Spoil Ground marks
6.1.4 Military Exercise Zone marks
6.1.5 Cable or pipeline marks
6.1.6 Recreation Zone marks

6.2 Description of Special Marks

6.2.1 Special Marks

Colour Yellow
Shape Optional, but not
conflicting with
navigational marks
Topmark Single yellow X
shape
Light
Colour Yellow
Rhythm Any, other then those Figure 6: Special Marks
used by Cardinal
Marks, Isolated
Danger Marks and
Safe Water Marks

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6.3 Additional Special Marks

Special marks other than those listed in paragraph 6.1 and described in
paragraph 6.2 may be established by the responsible administration to
meet exceptional circumstances. These additional marks shall not conflict
with navigational marks and shall be promulgated in appropriate nautical
documents and the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities
notified as soon as practicable.

7. NEW DANGERS

7.1 Definition of New Dangers

The term New Danger is used to describe newly discovered hazard not
yet indicated in nautical documents. New Dangers include naturally
occurring obstructions such as sandbanks or rocks or man made dangers
such as wrecks.

7.2 Making of New Dangers

7.2.1 New Dangers shall be marked in accordance with these rules. If

the appropriate Authority considers the danger to be especially
grave at least one of the marks shall be duplicated as soon as
practicable.

7.2.2 Any lighted mark used for this purpose shall have an appropriate
Cardinal or Lateral VQ or Q light character.

7.2.3 Any duplicate mark shall be identical to its partner in all respects.

7.2.4 A New Danger may be marked by a racon, coded Morse D,

showing a signal length of 1 nautical mile on the radar display.

7.2.5 The duplicate mark may be removed when the appropriate

Authority is satisfied information concerning the New Danger
has been sufficiently promulgated.

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8. INTERNATIONAL BUOYAGE REGION A AND B

There are two international Buoyage Regions A and B where Lateral marks differ
as describe in Section 2. The geographical divisions of these two Regions are
indicated below which will, if necessary, be updated from time to time.

Figure 7: Buoyage Region A and B, November 1980

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REGION A BY DAY

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REGION A BY NIGHT

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INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS FOR PREVENTING COLLLISIONS AT

SEA

INTRODUCTION

In order to prevent collisions between vessels, a comprehensive set of

International Regulation for Preventing Collisions At Sea is use. In Singapore, these
regulations are empowered by the Merchant Shipping Act. A thorough understanding and
knowledge of these Regulations, particularly of the steering and sailing Rules, is essential
for all who would operate any craft.

The regulation also known as Rules of the Road were introduced in 1972 and
have been constantly revised, the last revision was made in 2001. It consists of 38 rules.

Apart from these international rules, Local Port Rules may be used by the Port
Master from time to time and, where relevant, take precedence over the international
rules within Port Limits. It is therefore essential that the operators of pleasure craft in
Singapore are also familiar with local rules.

PART A GENERAL

RULE 1 APPLICATION

a) These Rules shall apply to all vessels upon the high seas and in all waters
connected therewith navigable by seagoing vessels.

b) Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation of special rules made by
an appropriate authority for roadsteads, harbors, rivers, lakes, or inland waterways
connected with the high seas and navigable by seagoing vessels. Such special
rules shall conform as closely as possible to these Rules.

c) Nothing in these Rules shall interfere with the operation of any special rules
made by the Government of any State with respect to additional station or signal
lights, shape or whistle signals for ships of war and vessels proceeding under
convoy, or with respect to additional station or signal lights or shapes for fishing
vessels engaged in fishing as a fleet. These additional stations or signal lights,
shapes or whistle signals shall, so far as possible, be such that they cannot be
mistaken for any light, shape, or signal authorized elsewhere under these Rules.

d) Traffic separation schemes may be adopted by the Organization for the purpose of
these Rules.

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e) Whenever the Government concerned shall have determined that a vessel of

special construction or purpose cannot comply fully with the provisions of any of
these Rules with respect to number, position, range or arc of visibility of lights or
shapes, as well as to the disposition and characteristics of sound-signaling
appliances, such vessel shall comply with such other provisions in regard to
number, position, range or arc of visibility of lights or shapes, as well as to the
disposition and characteristics of sound-signaling appliances, as the Government
shall have determined to be the closest possible compliance with these Rules in
respect to that vessel.

RULE 2 RESPONSIBILITY

a) Nothing in these Rules shall exonerate any vessel, or the owner, master, or crew
thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to comply with these Rules or of
the neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of
seamen, or by the special circumstances of the case.

b) In construing and complying with these Rules due regard shall be had to all
dangers of navigation and collision and to any special circumstances, including
the limitations of the vessels involved, which may make a departure from these
Rules necessary to avoid immediate danger.

RULE 3 GENERAL DEFINITIONS

a) The word "vessel" includes every description of watercraft, including non-

displacement craft, WIG craft, and seaplanes, used or capable of being used as a
means of transportation on water.

b) The term "power-driven vessel" means any vessel propelled by machinery.

c) The term "sailing vessel" means any vessel under sail provided that propelling
machinery, if fitted, is not being used.

d) The term "vessel engaged in fishing" means any vessel fishing with nets, lines,
trawls, or other fishing apparatus which restrict manoeuvrability, but does not
include a vessel fishing with trolling lines or other fishing apparatus which do not
restrict manoeuvrability.

e) The term "seaplane" includes any aircraft designed to manoeuvre on the water.

f) The term "vessel not under command" means a vessel which through some
exceptional circumstance is unable to manoeuvre as required by these Rules and
is therefore unable to keep out of the way of another vessel.

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g) The term "vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre" means a vessel which
from the nature of her work is restricted in her ability to manoeuvre as required by
these Rules and is therefore unable to keep out of the way of another vessel.

The term "vessels restricted in their ability to manoeuvre" shall include but not
be limited to:

A vessel engaged in laying, servicing, or picking up a navigational mark,

submarine cable or pipeline;
A vessel engaged in dredging, surveying or underwater operations;
A vessel engaged in replenishment or transferring persons, provisions or cargo
while underway;
A vessel engaged in the launching or recovery of aircraft;
A vessel engaged in mine clearance operations;
A vessel engaged in a towing operation such as severely restricts the towing
vessel and her tow in their ability to deviate from their course.

h) The term "vessel constrained by her draft" means a power-driven vessel which
because of her draft in relation to the available depth and width of navigable water
is severely restricted in her ability to deviate from the course she is following.

i) The word "underway" means that a vessel is not at anchor, or made fast to the
shore, or aground.

j) The words "length" and "breadth" of a vessel mean her length overall and
greatest breadth.

k) Vessels shall be deemed to be in sight of one another only when one can be
observed visually from the other.

l) The term "restricted visibility" means any condition in which visibility is

restricted by fog, mist, falling snow, heavy rainstorms, sandstorms or any other
similar causes.

m) The term "Wing-In-Ground (WIG) craft" means a multimodal craft which, in

its main operational mode, files in close proximity to the surface by utilizing
surface-effect action.

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PART B STEERING AND SAILING RULES

SECTION 1 Conduct of vessels in any condition of visibility

RULE 4 APPLICATION

Rules in this section apply to any condition of visibility.

RULE 5 LOOK - OUT

Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look-out by sight and hearing as well as
by all available means appropriate in the prevailing circumstances and conditions so as to
make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision.

RULE 6 SAFE SPEED

Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that she can take proper and
effective action to avoid collision and be stopped within a distance appropriate to the
prevailing circumstances and conditions.

In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be among those taken into account:

a) By all vessels:

The state of visibility;

The traffic density including concentrations of fishing vessels or any other
vessels;
The manageability of the vessel with special reference to stopping distance
and turning ability in the prevailing conditions;
At night, the presence of background light such as from shore lights or
from back scatter from her own lights;
The state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of navigational
hazards;
The draft in relation to the available depth of water.

b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:

The characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar equipment;

Any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
The effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather and other sources of
interference;
The possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating objects may not be
detected by radar at an adequate range;
The number, location and movement of vessels detected by radar;

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The more exact assessment of the visibility that may be possible when radar is
used to determine the range of vessels or other objects in the vicinity.

RULE 7 RISK OF COLLISION

a) Every vessel shall use all available means appropriate to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions to determine if risk of collision exists. If there is
any doubt such risk shall be deemed to exist.

b) In determining if risk of collision exists the following considerations shall be

among those taken into account:

Such risk shall be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of an approaching

vessel does not appreciably change;

Such risk may sometimes exist even when an appreciable bearing change is
evident, particularly when approaching a very large vessel or a tow or when
approaching a vessel at close range.

RULE 8 ACTION TO AVOID COLLISION

a) Any action taken to avoid collision shall be taken in accordance with the Rules of
this Part and shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be positive, made in
ample time and with due regard to the observance of good seamanship.

b) Any alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances
of the case admit, be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel
observing visually; a succession of small alteration of course and/or speed should
be avoided.

c) If there is sufficient sea room, alteration of course alone may be the most effective
action to avoid a close-quarters situation provided that it is made in good time, is
substantial and does not result in another close-quarters situation.

d) Action taken to avoid collision with another vessel shall be such as to result in
passing at a safe distance. The effectiveness of the action shall be carefully
checked until the other vessel is finally past and clear.

e) If necessary to avoid collision or allow more time to asses the situation, a vessel
may slacken her speed or take all way off by stopping or reversing her means of
propulsion.

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f)
I. A vessel which, by any of these rules, is required not to impede the passage
or safe passage of another vessel shall, when required by the circumstances
of the case, take early action to allow sufficient sea room for the safe
passage of the other vessel.

II. A vessel required not to impede the passage or safe passage of another
vessel is not relieved of this obligation if approaching the other vessel so as
to involve risk of collision and shall, when taking action, have full regard to
the action which may be required by the rules of this part.

III. A vessel, the passage of which is not to be impeded remains fully obliged to
comply with the rules of this part when the two vessels are approaching one
another so as to involve risk of collision.

RULE 9 NARROW CHANNEL

a) A vessel proceeding along the course of a narrow channel or fairway shall keep as
near to the outer limit of the channel or fairway which lies on her starboard side as
is safe and practicable.

b) A vessel of less than 20 meters in length or a sailing vessel shall not impede the
passage of a vessel which can safely navigate only within a narrow channel or
fairway.

c) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any other vessel
navigating within a narrow channel or fairway.

d) A vessel shall not cross a narrow passage or fairway if such crossing impedes the
passage of a vessel which can safely navigate only within such channel or fairway.
The latter vessel may use the sound signal prescribed in Rule 34(d) if in doubt as
to the intention of the crossing vessel.

e)

I. In a narrow channel or fairway when overtaking can take place only if the
vessel to be overtaken has to take action to permit safe passing, the vessel
intending to overtake shall indicate her intention by sounding the appropriate
signal prescribed in Rule 34(c)(i). The vessel to be overtaken shall, if in
agreement, sound the appropriate signal prescribed in Rule 34(c)(ii) and take
steps to permit safe passing. If in doubt she may sound the signals prescribed in
Rule 34(d).

II. This rule does not relieve the overtaking vessel of her obligation under Rule 13.

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f) A vessel nearing a bend or an area of a narrow channel or fairway where other

vessels may be obscured by an intervening obstruction shall navigate with
particular alertness and caution and shall sound the appropriate signal prescribed
in Rule 34(e).

Figure 1: Moving near a bend in a channel

g) Any vessel shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid anchoring in a
narrow channel.

RULE 10 TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES

a) This Rule applies to traffic separation schemes adopted by the Organization and
does not relieve any vessel of her obligation under any other rule.

b) A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall:

I. Proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general direction of traffic flow
for that lane.
II. So far as is practicable keep clear of a traffic separation line or separation
zone.
III. Normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination of the lane, but when
joining or leaving from either side shall do so at as small an angle to the
general direction of traffic flow as practicable.

c) A vessel, shall so far as practicable, avoid crossing traffic lanes but if obliged to
do so shall cross on a heading as nearly as practicable at right angles to the
general direction of traffic flow.

d)

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I. A vessel shall not use an inshore traffic zone when she can safely use the
appropriate traffic lane within the adjacent traffic separation scheme.
However, vessels of less than 20 meters in length, sailing vessels and
vessels engaged in fishing may use the inshore traffic zone.
II. Notwithstanding subparagraph (d)(i), a vessel may use an inshore traffic
zone when en route to or from a port, offshore installation or structure, pilot
station or any other place situated within the inshore traffic zone, or to avoid
immediate danger.

e) vessel, other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining or leaving a lane shall not
normally enter a separation zone or cross a separation line except:

in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger;

to engage in fishing within a separation zone.

f) A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of traffic separation schemes

shall do so with particular caution.

g) A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a traffic separation scheme

or in areas near its terminations.

h) A vessel not using a traffic separating scheme shall avoid it by as wide a margin
as is practicable.

i) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any vessel following
a traffic lane.

j) A vessel of less than 20 meters in length or a sailing vessel shall not impede the
safe passage of a power-driven vessel following a traffic lane.

k) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation for

the maintenance of safety of navigation in a traffic separation scheme is exempted
from complying with this Rule to the extent necessary to carry out the operation.

l) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation for

the laying, servicing or picking up of a submarine cable, within a traffic
separation scheme, is exempted from complying with this Rule to the extent
necessary to carry out the operation.

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Figure 2: Traffic Separation Scheme in Singapore Strait

SECTION 2 Conduct of vessels in sight of one another

RULE 11 APPLICATION

Rules in this section apply to vessels in sight of one another.

RULE 12 SAILING VESSELS

a) When two sailing vessels are approaching one another, so as to involve risk of
collision, one of them shall keep out of the way of the other as follows:

I. when each has the wind on a different side, the vessel which has the wind on
the port side shall keep out of the way of the other;

Figure 3: Sailing Boat with wind on different side

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II. when both have the wind on the same side, the vessel which is to windward
shall keep out of the way of the vessel which is to leeward;

Figure 4: Sailing Boat with wind on same side

III. if a vessel with the wind on the port side sees a vessel to windward and
cannot determine with certainty whether the other vessel has the wind on the
port or on the starboard side, she shall keep out of the way of the other.

b) For the purposes of this Rule the windward side shall be deemed to be the side
opposite that on which the mainsail is carried or, in the case of a square-rigged
vessel, the side opposite to that on which the largest fore-and-aft sail is carried.

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RULE 13 OVERTAKING

a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of Part B, Sections I and II, any
vessel overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the vessel being
overtaken.

b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with a another vessel

from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position
with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to
see only the stern light of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.

c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking another, she shall
assume that this is the case and act accordingly.

d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make
the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of these Rules or
relieve her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally
past and clear.

Figure 5: Overtaking Situation

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RULE 14 HEAD-ON SITUATION

a) When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal

courses so as to involve risk of collision each shall alter her course to starboard so
that each shall pass on the port side of the other.

b) Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the other ahead or
nearly ahead and by night she could see the masthead lights of the other in a line
or nearly in a line and/or both sidelights and by day she observes the
corresponding aspect of the other vessel.

c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether such a situation exists she shall
assume that it does exist and act accordingly.

Figure 6: Head on Situation

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RULE 15 CROSSING SITUATION

When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the vessel
which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way and shall, if the
circumstances of the case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel.

Figure 7: Crossing Situation

With reference to Figure 7:

When two power-driven vessels are crossing and there is a risk of collision, vessel A
should give way to vessel B.

Alternatively, if there is insufficient sea room, vessel A may reduce here speed or stop
engine to allow vessel B to cross ahead.

RULE 16 ACTION BY GIVE WAY VESSEL

Every vessel which is directed to keep out of the way of another vessel shall, so far as
possible, take early and substantial action to keep well clear.

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RULE 17 ACTION BY STAND-ON VESSEL

a)
I. Where one of two vessels is to keep out of the way, the other shall keep her
course and speed.

II. The latter vessel may however take action to avoid collision by her
maneuver alone, as soon as it becomes apparent to her that the vessel
required to keep out of the way is not taking appropriate action in
compliance with these Rules.

b) When, from any cause, the vessel required to keep her course and speed finds
herself so close that collision cannot be avoided by the action of the give-way
vessel alone, she shall take such action as will best aid to avoid collision.

c) A power-driven vessel which takes action in a crossing situation in accordance

with subparagraph (a)(ii) of this Rule to avoid collision with another power-
driven vessel shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, not alter course to port
for a vessel on her own port side.

d) This Rule does not relieve the give-way vessel of her obligation to keep out of the
way.

Figure 8: Stand on vessel

With reference to Figure 8:

If after sounding, of five or more short and rapid blasts, vessel A still does not give way,
vessel B should alter here course to starboard, away from vessel A.

Alternatively, if vessel A still does not give way after the 5 or more short blasts and the
collision is imminent, vessel B should stop or go full astern.

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RULE 18 RESPONSIBILITY BETWEEN VESSELS

Except where Rules 9, 10, and 13 otherwise require:

a) A power-driven vessel underway shall keep out of the way of:

a vessel not under command;

a vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre;
a vessel engaged in fishing;
a sailing vessel.

Figure 9: Stand On Vessel

With reference to Figure 9:

Power driven vessel should alter her course to port so as to pass by the stern of the sailing
vessel.

b) A sailing vessel underway shall keep out of the way of:

a vessel not under command;

a vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre;
a vessel engaged in fishing.

c) A vessel engaged in fishing when underway shall, so far as possible, keep out of
the way of:

a vessel not under command;

a vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre.

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d)

I. Any vessel other than a vessel not under command or a vessel restricted in her
ability to manoeuvre shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid
impeding the safe passage of a vessel constrained by her draft, exhibiting the
signals in Rule 28.

II. A vessel constrained by her draft shall navigate with particular caution having
full regard to her special condition.

e) A seaplane on the water shall, in general, keep well clear of all vessels and avoid
impeding their navigation. In circumstances, however, where risk of collision
exists, she shall comply with the Rules of this Part.

f)

I. A WIG craft shall, when taking off, landing and in flight near the surface,
keep well clear of all other vessels and avoid impeding their navigation.

II. A WIG craft operating on the water surface shall comply with the Rules of
this Part as a power-driven vessel.

Not Under Command Equal responsibility to

Restricted In Ability to Manoeuvre
GIVE WAY

keep clear of each vessel

Vessel Constrained by Draught
Fishing / Trawling
Sailing Vessels / Vessels under oars
Power Driven Vessels

Respective Vessels give way to those above itself

Figure 10: Order of Give Way Vessels

SECTION 3 Conduct of Vessels in Restricted Visibility

RULE 19 CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY

a) This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another when navigating in or near
an area of restricted visibility.

b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the prevailing circumstances
and conditions of restricted visibility. A power-driven vessel shall have her
engines ready for immediate manoeuvre.

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c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing circumstances and conditions
of restricted visibility when complying with the Rules of Section 1 of this Part.

d) A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another vessel shall
determine if a close-quarters situation is developing and/ [Intl] or risk of collision
exists. If so, she shall take avoiding action in ample time, provided that when such
action consists of an alteration in course, so far as possible the following shall be
avoided:

I. An alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam, other

than for a vessel being overtaken;

II. An alteration of course toward a vessel abeam or abaft the beam.

e) Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not exist, every
vessel which hears apparently forward of her beam the fog signal of another
vessel, or which cannot avoid a close-quarters situation with another vessel
forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to be the minimum at which she can
be kept on her course. She shall if necessary take all her way off and in any event
navigate with extreme caution until danger of collision is over.

Figure11: Vessel Alteration Situation

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PART C LIGHTS AND SHAPES

RULE 20 APPLICATION

a) Rules in this part shall be complied with in all weathers.

b) The Rules concerning lights shall be complied with from sunset to sunrise, and
during such times no other lights shall be exhibited, except such lights which
cannot be mistaken for the lights specified in these Rules or do not impair their
visibility or distinctive character, or interfere with the keeping of a proper look-
out.

c) The lights prescribed by these Rules shall, if carried, also be exhibited from
sunrise to sunset in restricted visibility and may be exhibited in all other
circumstances when it is deemed necessary.

d) The Rules concerning shapes shall be complied with by day.

e) The lights and shapes specified in these Rules shall comply.

I. A vessels within port-limit or outside display one, tow or three of the

following lights depending on its size and type:

Masthead light
Sidelights
Stern lights
All round light
Towing light
Flashing light

II. Shapes in black colour are displayed by vessels during daytime consists of
the following types depending on their nature of operation:

Ball
Diamond
Cone
Cylinder

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RULE 21 DEFINITIONS

a) "Masthead light" means a white light placed over the fore and aft centerline of
the vessel showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 225 degrees
and so fixed as to show the light from right ahead to 22.5 degrees abaft the beam
on either side of the vessel.

Figure 12: Masthead Light Angle of Visibility

Except that on a vessel of less than 12 meters in length the masthead light shall be
placed as nearly as practicable to the fore and aft centerline of the vessel.

b) "Sidelights" means a green light on the starboard side and a red light on the
port side each showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 112.5
degrees and so fixed as to show the light from right ahead to 22.5 degrees abaft
the beam on its respective side.

Figure 13: Sides Light Angle of Visibility

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In a vessel of less than 20 meters in length the sidelights may be combined in one
lantern carried on the fore and aft centerline of the vessel, except that on a vessel
of less than 12 meters in length the sidelights when combined in one lantern shall
be placed as nearly as practicable to the fore and aft centerline of the vessel.

c) "Sternlight" means a white light placed as nearly as practicable at the stern

showing an unbroken light over an arc of the horizon of 135 degrees and so fixed
as to show the light 67.5 degrees from right aft on each side of the vessel.

d) "Towing light" means a yellow light having the same characteristics as the
"sternlight" defined in paragraph (c) of this Rule.

e) "All-round light" means a light showing an unbroken light over an arc of the
horizon of 360 degrees.

f) "Flashing light" means a light flashing at regular intervals at a frequency of

120 flashes or more per minute.

RULE 22 VISIBILITY OF LIGHTS

The lights prescribed in these Rules shall be visible at the following minimum ranges:

a) In vessels of 50 meters or more in length:

a masthead light, 6 miles;

a sidelight, 3 miles;
a sternlight, 3 miles
a towing light, 3 miles;
a white red, green or yellow all-round light, 3 miles.

Figure 14: A power driven vessel underway, length of 50 metres or longer

A second masthead light abaft of and higher than the forward one

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b) In vessels of 12 meters or more in length but less than 50 meters in length;

a masthead light, 5 miles; except that where the length of the vessel is less
than 20 meters, 3 miles;
a sidelight, 2 miles;
a sternlight, 2 miles;
a towing light, 2 miles;
a white, red, green or yellow all-round light, 2 miles.

Figure 15: A power-driven vessel underway, less than 50 metres in length

A masthead light forward, side lights, stern light

c) In vessels of less than 12 meters in length:

a masthead light, 2 miles;

a sidelight, 1 miles;
a towing light, 2 miles;
a white red, green or yellow all-round light, 2 miles.

Figure 16: A power-driven vessel of less than 12 meters in length

- 1 all round white light, side lights (combine sidelights may be use)

d) In inconspicuous, partly submerged vessels or objects being towed;

a white all-round light; 3 miles.

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RULE 23 POWER DRIVEN VESSELS UNDERWAY

a) A power-driven vessel underway shall exhibit:

a masthead light forward;

a second masthead light abaft of and higher than the forward one; except
that a vessel of less than 50 meters in length shall not be obliged to exhibit
such a light but may do so;
sidelights: and
a sternlight.

b) An air-cushion vessel when operating in nondisplacement mode shall, in addition

to the lights prescribed in paragraph (a) of this Rule, exhibit an all-round flashing
yellow light, where it can best be seen.

Figure 17: An air-cushion vessel when operation in the

non-displacement mode, less than 50 metres in length

c) A WIG craft only when taking off, landing and in flight near the surface shall, in
addition to the lights prescribed in paragraph (a) of this Rule, exhibit a high
intensity all-round flashing red light.

d)
I. A power-driven vessel of less than 12 meters in length may in lieu of the
lights prescribed in paragraph (a) of this Rule exhibit an all-round white
light and sidelights.

II. A power-driven vessel of less than 7 meters in length whose maximum

speed does not exceed 7 knots may in lieu of the lights prescribed in
paragraph (a) of this Rule exhibit an all-round white light and shall, if
practicable, also exhibit sidelights.

III. the masthead light or all-round white light on a power-driven vessel of

less than 12 meters in length may be displaced from the fore and aft
centerline of the vessel if centerline fitting is not practicable, provided
the sidelights are combined in one lantern which shall be carried on the
fore and aft centerline of the vessel or located as nearly as practicable in
the same fore and aft line as the masthead light or the all-round white
light.
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RULE 24 TOWING AND PUSHING

a) A power-driven vessel when towing astern shall exhibit:

Instead of the light prescribed in Rule 23(a)(i) or 23(a)(ii), two masthead

lights in a vertical line. When the length of the tow, measuring from the
stern of the towing vessel to the after end of the tow exceeds 200 meters,
three such lights in a vertical line;
sidelights;
a sternlight;
a towing light in a vertical line above the sternlight; and
when the length of the tow exceeds 200 meters, a diamond shape where it
can best be seen.

Figure 18: A power-driven vessel of less than 50 metres in length when towing

Figure 19: A power-driven vessel of less than 50 metres in length when towing
and length of the tow exceeds 200 metres

Length of Tow

Figure 20: Tug and tow by day with length of two exceeding 200 metres

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b) When a pushing vessel and a vessel being pushed ahead are rigidly connected in a
composite unit they shall be regarded as a power-driven vessel and exhibit the
lights prescribed in Rule 23.

Figure 21: A power-driven vessel of less than 50 meters in length when pushing ahead or
towing alongside, except in the case of a composite unit

c) A power-driven vessel when pushing ahead or towing alongside, except [in the
case of a composite unit / as required by paragraphs (b) and (i) of this Rule], shall
exhibit:

instead of the light prescribed in Rule 23(a)(i) or 23(a)(ii), two masthead

lights in a vertical line; When the length of the tow measuring from the
stern of the towing vessel to the end of the tow exceeds 200 meters, three
such lights in a vertical line
sidelights
a sternlight

d) A power-driven vessel to which paragraph (a) or (c) of this Rule apply shall also
comply with rule 23(a)(i) and 23(a)(ii).

e) A vessel or object being towed, other than those mentioned in paragraph (g) of
this Rule, shall exhibit:

sidelights;
a sternlight;
when the length of the tow exceeds 200 meters, a diamond shape where it
can best be seen.

f) Provided that any number of vessels being towed alongside or pushed in a group
shall be lighted as one vessel.

I. a vessel being pushed ahead, not being part of a composite unit, shall
exhibit at the forward end, sidelights

II. a vessel being towed alongside shall exhibit a sternlight and at the forward
end, sidelights

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g) An inconspicuous, partly submerged vessel or object, or combination of such

vessels or objects being towed, shall exhibit:

I. if it is less than 25 meters in breadth, one all-round white light at or near

the forward end and one at or near the after end except that dracones
need not exhibit a light at or near the forward end.

II. if it is 25 meters or more in breadth, two or more additional all-round

white lights at or near the extremities of its breadth;

III. if it exceeds 100 meters in length, additional all-round white lights

between the lights prescribed in subparagraphs (i) and (ii) so that the
distance between the lights shall not exceed 100 meters.

IV. a diamond shape at or near the aftermost extremity of the last vessel or
object being towed and if the length of the tow exceeds 200 meters an
additional diamond shape where it can best be seen and located as far
forward as is practicable.

h) When from any sufficient cause it is impracticable for a vessel or object being
towed to exhibit the lights or shapes prescribed in paragraph (e) or (g) of this Rule,
all possible measures shall be taken to light the vessel or object being towed or at
least indicate the presence of such vessel or object.

i) Where from any sufficient cause it is impracticable for a vessel not normally
engaged in towing operations to display the lights prescribed in paragraph (a), (c)
or (i) of this Rule, such vessel shall not be required to exhibit those lights when
engaged in towing another vessel in distress or otherwise in need of assistance.
All possible measures shall be taken to indicate the nature of the relationship
between the towing vessel and the vessel being towed as authorized by Rule 36,
in particular by illuminating the towline.

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RULE 25 SAILING VESSELS UNDERWAY AND VESSEL UNDER OARS

a) A sailing vessel underway shall exhibit:

sidelights
a sternlight

Figure 22: A sailing vessel underway and a vessel under oars

b) A sailing vessel underway may, in addition to the lights prescribed in paragraph (a)
of this Rule, exhibit at or near the top of the mast, where they can best be seen,
two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being red and the lower Green,
but these lights shall not be exhibited in conjunction with the combined lantern
permitted by paragraph (b) of this Rule.

c) In a sailing vessel of less than 20 meters in length the lights prescribed in

paragraph (a) of this Rule may be combined in one lantern carried at or near the
top of the mast where it can best be seen.

Figure 23: A sailing vessel of less than 20 metres in length.

Underway showing combined lantern.

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d) A sailing vessel underway may, in addition to the lights prescribed in paragraph (a)
of this Rule, exhibit at or near the top of the mast, where they can best be seen,
two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being red and the lower Green,
but these lights shall not be exhibited in conjunction with the combined lantern
permitted by paragraph (b) of this Rule.

Figure 24: A sailing vessel underway and a vessel under oars.

(Without combined lantern)
e)

I. A sailing vessel of less than 7 meters in length shall, if practicable,

exhibit the lights prescribed in paragraph (a) or (b) of this Rule, but if
she does not, she shall have ready at hand an electric torch or lighted
lantern showing a white light which shall be exhibited in sufficient time
to prevent collision.

Figure 25: A sailing vessel of less than 7 metres in length a

vessel under oars exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision

II. A vessel under oars may exhibit the lights prescribed in this rule for
sailing vessels, but if she does not, she shall have ready at hand an
electric torch or lighted lantern showing a white light which shall be
exhibited in sufficient time to prevent collision.

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f) A vessel proceeding under sail when also being propelled by machinery shall
exhibit forward where it can best be seen a conical shape, apex downwards.

Figure 26: Vessel under sail and power, by day.

Shape to be exhibited forward where it can best be seen.
A conical shape, apex downwards.

RULE 26 FISHING VESSELS

a) A vessel engaged in fishing, whether underway or at anchor, shall exhibit only the
lights and shapes prescribed in this Rule.

b) A vessel when engaged in trawling, by which is meant the dragging through the
water of a dredge net or other apparatus used as a fishing appliance, shall exhibit:

I. two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being green and the lower
white, or a shape consisting of two cones with their apexes together in a
vertical line one above the other;

II. a masthead light abaft of and higher than the all-round green light; a vessel of
less than 50 meters in length shall not be obliged to exhibit such a light but
may do so;

III. when making way through the water, in addition to the lights prescribed in
this paragraph, sidelights and a sternlight.

Figure 27: A vessel of less than 50 metres in length when engaged in trawling underway
and making way through the water

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c) A vessel engaged in fishing, other than trawling, shall exhibit:

I. two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper being red and the lower white,
or a shape consisting of two cones with their apexes together in a vertical line
one above the other;

Figure 28: A vessel engaged in fishing, other than trawling, underway or at anchor, not
making way through the water, outlying gear extending 150 metres or less horizontally
from the vessel.

Figure 29: Vessel of 20 metres in length and over, fishing by day, with gear outlying
more than 150 metres.

II. when there is outlying gear extending more than 150 meters horizontally from
the vessel, an all-round white light or a cone apex upwards in the direction of
the gear.

III. When making way through the water, in addition to the lights prescribed in
this paragraph, sidelights and a sternlight.

d) The additional signals to these Rules apply to a vessel engaged in fishing in close
proximity to other vessels engaged in fishing.

e) A vessel when not engaged in fishing shall not exhibit the lights or shapes
prescribed in this Rule, but only those prescribed for a vessel of her length.

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RULE 27 VESSEL NOT UNDER COMMAND OR RESTRICTED IN THEIR

ABILITIY TO MANOEUVRE

a) A vessel not under command shall exhibit:

I. two all-round red lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen;

Figure 30: A vessel not under command not making way through the water

II. two balls or similar shapes in a vertical line where they can best be seen;

Figure 31: Vessel not under command by day

III. when making way through the water, in addition to the lights prescribed in
this paragraph, sidelights and a sternlight.

Figure 32: A vessel not under command making way through the water

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b) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, except a vessel engaged in

mineclearance operations, shall exhibit:

I. three all-round lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen. The
highest and lowest of these lights shall be red and the middle light shall be
white;

II. three shapes in a vertical line where they can best be seen. The highest and
lowest of these shapes shall be balls and the middle one a diamond.

Figure 33: Vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre by day

III. when making way through the water, a masthead light, sidelights and a
sternlight in addition to the lights prescribed in subparagraph (b)(i);

Figure 34: A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, except vessel engaged in
minesweeping operation when making way through the water.

IV. when at anchor, in addition to the lights or shapes prescribed in subparagraphs

(b)(i) and (b) (ii), the light, lights, or shapes prescribed in Rule 30.

Figure 35: A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre except vessel engaged in
minesweeping operations when at anchor.
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c) A power-driven vessel engaged in a towing operation such as severely restricts

the towing vessel and her tow in their ability to deviate from their course shall, in
addition to the lights or shapes prescribed in Rule 24(a), exhibit the lights or
shape prescribed in subparagraph (b)(i) and (ii) and (iii) of this Rule and shall in
addition when an obstruction existis, exhibits:

I. Two all- round red lights or two balls in vertical line to indicate the side on
which the obstruction exitst;

II. Two all-round green lights or two diamonds in a vertical line to indicate the
side on which another vessel may pass

III. When at anchor, the lights or shapes prescribed in this paragraph instead of
the lights or shapes prescribed in Rule 30.

d) A vessel engaged in dredging or underwater operations, when restricted in her

ability to maneuver, shall exhibit the lights and shapes prescribed in
subparagraphs (b)(i),(ii) and (iii) of this Rule and shall in addition when an
obstruction exists, exhibit:

I. two all-round red lights or two balls in a vertical line to indicate the side on
which the obstruction exists;

II. two all-round green lights or two diamonds in a vertical line to indicate the
side on which another vessel may pass;

III. when at anchor, the lights or shapes prescribed in this paragraph instead of the
lights or shapes prescribed in Rule 30, for anchored vessels.

e) Whenever the size of a vessel engaged in diving operations makes it impracticable

to exhibit all lights and shapes prescribed in paragraph (d) of this Rule, the
following shall be exhibited:

I. Three all-round lights in a vertical line where they can best be seen. The
highest and lowest of these lights shall be red and the middle light shall be
white;

II. a rigid replica of the International Code flag "A" not less than 1 meter in
height. Measures shall be taken to ensure its all-round visibility.

Figure 36: Alpha Flag

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f) A vessel engaged in mineclearance operations shall, in addition to the lights

prescribed for a power-driven vessel in Rule 23 or to the lights or shape
prescribed for a vessel at anchor in Rule 30 as appropriate, exhibit three all-round
green lights or three balls. One of these lights or shapes shall be exhibited near the
foremast head and one at each end of the fore yard. These lights or shapes indicate
that it is dangerous for another vessel to approach within 1000 meters of the
mineclearance vessel.
g) Vessels of less than 12 meters in length, except those engaged in diving
operations, shall not be required to exhibit the lights prescribed in this Rule.

h) The signals prescribed in this Rule are not signals of vessels in distress and
requiring assistance. Such signals are contained in Rule 37.

RULE 28 VESSELS CONSTRAINED BY THEIR DRAFT

Vessel constrained by her draft may, in addition to the lights prescribed for power-driven
vessels in Rule 23, exhibit where they can best be seen three all-round red lights in a
vertical line, or a cylinder.

Figure 37: A vessel constrained by her draught by night

Figure 38: A vessel constrained by her draught by day

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RULE 29 PILOT VESSELS

I. A vessel engaged on Pilotage duty shall exhibit:

I. at or near the masthead, two all-round lights in a vertical line, the upper
being white and the lower red;

Figure 39: A vessel engaged on Pilotage duty, not making way

II. when underway, in addition, sidelights and a sternlight;

Figure 40: A vessel engaged on Pilotage duty, underway

III. when at anchor, in addition to the lights prescribed in subparagraph (i),

the light, lights, or shape prescribed in Rule 30 for vessels at
anchor/anchored vessels.

II. A pilot vessel when not engaged on Pilotage duty shall exhibit the lights or shapes
prescribed for a similar vessel of her length.

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RULE 30 ANCHORED VESSELS AND VESSELS AGROUND

a) A vessel at anchor shall exhibit where it can best be seen:

I. in the fore part, an all-round white light or one ball;

Figure 41: Vessel at anchor by day

II. at or near the stern and at a lower level than the light prescribed in
subparagraph (I), an all-round white light.

Figure 42: Vessel at anchor by night

b) A vessel of less than 50 meters in length may exhibit an all-round white light
where it can best be seen instead of the lights prescribed in paragraph (a) of this
Rule.

Figure 43: A vessel of less than 50 metres in length at anchor

c) A vessel at anchor may, and a vessel of 100 meters and more in length shall, also
use the available working or equivalent lights to illuminate her decks.

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d) A vessel aground shall exhibit the lights prescribed in paragraph (a) or (b) of this
Rule where they can best be seen;

I. two all-round red lights in a vertical line;

Figure 44: A vessel aground at night

II. three balls in a vertical line.

Figure 45: A vessel aground at day

e) A vessel of less than 7 meters in length, when at anchor not in or near a narrow
channel, fairway or where other vessels normally navigate, shall not be required
to exhibit the shape prescribed in paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Rule.

f) A vessel of less than 12 meters in length, when aground, shall not be required to
exhibit the lights or shapes prescribed in subparagraphs (d)(i) and (ii) of this Rule.

RULE 31 SEA PLANE

Where it is impracticable for a seaplane or a WIG craft to exhibit lights or shapes of the
characteristics or in the positions prescribed in the Rules of this Part she shall exhibit
lights and shapes as closely similar in characteristics and position as is possible.

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PART D SOUND AND LIGHT SIGNALS

RULE 32 DEFINITIONS

a) The word "whistle" means any sound signalling appliance capable of producing
the prescribed blasts.

b) The term "short blast" means a blast of about one second's duration.

c) The term "prolonged blast" means a blast of from four to six seconds' duration.

RULE 33 EQUIPMENT FOR SOUND SIGNALS

a) A vessel of 12 meters or more in length shall be provided with a whistle and a bell,
a vessel of 20 meters or more in length shall be provided with a bell in addition to
a whistle, and a vessel of 100 meters or more in length shall, in addition be
provided with a gong, the tone and sound of which cannot be confused with that
of the bell.

The bell or gong or both may be replaced by other equipment having the same
respective sound characteristics, provided that manual sounding of the prescribed
signals shall always be possible.

b) A vessel of less than 12 meters in length shall not be obliged to carry the sound
signalling appliances prescribed in paragraph (a) of this Rule but if she does not,
she shall be provided with some other means of making an efficient signal.

RULE 34 MANEUVERING AND WARNING SIGNALS

a) When vessels are in sight of one another, a power-driven vessel underway, when
manoeuvring as authorized or required by these Rules, shall indicate that
manoeuvre by the following signals on her whistle:

one short blast to mean "I am altering my course to starboard";

two short blasts to mean "I am altering my course to port";
three short blasts to mean "I am operating astern propulsion".

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b) Any vessel may supplement the whistle signals prescribed in paragraph (a) of this
Rule by light signals, repeated as appropriate, while the manoeuvre is being
carried out:

I. these signals shall have the following significance:

one flash to mean "I am altering my course to starboard";

two flashes to mean "I am altering my course to port";
three flashes to mean "I am operating astern propulsion".

II. The duration of each flash shall be about one second, the interval between
flashes shall be about one second, and the interval between successive
signals shall not be less than ten seconds.

III. The light used for this signal shall, if fitted, be an all-round white light,
visible at a minimum range of 5 miles.

c) in sight of one another in a narrow channel or fairway:

I. a vessel intending to overtake another shall in compliance with Rule 9

(e)(i) indicate her intention by the following signals on her whistle:

two prolonged blasts followed by one short blast to mean "I intend to
overtake you on your starboard side"

two prolonged blasts followed by two short blasts to mean "I intend to
overtake you on your port side"

II. the vessel about to be overtaken when acting in accordance with 9(e)(i)
shall indicate her agreement by the following signal on her whistle:

one prolonged, one short, one prolonged and one short blast, in that
order.

d) When vessels in sight of one another are approaching each other and from any
cause either vessel fails to understand the intentions or actions of the other, or is
in doubt whether sufficient action is being taken by the other to avoid collision,
the vessel in doubt shall immediately indicate such doubt by giving at least five
short and rapid blasts on the whistle. Such signal may be supplemented by at least
five short and rapid flashes.

e) A vessel nearing a bend or an area of a channel or fairway where other vessels

may be obscured by an intervening obstruction shall sound one prolonged blast.
Such signal shall be answered with a prolonged blast by any approaching vessel
that may be within hearing around the bend or behind the intervening obstruction.

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f) If whistles are fitted on a vessel at a distance apart of more than 100 meters, one
whistle only shall be used for giving manoeuvring and warning signals.

RULE 35 SOUND SIGNALS IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY

In or near an area of restricted visibility, whether by day or night the signals prescribed in
this Rule shall be used as follows:

a) A power-driven vessel making way through the water shall sound at intervals of
not more than 2 minutes one prolonged blast.

b) A power-driven vessel underway but stopped and making no way through the
water shall sound at intervals of no more than 2 minutes two prolonged blasts in
succession with an interval of about 2 seconds between them.

c) A vessel not under command, a vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre, a

vessel constrained by her draft, a sailing vessel, a vessel engaged in fishing and a
vessel engaged in towing or pushing another vessel shall, instead of the signals
prescribed in paragraph (a) or (b) of this Rule, sound at intervals of not more than
2 minutes three blasts in succession, namely one prolonged followed by two short
blasts.

d) A vessel engaged in fishing, when at anchor, and a vessel restricted in her ability
to manoeuvre when carrying out her work at anchor, shall instead of the signals
prescribed in paragraph (g) of this Rule sound the signal prescribed in paragraph
(c) of this Rule.

e) A vessel towed or if more than one vessel is towed the last vessel of the tow, if
manned, shall at intervals of not more than 2 minutes sound four blasts in
succession, namely one prolonged followed by three short blasts. When
practicable, this signal shall be made immediately after the signal made by the
towing vessel.

f) When a pushing vessel and a vessel being pushed ahead are rigidly connected in a
composite unit they shall be regarded as a power-driven vessel and shall give the
signals prescribed in paragraphs (a) or (b) of this Rule.

g) A vessel at anchor shall at intervals of not more than 1 minute ring the bell rapidly
for about 5 seconds. In a vessel 100 meters or more in length the bell shall be
sounded in the forepart of the vessel and immediately after the ringing of the bell
the gong shall be sounded rapidly for about 5 seconds in the after part of the
vessel. A vessel at anchor may in addition sound three blasts in succession,
namely one short, one long and one short blast, to give warning of her position
and of the possibility of collision to an approaching vessel.

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h) A vessel aground shall give the bell signal and if required the gong signal
prescribed in paragraph (g) of this Rule and shall, in addition, give three separate
and distinct strokes on the bell immediately before and after the rapid ringing of
the bell. A vessel aground may in addition sound an appropriate whistle signal.

i) A vessel of less than 12 meters in length shall not be obliged to give the above
mentioned signals but, if she does not, shall make some other efficient sound
signal at intervals of not more than 2 minutes.

j) A vessel of less than 12 meters in length shall not be obliged to give the above
mentioned signals but, if she does not, shall make some other efficient sound
signal at intervals of not more than 2 minutes.

k) A Pilotage vessel when engaged on Pilotage duty may in addition to the signals
prescribed in paragraph (a), (b) or [(g) / (f)] of this Rule sound an identity signal
consisting of four short blasts.

RULE 36 SIGNALS TO ATTRACT ATTENTION

If necessary to attract the attention of another vessel, any vessel may make light or sound
signals that cannot be mistaken for any signal authorized elsewhere in these Rules, or
may direct the beam of her searchlight in the direction of the danger, in such a way as not
to embarrass any vessel. Any light to attract the attention of another vessel shall be such
that it cannot be mistaken for any aid to navigation. For the purpose of this Rule the use
of high intensity intermittent or revolving lights, such as strobe lights, shall be avoided.

RULE 37 DISTRESS SIGNALS

When a vessel is in distress and requires assistance she shall use or exhibit the signals
described below.

1. The following signals used or exhibited either together or separately, indicate

distress and need of assistance:

a gun or other explosive signal fired at intervals of about a minute;

a continuous sounding with any fog-signalling apparatus;
rockets or shells, throwing red stars fired one at a time at short intervals;
a signal made by radiotelegraphy or by any other signalling method
consisting of the group
. . .- - -. . . (SOS) in the Morse Code;
a signal sent by radiotelephony consisting of the spoken word "Mayday";
the International Code Signal of distress indicated by N.C.;
a signal consisting of a square flag having above or below it a ball or
anything resembling a ball;
flames on the vessel (as from a burning tar barrel, oil barrel, etc.);

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a rocket parachute flare or a hand flare showing a red light;
a smoke signal giving off orange-colored smoke;
slowly and repeatedly raising and lowering arms outstretched to each side;
the radiotelegraph alarm signal;
the radiotelephone alarm signal;
signals transmitted by emergency position-indicating radio beacons;
approved signals transmitted by radio communication systems, including
survival craft radar transponders.

2. The use or exhibition of any of the foregoing signals except for the purpose of
indicating distress and need of assistance and the use of other signals which may
be confused with any of the above signals is prohibited.

3. Attention is drawn to the relevant sections of the International Code of Signals,

the Merchant Ship Search and Rescue Manual and the following signals:

a piece of orange-colored canvas with either a black square and circle or

other appropriate symbol (for identification from the air);
a dye marker.

Figure 46: Illustration of Distress Signals

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PART D EXEMPTIONS

RULE 38 EXEMPTIONS

Any vessel (or class of vessel) provided that she complies with the requirements of the
International Regulations for the Preventing of Collisions at Sea, 1960, the keel of which
is laid or is at a corresponding stage of construction before the entry into force of these
Regulations may be exempted from compliance therewith as follows:

a) The installation of lights with ranges prescribed in Rule 22, until 4 years after the
date of entry into force of these regulations.

b) The installation of lights with colour specifications as prescribed in Rules, until 4

years after the entry into force of these Regulations.

c) The repositioning of lights as a result of conversion from Imperial to metric units

and rounding off measurement figures, permanent exemption.

d)

I. The repositioning of masthead lights on vessels of less than 150 meters in length,
resulting from the prescriptions in the Rules to these regulations, permanent
exemption.
II. The repositioning of masthead lights on vessels of 150 meters or more in length,
resulting from the prescriptions in the Rules to these regulations, until 9 years
after the date of entry into force of these Regulations.

e) The repositioning of masthead lights resulting from the prescriptions in the Rules,
until 9 years after the date of entry into force of these Regulations.

f) The repositioning of sidelights resulting from the prescriptions in the Rules, until
9 years after the date of entry into force of these Regulations.

g) The requirements for sound signal appliances prescribed in the Rules, until 9
years after the date of entry into force of these Regulations.

h) The repositioning of all-round lights resulting from the prescription in the Rules,
permanent exemption.

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SURVIAL AT SEA

INTRODUCTION

A mans chance of survival after shipwreck is better today with the improved ship
designs and life saving equipment. Training prepares the individual psychologically for
survival during an emergency.

EMERGENCY STATION

The Emergency Stations procedure provides a simple standard organization of

personal that will bring a ship to a high state of manning and material preparedness to
deal with any hazardous situation in which Action station would not be appropriate. The
procedure is outlined below and the full procedure is specified in each ships standing
orders. The word emergency is used to avoid any confusion with the final Abandon
Ship, which is ordered only after all available life crafts have been slipped and when the
ship is about to founder.

The procedure is initiated by the pipe Emergency Stations which is normally

preceded by the main broadcast alarm. In such an emergency the following actions
should take place immediately and without further orders.

Causes of Emergency

The possibility of disaster from fire, flooding, grounding or collision may

constitute an emergency.

Personnel

1. Men on watch are to remain closed-up until relieved or otherwise ordered.

2. Hands engaged in first-aid measure to combat the hazard are to continue with
their task until relieved by FFDC (Fire Fighting and Damage Control) party.
3. FFDC party to close up as for state 1.
4. Medical first-aid parties are to close up.
5. The rest of the personnel are to act as ordered, either to remain in their present
positions or to proceed to stated muster points (usually shown for each man on the
Watch and Station Bill) The FFDC party is not to be impeded. Hands are not to
return to their mess decks to collect lifejackets, but should carry them if
immediately to hand.

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Watertight conditions

In Peace

Harbour and normal cruising Condition X-ray

(X opening shut)

Dangerous circumstances Condition Yankee

(E.g. navigation hazards, mines) (X and Y openings shut)

Exercises Condition Yankee or Zulu

(X, Y and Z opening shut) as required

In War

Defended harbour, refitting, etc. Condition Yankee

(X and Y opening shut)

Undefended harbour, cruising. Condition Yankee

(X and Y opening shut)

Action or relaxed action Condition Zulu

(X, Y and Z openings shut)

STATE 1 Attack imminent Highest state of damage control

preparedness. All position fully manned
STATE 2 Attack possible or in War seagoing state. Peace time, passage
dangerous waters through mined waters and navigational
hazards, etc
STATE 3 Attack unlikely with Defended harbour normal cruising in peace
adequate
STATE 4 Routine Normal peace- time routine in harbour

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Material

1. Additional electric power is to be made available from standby generators.

2. All salt-water service pumps are to be run up, ready for discharging of water
caused by flooding discharging to the salt-water service.
3. FFDC party to carry out the normal duties to bring the ship to state 1.
4. Main machinery arrangements are to be controlled from the machinery control
room.

When the pipe Emergency Stations is made by the Officer of the Watch at sea, it will
always be followed by order Close all red openings. Further information on the
situation, and orders to combat the hazard, will then be passed on main broadcast or by
the most suitable alternative means available.

SHIPS LIFESAVING EQUIPMENT

Many modern life saving equipment are provided in ships to prolong the life of
survivors in the event of having to abandon ship.

1. LIFEJACKET
The self-inflatable lifejackets is supplied to every man onboard ship. It is
worn at emergency stations and Action stations and at Defence Watches in
wartime. It is also worn when required on the weather decks.

An approved lifejacket must have the following capabilities:

Capable of supporting at least 19.5kg in fresh water for 24 hours.
Able to allow a wearer to jump from a height of 6 meters and turn the
wearer to safe position
Not affected by oil spill
Highly visible in colour

Wearer is to check the following:

Lifejacket is within expiry date
Bulb is not damaged
Battery is within expiry date
Auto capsule is within the expiry date. Plunger not protruded by about
4mm. Oral inflation tube is not damaged.
Deflation cap is not damaged
Whistle is serviceable.
Toggle line is not damaged
Belt and buckle is not damaged.

The non-flatable life vest or karpor/polyfoam lifejacket is supplied to every man

working over the side or boat in the RSN shore units.

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BUOYANCY
CHAMBER

CO2
CYLINDER

WHISTLE

MANUAL
OPERATING
LIGHT C/W
CORD
SEA WATER
ACTIVATION
BATTERY

Figure 1: Parts of a life Jacket

2. LIFEBUOY
The standard lifebuoy in the RSN is constructed of hard plastic with a
covering of flame-orange. Lifebuoys must not be painted, except those required
for ceremonial use. The marker and lifebuoy stowage and release mechanism
should be check on every occasion before proceeding to sea.

SELF- REFLECTIVE
IGNITING TAPE
LIGHT

Figure 2: Parts of a Life Buoy

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3. THE INFLATABLE LIFERAFT

The inflatable life craft is fitted as standard equipment in all RSN ships,
and is supplied packed in a weathertight glass- reinforced plastic (GRP) container
and is fitted in a weather-deck stowage.

It requires no further maintenance except certain daily checks. The floor

consists two layers of fabric with an air space to provide insulation. Maximum
ventilation floor deflated during hot weather and minimum ventilation and floor
inflated during cold weather.

Figure 3: General View of an inflatable liferaft

Figure 4: Liferaft Stowage

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Figure 5: Life Raft in Hot Weather

Maximum Ventilation and Floor Deflated

Figure 6: Life Raft in Cold Weather

Maximum Ventilation and Floor Inflated

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4. LIFE SAVING EQUIPMENT

Essential equipment items are either fitted to the liferaft or stowed inside
the survival pack. Those items that are required immediately on boarding the life
craft are as follow:

1. Topping-up valves
These are points inside the liferaft to which the topping-up pump can
be connected to top-up any part of the life raft with air.

2. Deflation plugs
These are fitted for maintenance purposes only and are identified by
their slotted heads and identification labels. They are not to be
removed.

3. Leak stoppers
There are conical rubber plugs with serrated shanks. The plugs are
used as a temporary repair for holes. They are inserted by a gentle
screwing action into the holes to be plugged.

Care must be taken that the hole is not enlarged by the screwing action.
Punctures and tears can be permanently repaired by using sticky
patches and adhesive from the repair kit or repair clamps from the
survival pack.

The gas is odourless and heavier than air. If a build up of carbon

dioxide inside the raft is suspected, ventilate the raft for a few minutes.

4. Topping-up pump
This pump is used to top-up any part of the liferaft with air, by
inserting the tube into a topping-up valve.

Quoits and rescue lines are stowed on the right-hand side of entrance
and consist of a buoyant-rope grommet and orange in colour for 90
meters.

5. Sea cells
Two water activated batteries are situated on the underside of the
liferaft. They are automatically activated on contact with water and
will illuminate for twelve hours the two lamps fitted to the liferaft.

6. Handbook for surviors

It should be read as soon as possible by the person assuming command
of the liferaft and in due course by all the occupants of the liferaft. All
the information regarding survival at sea is found in the handbook.

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7. Heliography
This is used to attract the attention of ships and aircraft by reflecting
the Suns rays in the required direction.

8. Sponges
These are provided for drying out the inside of the liferaft.

9. Seasickness tablets
Tablets should be issued to all personal as soon as possible whether
they suffer from seasickness or not. Extra tablets are provided in the
survival pack.

10. Floating Knives

2 knives are supplied for general-purpose usage. These knifes have
blunt ends and are fitted with a lad yard.

11. Water Pockets

Four water pockets are fitted, one at each underside corner of the
liferaft. It serves is to stabilise the lifecraft and reduce drift from
windage. They can be tripped individually by pulling lines located at
each entrance.

12. Drogue or sea anchor

This device resembles a small parachute. Its purpose is to slow the rate
of drift and to assist in the stabilization of the lifecraft. It should
therefore be streamed as soon as possible after boarding.

The drogue also provides limited assistance in manoeuvring the liferaft

in calm weather conditions. This is achieved by bunching up the
drogue, throwing it in the required direction, and then pilling on the
line to manoeuvre the liferaft towards the drogue. When manoeuvring
in this manner the water pockets should be tripped.

13. Red hand flare

This distress signal flare is for day or nighttimes use when ships and
aircraft are in view. The red flare is visible for up to 8 km by day and
16 km or more by night in good conditions and will burn for about 55
seconds.

Instructions for use are printed on a label attached to the body.

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14. Parachute flare

The major use of the flare is in attracting the attention of ships or
aircraft at night when the likely range of visibility is approximately 30
km and will burn for about 30 seconds.

Instruction for firing the parachute flare can be found printed on each
flare.

* P.S: All pyrotechnics should not be fired except on the instruction of

the person assume command of the liferaft.

15. The Survival Pack

It is stowed inside the liferaft. Items of importance in the survival pack
are: a first-aid kit, distress signals, survival mittens, inflatable splints,
extra survival suits, and fresh water and glucose sweets.

5. PROVISIONS

WATER

As much water as can be stowed in the survival Life saving equipment

pack is therefore supplied on the basis of 500 millilitres for each man.
Sufficient water is provided for a full complement to last for 30 days. The
water ration is therefore well on the side of safety but it should not be wasted
or used indiscriminately, because rescue may be delayed. Based on the
assumption that everyone would has already consumed a normal intakes of
food and waters, there is no need to issue water for the first 24 hours
( excluding casualties), and that further intake and the subsequent bowel
movements would be a waste of the limited rations and of body water. Try to
drink as much water as possible prior to abandoning ship. If a man has been
wounded and has obviously bled a lot, or he has been badly burned, water
may have to be administered at once.

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a. Sea Water

Much has been written for and against drinking sea water. Whatever your
personal views may be, you must not drink sea water as it has been
scientifically proved to hasten death by dehydration. Therefore forcibly
restrain anyone who tries to drink it. Do not use sea water to soften cracked
lips but use the sunburn lotion.

b. Rain Water

The liferaft is constructed so that the canopies are used as rainwater

catchments. These are two drain tubes through which the water can be led to
plastic bags from the survival pack.

c. Condensation

Water may condense between the inner and outer lining of the canopy and
accumulate in the gutter between both canopies on top of the buoyancy tube.
If possible, this should also be collected and used to supplement as drinking
water.

Food

Although the resting body can survive for approximately 70 days without
food, glucose sweets and supplied to provide sufficient energy for the bodys
basic requirements. The object of using sugar as an energy source is that there
is a net gain in body water whereas there is a severe loss when body tissues
are used. Therefore the glucose sweets are supplied primarily to conserve
body water and thus are not optional extra. All survivors must eat their daily
ration.

Under no circumstances should fish or birds be eaten unless water

is very plentiful and, even then, only if survivors are showing obvious signs of
malnutrition.

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6. LAUCHING OF LIFERAFT

Ensure operation cord (painter line) is secured to a strong point.

Release the senhouse slip and securing stripe from the cradle.
Move the liferaft to the launching point.
Remove obstructing guardrails if necessary.
Check lauching area is clear of obstructions or survivors before launching
the liferaft.
Push the liferaft overboard.
Heave in the operating cord (painter line) till is taut (approximately 36m).
Finally give 1 or 2 hard pull to activate the CO2 cylinder.
Liferaft will be fully inflated within 20 to 30 seconds.
Board the liferaft in an orderly manner.
When all have boarded, cut off operating cord (painter line) and paddle
away from sinking ship

7. HYDROSTATIC RELEASE DEVICE

The hydrostatic release device is a mechanism designed to release the life

raft in its container should the ship founder. It is operated by the ingress of water
through apertures in the body of the release. The pressure of the sea water at a
depth of 3 to 4 metres below the surface causes a diaphragm to release the draw
blot, thus separating the part of the hydrostatic release attached to the senhouse
slip. The hydrostatic release must not be painted and it must incorporate in the
securing arrangements so that it is clear of the deck.

During normal launching of liferaft, this device is release manually.

The weak link is a short length of rope that connects the end of the
operation cord to the cradle. It will part when the operating cord becomes taut and
the liferaft inflates.

Figure 7: Hydrostatic Release Device

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Figure 8: Operation of Hydrostatic Release Device

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8. ABANDON SHIP

If, after being seriously damaged, all measures taken to save the ship are
unsuccessful, preparations will be made to abandon her in an orderly manner and
with the least possible loss of life. Many hands will already be at Emergency
stations when the necessity to abandon ship becomes apparent. They are then in
the best position to clear away the lifesaving equipment and carry out any other
preparations for a successful evolution.

Abandoning Ship

When the order Abandon Ship is given, launch the liferaft and move it
away from danger spot towards the bow or stern and then inflated. The result of
discipline and training in the individual will be apparent. Do not panic, all men
should maintain strict obedience silence to orders.

Manropes, lifelines, scramble nets and hosepipes are lowered to the

waterline to enable men to board liferafts without getting too wet. If time permits,
all men should put on extra clothing and tuck their trousers into their socks but
should not remove their shoes. They should don their lifejackets, and fully
inflated. Evacuating the sick and wounded, together with the medical staff; if you
can board the liferaft dry-shod so much the better, but if you have to jump into the
water this can be done quite safely from the upper deck:

a. The belt of the fully-inflated lifejacket must be adjusted to snug fit

around the waist.

b. Always look at the horizon when jumping to avoid landing in the

water with your face down.

c. Pinching the nostrils with the thumb and forefinger of the other hand
and keeping the elbows as close to the sides as possible. This will
ensure a safe drop into water prevent any undue movement of the
water being forced up to the nose.

d. Jump with the feet first with the feet together, placing one arm over the
stole of the life jackets.

* Ensure liferaft when fully manned should be cast off from the ship by cutting its
painter.

* If possible, group the liferaft together to provide mutual support and

encouragement.

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Men in the Water

Men who have been unable to reach a liferaft, or have abandoned ship after
the liferaft have cast off, should swim as far as possible to avoid any wreckage
which will subsequently rise to the surface with great force. The only efficient
way to swim while wearing a life jacket is on the back.

Avoid any oil spills, if possible. A group of swimmers stands a better chance
of rescue than do individuals. Keep together, a rope together by means of the
toggle and line on each lifejacket, preferably in a circle facing outwards.
Nevertheless, always endeavour to reach a liferaft if one is in sight and not too far
distance or, failing that clings to any floating object.

Men in the Liferaft

On boarding the liferaft, the following actions are essential:

Stream the drogue.

Occupy the windward side of the liferaft.
Close off the entrances.
Bale out the liferaft by using the built-in baling appliances available and
sponge the floor dry.
Look out for and rescue survivors who cannot reach the life raft.
Administer first-aid to any casualties.
Manoeuvre the liferaft and join up with other liferafts. Secure the liferafts
together to remain in a group.
Seasickness tablets should be taken by all survivors whether they suffer
from seasickness or not.
Open the survival pack and distribute the necessary items of equipment.
Read handbook for survivors, this is provided in the liferaft.
Drink your water ration and eat your allocation of glucose sweets at the
appropriate times to avoid loss of body fluids.

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Righting a capsized liferaft

Righting a liferaft can be carried out by one main in ideal weather

conditions. He should manoeuvre himself to a position close to the gas cylinders.
He should then climb on to the cylinders and adjust its hold as high as possible on
the righting strap. Then with a pull on the strap together with downward pressure
on the cylinders and at the same time throwing ones weight backwards, he should
right the liferaft provided that the topside of the liferaft is upwind. Because of the
large floor area of the liferaft, the man righting it must be prepared to submerge
and swim from under it.

Note: In cold inclement weather, two or more persons may be required to right a
capsized liferaft.

Figure 9: Righting A Capsized liferaft

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Chances of Survival

The chance of survivor rescues is better with good management and leadership
onboard the liferaft. This can be achieved through intensive training and drills
prepare the individual psychologically for an emergency and reduce the mental
and emotional shock caused by fear.

The presence of land below the horizon may be indicated by a low cloud which
does not alter its position in an otherwise clear sky or by numerous birds flying
low in one direction in the evening; or by a quality of floating wood and
vegetation (which must not be confused with the refuse jettisoned by ships); or by
the smell of earth and herbage.

Safety precautions

To ensure survival the following precautions should always be observed:

1. Do not remove your lifejacket unless the weather conditions are calm
and there is no danger of the liferaft capsizing. If the liferaft does
capsize, stay with it, right it and the reboard it.

2. Use only the safety knives which are provided in the liferaft. Protect
the liferaft fabric from damage caused by any sharp implements,
footwear, etc, or by burning from cigarettes.

3. Keep the liferaft dry

4. Keep the liferaft fully inflated at all times, by the use of the hand
bellows.

5. Protect yourself from frost bite in cold climates and from sunburn.
6. Do not swim over the side unless absolutely essential
7. Always keep yourself dry at all times

CONCLUSION

Knowledge of survival at sea us if paramount importance. Chances of survival at

sea depend on how well we are trained to prepare the individual for an emergency and
our ability to make good use of various lifesaving equipment.

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