ME010 404

Manufacturing Process

1 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Module I

Patterns: - types, allowances, color code Molding sand:- constituents, types, properties,
testing, types of mould, molding machines Cores:- sands, types prints, machines, chaplets,
forces acting on molding flasks - Gating system:- fluid flow and heat transfer in metal casting,
elements and design of gating system, sprue, gating ratio, slag trap system Risering:- risering
design, chills, feeding devices - Cupola operation -pouring and cleaning of castings - defects in
castings - inspection and quality control - Casting:- continuous, strip, shell mold, vacuum,
investment, slush, pressure, die, centrifugal, precision investment, squeeze casting and semi solid
metal forming, economics and surface finish obtainable - casting machines - comparison of
casting with other production processes. (Include necessary figures and equations).

Manufacturing Process
Manufacturing Process can be defined as making products from raw materials by various
processes, machinery & operations following a well organized plan for each activity required.
Manufacturing is a complex activity which involves materials, capital, energy, and people. A
variety of machinery, equipment tooling with various levels of automation (computers etc), and
material handling are involved.

Classification of manufacturing Process

CASTING: In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains
a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting. Eg:- sand casting, die casting, shell
casting, investment casting etc.
JOINING: Fabrication process which involves joining of two or more materials to form a single
mass. eg:- Welding, Soldering, Brazing, Adhesive bonding etc.
FORMING: Metal Forming is a process in which shape of the materials are changed to desired
shapes by subjecting them to stresses greater than yield stress of the material.
Forming is a Plastic Deformation Process where volume and mass of the metals are
unchanged. eg. Rolling, forging, extrusion etc.
MACHINING:Machining is a collection of processes wherein material is brought to a specified
geometry by removing excess material using various kinds of tooling to leave a
finished part that meets specifications. Eg:-Turning, milling, shaping etc.

2 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

CASTING
In metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a hollow
cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting
is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make
by other methods.

Casting processes have been known for thousands of years, and widely used for sculpture,
especially in bronze, jewellery in precious metals, and weapons and tools. Traditional techniques
include lost-wax casting, plaster mold casting and sand casting.

The modern casting process is subdivided into two main categories: expendable and non-
expendable casting.

1). Expendable mold castings

Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell, plaster,
and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This method of mold casting involves the
use of temporary, non-reusable molds.
2). Non-Expendable mold castings
Non-expendable mold casting differs from expendable processes in that the mold need not
be reformed after each production cycle. This technique includes at least four different
methods: permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting. This form of casting results
in improved repeatability in parts produced
Advantages of Castings

The metal casting process is extensively used in manufacturing because of its many advantages.

1. Molten material can flow into very small sections so that intricate shapes can be made by
this process.

2. It is possible to cast practically any material that is ferrous or non-ferrous.

3. As the metal can be placed exactly where it is required, large saving in weight can be
achieved.

4. The necessary tools required for casting molds are very simple and inexpensive. As a
result, for production of a small lot, it is the ideal process.

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 5. There are certain parts made from metals and alloys that can only be processed this way.

6. Size and weight of the product is not a limitation for the casting process.

Limitations

1. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the castings made by sand casting processes
are a limitation to this technique.

2. The metal casting process is a labor intensive process.

SAND CASTINGS
Sand casting, also known as sand molded casting, is a metal casting process characterized by
using sand as the mold material. Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via a sand casting
process. Sand casting is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for steel foundry use.
In addition to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand.
The mixture is moistened, typically with water, but sometimes with other substances, to develop
strength and plasticity of the clay and to make the aggregate suitable for molding. The sand is
typically contained in a system of frames or mold boxes known as a flask. The mold
cavities and gate system are created by compacting the sand around models, or patterns, or
carved directly into the sand.

PATTERNS
Pattern is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process, used to prepare the cavity
into which molten metal will be poured during casting process. The quality of the casting
produced depends upon the material of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the
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pattern and the related equipment are reflected in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive
pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required is substantial.
Typically, materials used for pattern making are wood, metal or plastics. Wax and Plaster of
Paris are also used, but only for specialized applications. Mahogany is the most commonly used
material for patterns, primarily because it is soft, light, and easy to work.
Pattern Material Selection

Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals
and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use,
the pattern material should be:

1. Easily worked, shaped and joined

2. Light in weight

3. Strong, hard and durable

4. Resistant to wear and abrasion

5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

6. Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity

7. Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern
material is wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and
is relatively cheap. The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can
cause distortion and dimensional changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is
almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of wood as a pattern material.

Different types of patterns:

The common types of patterns are:
1. Single piece pattern:

5 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

This is the simplest type of pattern, exactly like the
desired casting. For making a mould, the pattern is
accommodated either in cope or drag.
Used for producing a few large castings, for example,
stuffing box of steam engine.

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2. Split pattern:
These patterns are split along the parting plane (which
may be flat or irregular surface) to facilitate the
extraction of the pattern out of the mould before the
pouring operation. For a more complex casting, the
pattern may be split in more than two parts.

3. Loose piece pattern:

When a one piece solid pattern has projections or back drafts which lie above or below the
parting plane, it is impossible to with draw it from the mould. With such patterns, the projections
are made with the help of loose pieces. One drawback of loose feces is that their shifting is
possible during ramming.

4. Gated pattern:
A gated pattern is simply one or more loose patterns having
attached gates and runners.
Because of their higher cost, these patterns are used for
producing small castings in mass production systems and on
molding machines.

5. Match plate pattern:

A match plate pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drags portions mounted on opposite
sides of a plate (usually metallic), called the "match plate" that conforms to the contour of the
parting surface.
The gates and runners are also mounted on the match plate, so that very little hand work is
required. This results in higher productivity. This type of pattern is used for a large number of
castings.
Piston rings of I.C. engines are produced by this process.

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6. Cope and drag pattern:
A cope and drag pattern is a split pattern having the cope and drag portions each mounted on
separate match plates. These patterns are used when in the production of large castings; the
complete moulds are too heavy and unwieldy to be handled by a single worker.

7. Sweep pattern:
A sweep is a section or board (wooden) of proper contour
that is rotated about one edge to shape mould cavities having
shapes of rotational symmetry. This type of pattern is used
when a casting of large size is to be produced in a short time.
Large kettles of C.I. are made by sweep patterns.

8. Skeleton pattern:
For large castings having simple geometrical shapes, skeleton patterns are used. Just like sweep
patterns, these are simple wooden frames that outline the shape of the part to be cast and are also
used as guides by the molder in the hand shaping of the mould.
This type of pattern is also used in pit or floor molding process.

Skeleton pattern Follow board pattern

9. Follow board pattern:
It is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin and fragile and may collapse under pressure
when sand above the pattern is being rammed.

Colour Codes in Pattern

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Patterns have some identifiers such as colors on them, each of which has different meaning that
represent different treatments and requirements for the patterns.
The color-coding for patterns in sand casting is as follows

1) BLACK: Surfaces of casting are to be left un machined

2) RED: Surfaces of casting to be machined
3) RED strips on Yellow Background: Seats for loose pieces
4) Yellow: Core Prints
PATTERN ALLOWANCES

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting.
Thus, when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in
the finished component drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made.
The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections.
The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:

1. Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2. Draft or taper allowance

3. Machining or finish allowance

4. Distortion or camber allowance

5. Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of
two types:

i. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the
casting, are provided in the mold.

ii. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel
contracts to a higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink
rule must be used in laying out the measurements for the pattern.

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Shrink rule for various materials are

Steel 20.8 mm / m

Aluminum 17 mm / m

Brass 15.3 mm / m

Draft or Taper Allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so
that it can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without
excessive rapping by the molder.

Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the
pattern require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of
the vertical side of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of
molding; and pattern material. Table 2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance.

Table 2 : Draft Allowances of Various Metals

Pattern material Height of the Draft angle Draft angle

given surface
(inch) (External surface) (Internal
surface)

Wood 1 3.00 3.00

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 1.50
1 to 2 2.50
1.00
2 to 4 1.50
0.75
4 to 8 1.00
0.50
8 to 32 1.00

1 1.50 3.00

1 to 2 1.00 2.00

Metal and plastic 2 to 4 0.75 1.00

4 to 8 0.50 1.00

8 to 32 0.50 0.75

Machining or Finish Allowance

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is
generally achieved by subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore
added in the pattern dimension. The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is
affected by the method of molding and casting used viz. hand molding or machine molding, sand
casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size
and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and finish
required. The machining allowances recommended for different metal is given in Table 3.

Table 3 : Machining Allowances of Various Metals

Metal Dimension (inch) Allowance (inch)

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 Up to 12 0.12

Cast iron 12 to 20 0.20

20 to 40 0.25

Up to 6 0.12

Cast steel 6 to 20 0.25

20 to 40 0.30

Up to 8 0.09

Non ferrous 8 to 12 0.12

12 to 40 0.16

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For example, if
the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end
causing the vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of
the U, V, T, or L shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion will
have its sides vertical ( (Figure 2).

The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on
account of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure
taken to prevent the distortion in casting includes:

i. Modification of casting design

ii. Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect

iii. Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance
(inverse reflection)

12 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

 Figure 2: Distortions in Casting

Rapping Allowance

Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to
enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting
made, it is desirable that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this
increase. There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the
foundry personnel practice involved. It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those
dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.

MOLDING SAND

Sand casting is the most widely used metal casting process in manufacturing. Almost all casting
metals can be sand cast. Sand castings can range in size from very small to extremely large.
Some examples of items manufactured in modern industry by sand casting processes are engine
blocks, machine tool bases, cylinder heads, pump housings, and valves etc.

Most sand casting operations use silica sand (SiO2). A great advantage of sand in manufacturing
applications is that sand is inexpensive and very resistant to elevated temperatures. In fact, sand
casting is one of the few processes that can be used for metals with high melting temperatures
such as steels, nickel, and titanium. Usually sand used to manufacture a mold for the casting
process is held together by a mixture of water and clay. A typical mixture by volume could be
89% sand, 4% water, 7% clay. Control of all aspects of the properties of sand is crucial when

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manufacturing parts by sand casting; therefore a sand laboratory is usually attached to the
foundry.

Use of Binder In Sand Casting:

A mold must have the physical integrity to keep its shape throughout the casting operation. For
this reason, in sand casting, the sand must contain some type of binder that acts to hold the sand
particles together. Clay serves an essential purpose in the sand casting manufacturing process, as
a binding agent to adhere the molding sand together. In manufacturing industry other agents may
be used to bond the molding sand together in place of clay. Organic resins, (such as phenolic
resins), and inorganic bonding agents, (such as phosphate and sodium silicate), may also be used
to hold the sand together. In addition to sand and bonding agents, the sand mixture to create the
metal casting mold will sometimes have other constituents added to it in order to improve mold
properties.

Types of Sand Used In Sand Casting:

There are two general types of sand used in the manufacturing process of sand casting.
Naturally Bonded- Naturally bonded sand is less expensive but it includes organic impurities
that reduce the fusion temperature of the sand mixture for the casting, lower the binding strength,
and require a higher moisture content.
Synthetic Sand- Synthetic sand is mixed in a manufacturing lab starting with a pure (SiO2) sand
base. In this case, the composition can be controlled more accurately, which imparts the casting
sand mixture with higher green strength, more permeability, and greater refractory strength. For
these reasons, synthetic sand is mostly preferred in sand casting manufacture.

Properties of A Sand Casting Mixture:

Type And Content Of Binder And Other Additives: As mentioned, controlling the type and
content of the sand binder and other additives is the key to controlling the properties of the
casting's mold sand mixture.
Moisture Content: Moisture content affects the other properties of the mixture such as strength
and permeability. Too much moisture can cause steam bubbles to be entrapped in the metal
casting.
Grain Size: This property represents the size of the individual particles of sand.
Shape of Grains: This property evaluates the shape of the individual grains of sand based on
how round they are. Less round grains are said to be more irregular.

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Strength: The explanation of strength is, the ability of the sand casting mixture to hold its
geometric shape under the conditions of mechanical stress imposed during the sand casting
process.
Permeability: The ability of the sand mold to permit the escape of air, gases, and steam during
the sand casting process.
Collapsibility: The ability of the sand mixture to collapse under force. Collapsibility is a very
important property in this type of casting manufacture. Collapsibility of the mold will allow the
metal casting to shrink freely during the solidification phase of the process. If the molding sand
cannot collapse adequately for the casting's shrinkage, hot tearing or cracking will develop in the
casting.
Flowability: The ability of the sand mixture to flow over and fill the sand casting pattern during
the impression making phase of the manufacturing process, more flowability is useful for a more
detailed casting.
Refractory Strength: During the pouring of the molten metal in sand casting manufacture, the
sand mixture in the mold must not melt, burn, crack, or sinter. The refractory strength is the
ability of the mold sand mixture to withstand levels of extreme temperature.
Reusability: The ability of the mold sand mixture to be reused to produce other sand castings in
subsequent manufacturing operations.

When planning the manufacture of a particular casting, remember some properties of a sand
casting mold mixture are contradictory to each other. Tradeoffs in different properties are often
needed to achieve a compromise that provides a sand casting mold mixture with adequate
properties for the specific part and casting application. There are some things to consider when
selecting a sand mixture for a manufacturing process. Small grain size enhances mold strength,
but large grain size is more permeable. Sand casting molds made from grains of irregular shape
tend to be stronger because of grain interlocking, but rounder grains provide a better surface
finish. A sand casting mold mixture with more collapsibility has less strength, and a sand casting
mixture with more strength has less collapsibility.

Sand Conditioning For a Metal Casting Operation:

If the sand is being reused from a previous sand casting manufacturing process, lumps should be
crushed and then all particles and metal granules removed, (a magnetic field may be used to
assist in this). All sand and constituents should be screened. In industrial practice shakers, rotary
screens, or vibrating screens, are used in this process. Then continuous screw-mixers or mulling
machines are used to mix the sand uniformly.

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Types of Molds Used In Sand Casting:
Green Sand Molds:
A green sand mold is very typical in sand casting manufacture, it is simple and easy to make, a
mixture of sand, clay and water. The term green refers to the fact that the mold will contain
moisture during the pouring of the casting.

Manufacturing Considerations And Properties Of Green Sand Molds:

Has sufficient strength for most sand casting applications

Good collapsibility

Good permeability

Good reusability

Least expensive of the molds used in sand casting manufacturing processes

Moisture in sand can cause defects in some castings, dependent upon the type of metal
used in the sand casting and the geometry of the part to be cast.

Dry Sand Molds:

Dry sand molds are baked in an oven, (at 300F - 650F for 8-48 hours), prior to the sand casting
operation, in order to dry the mold. This drying strengthens the mold, and hardens its internal
surfaces. Dry sand molds are manufactured using organic binders rather than clay.

Manufacturing Considerations And Properties Of Dry Sand Molds:

Better dimensional accuracy of sand cast part than green sand molds

Better surface finish of sand cast part than green sand molds

More expensive manufacturing process than green sand production

Manufacturing production rate of castings are reduced due to drying time

Distortion of the mold is greater, (during mold manufacture)

The metal casting is more susceptible to hot tearing because of the lower collapsibility of
the mold

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 Dry sand casting is generally limited to the manufacture of medium and large castings

Skin Dried Molds:

When sand casting a part by the skin dried mold process a green sand mold is employed, and its
mold cavity surface is dried to a depth of .5 - 1 inch. Drying is a part of the manufacturing
process and is accomplished by use of torches, heating lamps or some other means, such as
drying it in air.

Manufacturing Considerations And Properties Of Skin Dried Molds:

The cast part dimensional and surface finish advantages of dry sand molds are partially
achieved

No large oven is needed

Special bonding materials must be added to the sand mixture to strengthen the mold
cavity surface

Cold Setting Processes:

In industrial sand casting manufacture, sometimes non-traditional binders other than those used
in the above classifications of sand molds may be used. These binders may be made of a variety
of things, such as synthetic liquid resins. Conventional casting binders require heat to cure while
these when mixed with the sand, bond chemically at room temperature. Hence the term cold
setting processes. Technically advanced, these relatively recent sand casting processes are
growing in manufacturing. While more expensive than green sand molds, cold setting processes
provide good dimensional accuracy of the casting, and have high production applications.

CORES:
For metal castings with internal geometry cores are used. A core is a replica, (actually an
inverse), of the internal features of the part to be cast. Like a pattern, the size of the core is
designed to accommodate for shrinkage during the metal casting operation. Unlike a pattern, a
core remains in the mold while the metal is being poured. Hence, a core is usually made of a
similar material as the mold. Once the metal casting has hardened, the core is broken up and
removed much like the mold. Depending upon the location and geometry of the core within the
casting, it may require that it is supported during the operation to prevent it from moving or
shifting. Structural supports that hold the core in place are called chaplets. The chaplets are made
of a material with a higher melting temperature than the casting's material, and become
assimilated into the part when it hardens. Note that when manufacturing a metal casting with a
permanent mold process, the core will be a part of the mold itself.

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The core print is an added projection on the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the
sand core rests during pouring of the mold. The core print must be of adequate size and shape so
that it can support the weight of the core during the casting operation.

FORCES ACTING ON THE MOULD

As the mould fills it becomes exposed to high metallostatic pressures which tend to displace or
distort the mould sections and cores. These forces can be accurately predicted and contained by
foundry measures.
The first need is for a dense, rigid mould, since the pressure tends to expand the mould cavity,
especially in greensand practice. Rigidity of the mould parts can be increased by using box bars
or cover plates to reinforce the sand mass; these measures become increasingly necessary with
moulds of large area.
Assuming a rigid mould, the next concern is with the force tending to separate the mould parts.

The upward force acting on a flat mould surface is F= 9.81 h A [N],

Where = density of the metal [kg/m ]
h = head of metal, m
A = superficial area, m

A completely flat mould surface gives rise to the maximum lifting force: calculations for other
shapes can thus be safely based upon their projected areas. The force is resisted by using box
clamps and arrangements of plates and tie-bars to hold the mould parts together and by
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weighting the top part is h A [kg] including the weightthe latter case the minimum weight
required is of the cope itself.

GATING SYSTEM

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is
called the gating system. Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through
which molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system
depends upon the function of different channels which they perform.

Down gates or sprue

Cross gates or runners

Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and
passes through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold
cavity.

Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify

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 To avoid shrinkage

Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the
shrinkage if occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.

Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

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Hydraulic Principles used in the Gating System

Reynold's Number

Nature of flow in the gating system can be established by calculating Reynold's number

Where

RN = Reynold's number

V = Mean Velocity of flow

D = diameter of tubular flow

= Kinematic Viscosity = Dynamic viscosity / Density

= Fluid density

When the Reynold's number is less than 2000 stream line flow results and when the number is
more than 2000 turbulent flow prevails. As far as possible the turbulent flow must be avoided in
the sand mold as because of the turbulence sand particles gets dislodged from the mold or the
gating system and may enter into the mould cavity leading to the production of defective casting.
Excess turbulence causes

Inclusion of dross or slag

Air aspiration into the mold

Erosion of the mold walls

Bernoulli's Equation

Used to calculate flow velocities,

Where

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 h = height of liquid

P = Static Pressure

v = metal velocity

g = Acceleration due to gravity

= Fluid density

Turbulence can be avoided by incorporating small changes in the design of gating system. The
sharp changes in the flow should be avoided to smooth changes. The gating system must be
designed in such a way that the system always runs full with the liquid metal. The most
important things to remember in designing runners and gates are to avoid sharp corners. Any
changes in direction or cross sectional area should make use of rounded corners.

To avoid the aspiration the tapered sprues are designed in the gating systems. A sprue tapered to
a smaller size at its bottom will create a choke which will help keep the sprue full of molten
metal.

Types of Gating Systems

The gating systems are of two types:

Pressurized gating system

Un-pressurized gating system

Pressurized Gating System

The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity

Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow

Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates

Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full

Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence
and chances of mold erosion

Un-Pressurized Gating System

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 The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity

Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates

aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full

Less turbulence

GATING RATIO

The term "gating ratio" is used to describe the relative cross-sectional areas of the components of
a gating system. It is defined as the ratio of sprue area to the total runner area to the total gate
area. A gating system having a sprue of 1 sq cm cross-section, a runner of 3 sq cm cross-section,
and three gates, each of 1 sq cm cross-section, will have a gating ratio of 1:3:3.

Gating ratios are grouped in two classes, viz., pressurised and unpressurised systems. In the
pressurised system, the proportions of sprue, runner, and gate areas are so arranged that back
pressure is maintained on the gating system by a fluid film restriction at the gates. This requires
that the total gate area is not greater than the area of the sprue. Gating ratios such as 1:0.75:0.5,
1:2:1 and 2:1:1 will therefore produce a pressurised system. A pressurised system keeps itself full
of metal. This system is generally suitable for ferrous metals and brass.

The unpressurised system of gating produces lower metal velocities and permits greater flow
rates. It reduces turbulence in the gating system and spurting in the mould cavity. On the other
hand, this system requires careful design to ensure complete filling, and large-sized runners and
gates, which reduce the yield and increase the wastage of metal. Further, equal flow in the case
of multiple gating is difficult to achieve.

The unpressurised system is generally adopted for metals such as aluminium and magnesium.
The ratios used are 1:2:2, 1:3:3, etc.

Riser

Riser is a source of extra metal which flows from riser to mold cavity to compensate for
shrinkage which takes place in the casting when it starts solidifying. Without a riser heavier parts
of the casting will have shrinkage defects, either on the surface or internally.

Risers are known by different names as metal reservoir, feeders, or headers.

Shrinkage in a mold, from the time of pouring to final casting, occurs in three stages.

1. during the liquid state

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 2. during the transformation from liquid to solid

3. during the solid state

First type of shrinkage is being compensated by the feeders or the gating system. For the second
type of shrinkage risers are required. Risers are normally placed at that portion of the casting
which is last to freeze. A riser must stay in liquid state at least as long as the casting and must be
able to feed the casting during this time.

Functions of Risers

Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage

Allow mold gases to escape

Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more
exact

Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of (volume / surface
area)2 of the riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition
does not meet the metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or
using exothermic materials in the risers.

2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively
calculating the feeding distance of the risers.

3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical
risers, although considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area
ratio the bottom of the riser can be shaped as hemisphere.

Chills
A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific portion of a metal casting mold.
Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative to thickness of the casting. When
the geometry of the molding cavity prevents directional solidification from occurring naturally, a
chill can be strategically placed to help promote it. There are two types of chills: internal and
external chills.

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Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed inside the molding cavity. When the cavity is
filled, part of the chill will melt and ultimately become part of the casting, thus the chill must be
the same material as the casting.
External chills are masses of material that have a high heat capacity and thermal conductivity.
They are placed on the edge of the molding cavity, and effectively become part of the wall of the
molding cavity. This type of chill can be used to increase the feeding distance of a riser or reduce
the number of risers required.

CUPOLA FURNACE
The molten iron is usually produced in a cupola furnace. This is a vertical cylindrical steel shell
with a well at the bottom to collect the molten metal.

The inside can be made of fire bricks, but is normally constructed of steel, with a water jacket for
cooling and lined with clay. The well at the bottom is lined with sand and the furnace is charged
through a door at the top with pig iron or scrap iron, coke and limestone.

Air is necessary for combustion and this is blown into the furnace through several tuyeres (blast
holes) near the base. There are cold blast cupolas where the air enters at atmospheric pressure
and hot blast cupolas where the air is preheated by the heat from the exhaust gases. This type of
cupola has an increased melting rate, produces hotter metal, and uses less coke.

The coke burns fiercely thanks to the air blast and the metal soon melts. The limestone (CaCO3)
acts as a flux, which decomposes in the cupola to form lime (CaO) which in turn combines with
oxides to form a liquid (slag), which floats on top of the molten metal. This is removed through a
slag hole below the tuyeres.

The cupola extends above the charging door to produce a chimney where the exhaust gases are
removed and cleaned before entering the atmosphere. The coke can be fired directly to start the
combustion process, but electricity, oil or gas are often used with carbon being added to the
charge.

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Various Zones of Cupola Furnace
Various numbers of chemical reactions take place in different zones of cupola. The construction
and different zones of cupola are :

1. Well

The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed inside the cylindrical shell of the
cupola is called as well of the cupola. As the melting occurs, the molten metal is get collected in
this portion before tapping out.

2. Combustion zone

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The combustion zone of Cupola is also called as oxidizing zone. It is located between the upper
of the tuyeres and a theoretical level above it. The total height of this zone is normally from 15
cm. to 30 cm. The combustion actually takes place in this zone by consuming the free oxygen
completely from the air blast and generating tremendous heat. The heat generated in this zone is
sufficient enough to meet the requirements of other zones of cupola. The heat is further evolved
also due to oxidation of silicon and manganese. A temperature of about 1540C to 1870C is
achieved in this zone. Few exothermic reactions takes place in this zone these are represented as:

C + O2 CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 SiO2 + Heat
2Mn + O2 2MnO + Heat
3. Reducing zone

Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective zone which is located between the
upper level of the combustion zone and the upper level of the coke bed. In this zone, CO2 is
changed to CO through an endothermic reaction, as a result of which the temperature falls from
combustion zone temperature to about 1200C at the top of this zone. The important chemical
reaction takes place in this zone which is given as under.

CO2 + C (coke) 2CO + Heat

Nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction occurring in his zone as it is also the other
main constituent of the upward moving hot gases. Because of the reducing atmosphere in this
zone, the charge is protected against oxidation.

4. Melting zone

The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of coke bed is termed as melting zone of
Cupola. The metal charge starts melting in this zone and trickles down through coke bed and gets
collected in the well. Sufficient carbon content picked by the molten metal in this zone is
represented by the chemical reaction given as under.

3Fe + 2CO Fe3C + CO2

5. Preheating zone

Preheating zone starts from the upper end of the melting zone and continues up to the bottom
level of the charging door. This zone contains a number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux and
metal charge. The main objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room temperature to
about 1090C before entering the metal charge to the melting zone. The preheating takes place in
this zone due to the upward movement of hot gases. During the preheating process, the metal
charge in solid form picks up some sulphur content in this zone.

6. Stack

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The empty portion of cupola above the preheating zone is called as stack. It provides the passage
to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the cupola furnace.

CASTING DEFECTS

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

Gas defects

Shrinkage cavities

Molding material defects

Pouring metal defects

Mold shift

Gas Defects

A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold
gases evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified
into blowholes and pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the
casting on the surface or inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of
hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped during heating of molten metal.

Causes

The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower
permeability of the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by
finer grain size of the sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture
present in the mold.

Metal contains gas

Mold is too hot

Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities

These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To
compensate for this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at

28 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

the appropriate places in the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper
location, causing shrinkage cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage
cavities.

Molding Material Defects

The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.

Cut and washes

These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding
sand by the flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and
the molten metal flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice
of molding sand and the latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.

Metal penetration

When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting
surface. This occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of
the mold. The coarser the sand grains more the metal penetration.

Fusion

This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy
appearance on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles
are of lower refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.

Swell

Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the
dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.

Inclusions

Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting
during pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin
at the top of the mold can prevent this defect.

Pouring Metal Defects

The likely defects in this category are

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 Mis-runs and

Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold

cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled cavities. A mis-run
results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of
the mold cavity before freezing. Long, thin sections are subject
to this defect and should be avoided in casting design.

A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together
properly thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the
mold cavity through more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and
become one solid. If the flowing metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will
leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring
sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick enough walls in the casting design.

The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the
section thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the
composition of the metal and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.

Mold Shift

The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly
aligned.

30 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

INSPECTION OF CASTINGS:

A large number of methods have been developed to inspect castings for defects that may occur
during their production. Such inspections may be in process inspections or finished product
inspections.

In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings have been completed to detect any
flaws that may have occurred in the process so that corrective measures can be taken to remove
the defect in the remaining units. Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings
have all been completed to make sure that the product meets the requirements specified by the
customer.

Defective castings may be salvaged or completely rejected to be re-melted for their material
content depending upon the nature and extent of defect. The inspection methods may also be
divided into destructive or non-destructive categories depending upon the magnitude of damage
done to the casting during inspection. Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or breaking
off of parts of the castings at places where voids or internal defects are suspected. Castings may
also be damaged during strength tests.

Destructive tests suffer from the disadvantage that the saw cuts may miss the flaw or the sample
may not represent the behavior of the entire lot. Because of these reasons non-destructive tests
are generally more commonly relied upon than destructive tests.

Some of the prominent non destructive methods are described below:

Visual Inspection:

It consists of inspecting the surface of the casting with naked eye or sometimes with a
magnifying glass or microscope. It can only indicate surface defects such as blow holes, fusion,
swells, external cracks, and mismatch. Almost all castings are subjected to certain degree of
visual inspection.

Dimensional Inspection:

Dimensional inspection is carried out to make sure that the castings produced have the required
overall dimensions including allowances for machining. It may sometimes be necessary to break
a part of the casting to take measurements of inside dimensions.

Sound Test:

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This is a rough test to indicate a flaw or discontinuity in a casting. The casting is suspended from
a suitable support free of all obstructions and tapped at various places on its surface with a small
hammer. Any change in the tone produced indicates the existence of a flaw. The method cannot
indicate the exact location and extent of the discontinuity.

Impact Test:

Used as a standard method of determining the impact resistance of

materials. In this test the casting is subjected to a blow from a hammer
of known weight striking or falling on the casting. Defective castings
fail under the impact of the blow but the method is very crude and
unreliable.

Pressure Test:

This test is carried out on castings required to be leak proof. All openings of the castings are
closed and a gas or fluid under pressure is introduced in it. Castings having porosity leak under
this pressure. The leakage may be detected by submerging the casting in a water tank or using a
soap film if the pressure is applied by compressed air. If a liquid is used for applying pressure the
leakage can be found by visual inspection.

Radiography:

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Radiography uses X-rays or gamma rays penetrating through the castings and giving a shadow
picture on a photographic film placed behind the work piece. These rays have very short wave
length of the order of 0.001 Angstrom (10-10m) units to 40 Angstrom units for x-rays and 0.005 to
about 3 Angstrom units for gamma rays compared to about 5500 Angstrom units for the centre of
the visible spectrum.

The ability of these waves to penetrate through metal depends also on the density of the metal
and as such they can penetrate more easily in places where there is less metal that those where
more metal is present leading to a shadow picture formation on the film. Any defects in the
casting can easily be identified from this picture. Because of their shorter wave length gamma
rays have a better penetration through the metal and are more commonly used.

Magnetic Particle Testing:

This test is used for detecting cracks in metals like cast iron and steel which can be magnetized.
For carrying out the test the casting is magnetized and then fine particles of iron or steel are
spread on its surface. Presence of a crack or void in the casting results in interruption of the
magnetic field and leakage of magnetic flux at the place of the crack.

The particles of iron or steel spread on the casting surface are held by this leaking flux giving a
visual indication of the nature and extent of crack. Very small cracks or voids at or near the
surface which may not even be detected by radiography are easily revealed by this method.

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Penetrant Testing:

This method also is used for detecting very small surface cracks and has the advantage over the
magnetic particle method that it can be used for any material. The parts to be tested are either
dipped into or covered with a penetrant testing liquid ( fluorescent or nonfluorescent dyes) which
has very good wetting and penetrating ability. The liquid is drawn into the cracks or voids by
capillary action.

After the penetrant has been applied to the surface to be tested extra penetrant is wiped off the
surface is dried and a developer (acetone, isopropyl alcohol) applied to it. This developer helps in
drawing out the penetrant so that it becomes visible on the surface. The penetrant liquids often
contain materials which fluoresce under ultraviolet light or a die to indicate their presence.

Ultrasonic Testing:

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Ultrasonic testing is used to detect defects like cracks, voids or porosity within the interior of the
casting. The method uses reflection and transmission of high frequency sound waves. Ultrasonic
sound waves much higher than the audible range are produced and made to pass through the
casting.

The time interval between the transmitted ray and reflected ray is recorded by a cathode ray
oscilloscope. Any crack or void in the casting results in reflection or some of the sound from the
crack which appears as a pip between the two pips representing the thickness of the casting. The
depth of the crack from the surface of the casting can be easily calculated from the distance
between these pips.

35 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

CASTING PROCESS

Continuous casting
Continuous casting is a process which turns liquid steel into slab or bloom. Liquid steel is filled
in ladle and transferred to turret from upstream plant by crane, charged to a tundish, then
distributed and flew into several molds which circulated by cooling water. Liquid steel starts
cooling down, solidifying and forming a shell outside in, pulled into arc-shape strands, through
secondary cooling sprays to a complete solidification, then straightened, and cut into pieces
according to each order. This semi product called slab (rectangular type) or bloom (square type)
is conditioned if necessary then shipped to downstream for further treatment.

Relative to other casting processes, continuous casting generally has a higher capital cost, but
lower operating cost. It is the most cost- and energy- efficient method to mass-produce semi-
finished metal products with consistent quality in a variety of sizes and shapes. Cross-sections
can be rectangular, for subsequent rolling into plate or sheet, square or circular for long products,
and even dog-bone shapes, for rolling into I or H beams.

36 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Shell Mold Casting

The first step in the shell mold casting process is to manufacture the shell mold. The sand we use
for the shell molding process is of a much smaller grain size than the typical green sand mold.
This fine grained sand is mixed with a thermosetting resin binder. A special metal pattern is
coated with a parting agent, (typically silicone), which will latter facilitate in the removal of the
shell. The metal pattern is then heated to a temperature of 350F-700F degrees, (175C-370C).

The sand mixture is then poured or blown over the hot casting pattern. Due to the reaction of the
thermosetting resin with the hot metal pattern, a thin shell forms on the surface of the pattern.
The desired thickness of the shell is dependent upon the strength requirements of the mold for
the particular metal casting application. A typical industrial manufacturing mold for a shell
molding casting process could be .3in (7.5mm) thick. The thickness of the mold can be
controlled by the length of time the sand mixture is in contact with the metal casting pattern.

The excess "loose" sand is then removed, leaving the shell and pattern.

The shell and pattern are then placed in an oven for a short period of time, (minutes), which
causes the shell to harden onto the casting pattern.

Once the baking phase of the manufacturing process is complete, the hardened shell is separated
from the casting pattern by way of ejector pins built into the pattern. It is of note that this
manufacturing technique used to create the mold in the shell molding process can also be
employed to produced highly accurate fine grained mold cores for other metal casting processes.

Two of these hardened shells, each representing half the mold for the casting, are assembled
together either by gluing or clamping.

37 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

The manufacture of the shell mold is now complete and ready for the pouring of the metal
casting. In many shell molding processes, the shell mold is supported by sand or metal shot
during the casting process.

Vacuum mold casting

A special pattern is used for the vacuum mold casting process. It is either a match-plate or a cope
and drag pattern with tiny holes to enable a vacuum suction. A thin plastic sheet is placed over
the casting pattern and the vacuum pressure is turned on, causing the sheet to adhere to the
surface of the pattern.

A special flask is used for this manufacturing process. The flask has holes to utilize vacuum
pressure. This flask is placed over the casting pattern and filled with sand.

A pouring cup and sprue are cut into the mold for the pouring of the metal casting.

38 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Next, another thin plastic sheet is placed over the top of the mold. The vacuum pressure acting
through the flask is turned on, and the plastic film adheres to the top of the mold.

In the next stage of vacuum mold casting manufacture, the vacuum on the special casting pattern
is turned off and the pattern is removed. The vacuum pressure from the flask is still on. This
causes the plastic film on the top to adhere to the top and the plastic film formerly on the pattern
to adhere to the bottom. The film on the bottom is now holding the impression of the casting in
the sand with the force of the vacuum suction.

39 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

 The drag portion of the mold is manufactured in the same fashion. The two halves are then
assembled for the pouring of the casting.

During the pouring of the casting, the molten metal easily burns away the plastic.

Investment casting

40 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a refractory
ceramic material. Once the ceramic material is hardened its internal geometry takes the shape of
the casting. The wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the cavity where the wax
pattern was. The metal solidifies within the ceramic mold and then the metal casting is broken
out. This manufacturing technique is also known as the lost wax process.

The first step in investment casting is to manufacture the wax pattern for the process. The pattern
for this process may also be made from plastic; however it is often made of wax since it will melt
out easily and wax can be reused. Since the pattern is destroyed in the process, one will be
needed for each casting to be made. When producing parts in any quantity, a mold from which to
manufacture patterns will be desired.

Since the mold does not need to be opened, castings of very complex geometry can be
manufactured. Several wax patterns may be combined for a single casting. Or as often the case,
many wax patterns may be connected and poured together producing many castings in a single
process. This is done by attaching the wax patterns to a wax bar, the bar serves as a central sprue.
A ceramic pouring cup is attached to the end of the bar. This arrangement is called a tree,
denoting the similarity of casting patterns on the central runner beam to branches on a tree.

The casting pattern is then dipped in a refractory slurry whose composition includes extremely
fine grained silica, water and binders. A ceramic layer is obtained over the surface of the pattern.
The pattern is then repeatedly dipped into the slurry to increase the thickness of the ceramic coat.
In some cases the pattern may be placed in a flask and the ceramic slurry poured over it. Once
the refractory coat over the pattern is thick enough, it is allowed to dry in air in order to harden.

The next step in this manufacturing process is the key to investment casting. The hardened
ceramic mold is turned upside down and heated to a temperature of around 200F-375F (90C-
175C). This causes the wax to flow out of the mold, leaving the cavity for the metal casting.

The ceramic mold is then heated to around 1000F-2000F (550C-1100C). This will further
strengthen the mold, eliminate any leftover wax or contaminants and drive out water from the
mold material.

41 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

The metal casting is then poured while the mold is still hot. Pouring the casting while the mold is
hot allows the liquid metal to flow easily through the mold cavity, filling detailed and thin
sections. Pouring the metal casting in a hot mold also gives better dimensional accuracy, since
the mold and casting will shrink together as they cool.

After pouring of the molten metal into the mold, the casting is allowed to set as the solidification
process takes place.

The final step in this manufacturing process involves breaking the ceramic mold from the
investment casting and cutting the parts from the tree.

Slush casting
Slush casting is a variation of permanent mold casting that is used to produce hollow parts. In
this method neither the strength of the part nor its internal geometry can be controlled accurately.
This metal casting process is used primarily to manufacture toys and parts that are ornamental in
nature, such as lamp bases and statues.

When producing a cast part using the slush casting method, a permanent mold is employed and
set up. The mold is clamped together and prepared for pouring.

42 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

After pouring the mold will set, as solidification begins to take place. The main principle of this
casting process relies on the fact that when a metal casting hardens in a mold, it will solidify
from the mold wall towards the inside of the casting. In other words a metal skin forms first, (as
the external geometry of the part). This skin thickens as more of the metal casting's material
converts to a solid state.

In slush mold casting, during the solidification of the material, when the solid-liquid boundary
has reached a certain point, the mold is turned over and the remaining liquid metal from the
casting is poured out. This will leave only the solidified skin with the exterior geometry of the
metal cast part and a hollow interior. The longer the metal casting was allowed to solidify before
pouring out the excess metal, the greater the casting's wall thickness will be.

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The cast part is then removed from the die and allowed to cool.

Pressure casting
Pressure casting, also known in manufacturing industry as low pressure casting or pressure
pouring, is another variation of permanent mold casting. Instead of pouring the molten metal into
the casting and allowing gravity to be the force that distributes the liquid material through the
mold, pressure casting uses air pressure to force the metal through the gating system and the
metal casting's cavity. This process can be used to cast high quality manufactured parts. Often
steel castings are cast in graphite molds using this process. For example, in industry, steel
railroad car wheels are cast with this method.

44 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

This is a permanent mold process and the manufacture of the mold in pressure casting is standard
in most regards. Two blocks are machined extremely accurately, so they can open and close
precisely for removal of metal parts. The casting's gating system is machined into the mold. The
gating system is set up so that the molten material flows into the mold from the bottom instead of
the top, (like in gravity fed processes).

The mold is set up above the supply of liquid metal to be used for the casting. A refractory tube
goes from the entrance of the gating system down into the molten material.

During manufacture by this process, the chamber that the liquid material is in is kept air tight.
When the mold is prepared and ready for the pouring of the metal casting, air pressure is applied
to the chamber. This creates pressure on the surface of the liquid, that in turn forces molten
material up the refractory tube and throughout the mold. Pressure used in pressure casting is
usually low, 15lbs/in2 could be typical for industrial manufacture using this process. The air
pressure is maintained until the metal casting has hardened within the mold. Once the cast part
has solidified, the mold is opened and the part is removed.

Die casting

Die casting manufacture is characteristic in that it uses large amounts of pressure to force molten
metal through the mold. Since so much pressure is used to ensure the flow of metal through the
mold, metal castings with great surface detail, dimensional accuracy, and extremely thin walls
can be produced. Wall thickness within castings can be manufactured as small as .02in (.5mm).

Like in all permanent mold manufacturing processes, the first step in die casting is the
production of the mold. The mold must be accurately created as two halves that can be opened
and closed for removal of the metal casting. The mold for die casting is commonly machined
from steel and contains all the components of the gating system.

In a die casting production setup, the mold, (or die), is designed so that its mass is far greater
than that of the casting. Typically the mold will have 1000 times the mass of the metal casting.
So a 2 pound part will require a mold weighing a ton! Due to the extreme pressures and the
continuous exposure to thermal gradients from the molten metal, wearing of the die can be a
problem. However in a well maintained manufacturing process, a die can last hundreds of
thousands of cycles before needing to be replaced.

Die Casting Machines

In addition to the opening and closing of the mold to prepare for and remove castings, it is very
important that there is enough force that can be applied to hold the two halves of the mold
together during the injection of the molten metal. Flow of molten metal under such pressures will

45 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

create a tremendous force acting to separate the die halves during the process. Die casting
machines are large and strong, designed to hold the mold together against such forces. In
manufacturing industry, die casting machines are rated on the force with which they can hold the
mold closed. Clamping forces for these machines vary from around 25 to 3000 tons.

In industrial manufacture the process of die casting falls into two basic categories, hot chamber
die casting and cold chamber die casting. Although these processes vary from each other, both
employ a piston or plunger to force molten metal to travel in the desired direction.

The pressure at which the metal is forced to flow into the mold in die casting manufacture is on
the order of 1000psi to 50000psi (7MPa to 350MPa). This pressure is accountable for the
tremendously intricate surface detail and thin walls that are often observed in metal castings
manufactured by this technique.

Once the mold has been filled with molten metal, the pressure is maintained until the casting has
hardened. The mold is then opened and the casting is removed. Ejector pins built into the mold
assist in the removal of the metal casting. In most manufacturing operations, the internal surfaces
of the mold are sprayed with a lubricant before every cycle. The lubricant will assist in cooling
down the dies as well as preventing the metal casting from sticking to the mold.

After the casting has been removed and the lubricant applied to the mold surfaces, the die are
clamped together again then the cycle will repeat itself. Cycle times will differ depending upon
the details of each specific die casting manufacturing technique. In some instances, very high
rates of production have been achieved using this metal casting process.

Hot Chamber Diecasting Machines

In hot chamber die casting manufacture, the supply of molten metal is attached to the die casting
machine and is an integral part of the casting apparatus for this manufacturing operation.

46 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Submerged Plunger type

It is also called a gooseneck machine because of the shape of the metal passage way. In this
machine the melting pot, usually made of cast iron, is a part of the machine. The gooseneck
containing a cylinder and metal passage way is kept immersed in the metal pot. The plunger in
the gooseneck cylinder is actuated either hydraulically or pneumatically. In operation the plunger
is withdrawn letting the liquid metal into the gooseneck cylinder through the port provided.

When the die halves are closed and ready for casting the plunger forces the liquid metal
entrapped in the cylinder into the die through the gooseneck passage and a nozzle. After a
predetermined time interval the plunger is retracted allowing the liquid metal in the gooseneck
channel and nozzle to fall back into cylinder.

The die halves are opened and the solidified casting is ejected from the die. Hot chamber
machines are designed to operate almost automatically and fast.

Cold Chamber Diecasting Machines

The metal in this case is melted in a separate

furnace and the required quantity of metal is
ladled to the machine. A plunger operated
hydraulically forces the metal into the die.
Injection pressures of 28 kPa to 250 kPa are
possible in cold chamber machines. The
machine is semiautomatic in that after the metal
is ladled into the cold chamber the rest of the
operation is automatic. Hot chamber machines
are made in capacities varying from 0.25 to 7.5
MN and cold chamber ones from 1 to 10 MN.

47 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

True Centrifugal casting

The centrifugal casting is a metal casting technique that uses the forces generated by centripetal
acceleration to distribute the molten material in the mold. Cast parts manufactured in industry
include various pipes and tubes, such as sewage pipes, and gas pipes, also bushings, rings, the
liner for engine cylinders, and brake drums. The molds used in true centrifugal casting
manufacture are round, and are typically made of iron, steel, or graphite. Some sort of refractory
lining or sand may be used for the inner surface of the mold.

In this process the mold is rotated about its axis at a predetermined speed. Molds for smaller
parts may be rotated about a vertical axis. However, most times in true centrifugal casting
manufacture the mold will be rotated about a horizontal axis. The effects of gravity on the
material during the metal casting process make it particularly necessary to cast longer parts with
forces generated from horizontal rather than vertical rotation.

The molten material for the cast part is introduced to the mold from an external source, usually
by means of some spout. The liquid metal flows down into the mold. Once inside the cavity, the
centripetal forces from the spinning mold force the molten material to the outer wall. Molten

48 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

material for the casting may be poured into a spinning mold or the rotation of the mold may
begin after pouring has occurred.

The metal casting will harden as the mold continues to rotate. It can be seen that this casting
process is very well suited for the manufacture of hollow cylindrical tubes. The forces used in
this technique guarantee good adhesion of the casting material to the surface of the mold.
Thickness of the cast part can be determined by the amount of material poured. The outer surface
does not need to be round. Polygonal geometries such as squares and other shapes can be cast.
However, due to the nature of the process, the inner surface of a part manufactured by true
centrifugal casting must always be round.

Semi-Centrifugal Casting

Semicentrifugal casting manufacture is a variation of true centrifugal casting. The main

difference is that in semicentrifugal casting the mold is filled completely with molten metal,
which is supplied to the casting through a central sprue. Castings manufactured by this process
will possess rotational symmetry.

In semi-centrifugal casting manufacture a permanent mold may be employed. However, often

industrial manufacturing processes will utilize an expendable sand mold. This enables the casting
of parts from high temperature materials.

The molten material for the metal casting is poured into a pouring basin and is distributed
through a central sprue to the areas of the mold. The forces generated by the rotation of the mold
ensure the distribution of molten material to all regions of the casting. As the metal casting
solidifies in a rotating mold, the centripetal forces constantly push material out from the central
sprue/riser. This material acts to fill vacancies as they form, thus avoiding shrinkage areas. It can

49 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

be seen that during the semicentrifugal manufacturing process, the material in the outer regions
of the casting, (further from the center of the axis of rotation), is subject to greater forces than the
material in the inner regions.

When the metal casting solidifies, the outer region of the cast part forms of dense material. The
greater the forces under which the molten metal solidified, the denser the material in that region.
So the density of a cast part manufactured by semicentrifugal casting will increase as you travel
radially outward from the center.

Centrifuge Casting

Centrifuge casting is the third main branch of centrifugal casting processes used for industrial
manufacture of cast parts. Centrifuge casting is different in that castings manufactured by the
centrifuge casting process need not have rotational symmetry. With centrifuge casting, metal
castings of desired shapes can be manufactured with all the distinct benefits of castings produced
by a centrifugal casting process.

In centrifuge casting manufacture, molds employed to produce the desired castings are arranged
around a central sprue. These molds contain all the necessary geometry for the cast part, as well
as the gating system. Runners travel from the central sprue to the mold entrances. During the
pouring phase of centrifuge casting manufacture, molten material is introduced into the central
sprue. The entire system is rotated about an axis with the central sprue at the center of rotation.
When an object is rotated, forces are produced that act directly away from the center of the axis
of rotation and centripetal forces from the rotating apparatus push this material outward from the
center, through the runners and into the molds. When the correct amount of molten metal to
manufacture the casting is poured and distributed completely into the molds, the apparatus will
continue to rotate as solidification is occurring.

50 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Squeeze casting

Squeeze casting is a method combining casting and forging technologies.

In contrast to other casting techniques (sand casting, die casting), in which a molten metal is
poured (injected) into the mold cavity after the two parts of the mold are assembled, squeeze
casting mold is closed after a portion of molten metal has been poured into the preheated bottom
die. The upper die lowers towards the bottom die causing the melt to fill the mold cavity.

The squeezing pressure is applied until full solidification of the casting.

A scheme of the process is shown in the picture:

Squeeze castings are characterized by:

low shrinkage and gas porosity;

enhanced mechanical properties because of fine grain structure caused by rapid
solidification;
good surface quality.

Squeeze casting is commonly used for processing aluminum and magnesium alloys.

This process is also used for fabrication of reinforced metal matrix composites where molten
aluminum infiltrates a fiber reinforcing structure.

51 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor

Semi-solid Metal Forming

Semi-solid metal casting (SSM) is a near net shape variant of die casting. The process is used
with non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium, copper, and magnesium. The process combines the
advantages of casting and forging. SSM is done at a temperature that puts the metal between
its liquidus and solidus temperature. Ideally, the metal should be 30 to 65% solid. The metal must
have a low viscosity to be usable, and to reach this low viscosity the material needs a globular
primary surrounded by the liquid phase.

For aluminum alloys rheocasting and thixocasting are the two common processes to produce
semi-solid castings.

1.Thixocasting-- Thixocasting utilizes a pre-cast billet with a non-dendritic microstructure that

is normally produced by vigorously stirring the melt as the bar is being cast. Induction heating is
normally used to re-heat the billets to the semi-solid temperature range, and die casting machines
are used to inject the semi-solid material into hardened steels dies. Thixocasting has the ability to
produce extremely high quality components due to the product consistency that results from
using pre-cast billet that is manufactured under the same ideal continuous processing conditions
that are employed to make forging or rolling stock. The main disadvantage is that it is expensive
due to the special billets that must be used. Other disadvantages include a limited number of
alloys, and scrap cannot be directly reused.

2. Rheocasting--Unlike thixocasting, which re-heats a billet, rheocasting develops the semi-solid

slurry from the ordinary molten metal by a rapid undercooling in combination with the shearing
of the melt. This is a big advantage over thixocasting because it results in less expensive
feedstock, in the form of typical die casting alloys, and allows for direct recycling.

52 Dept of Mechanical Engineering, ICET Mulavoor