CHAPTER 10 (SEKARAN) DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Sources of Data
Primary Data - info obtained firsthand (e.g. individuals, focus group discussions)
Secondary Data - info gathered from sources already existing (e.g. company records, government
publications)
Primary Sources of Data
Focus Group
8-10 members discussing a particular topic once for about 2 hours
Members are generally chosen based on their expertise
Aim: obtaining respondents opinions, impressions and interpretations
Role of the Moderator
Introduces the topic, observes, and takes not of the discussion
Never becomes an integral part of the discussion
Ensures all members participate and no member dominates the group
The Nature of Data Obtained Through Focus Groups
Least expensive data collection method, and is quick to analyze
Provides only qualitative information
Opinions of members cannot be considered as truly representative
Used for (1) exploratory studies, (2) making generalizations, and (3) conducting sample surveys
Videoconferencing
Used when variations in responses are expected and several focus groups could be formed
Panels
Meets more than once
Very useful where effects of certain interventions or changes are to be studied over a period of
time
Individuals are randomly chosen to be members of the panel
Static and Dynamic Panels
Static - same members on the panel over extended periods of time
Advantage: offers a good sensitive measurement of the changes
Disadvantage: panel members may become aware of the changes and may not become
representative
Dynamic - panel members change from time to time (advantage and disadvantage is opposite of
static)
Source of direct information
Unobtrusive Measures - does not involve people (e.g. wear and tear of journals may indicate its
popularity or frequency of use, soft drink cans in trash bags may provide a measure on
consumption.

Secondary Sources
Advantage of using secondary sources is savings in time and cost of acquiring information
Using secondary sources as the only source may not meet the specific needs of the research
Data Collection Methods
Integral part of research design
Choosing the right method enhances the value of the research
 Three Main Data Collection Methods: Interviewing, Administering Questionnaires, and
Observing People
Choosing the appropriate method depends on facilities available, the degree of accuracy
required, the expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study, and other costs and resources
associated with and available for data gathering
Part 1: Interviewing
Unstructured and Structured Interviews
Unstructured Interviews
Interviewer does not have a planned sequence of questions; the succeeding questions depend on
the answer of the respondent
Objective: to bring some preliminary issues in order to determine what needs in-depth
investigation
Sets the stage for the interviewer to conduct further structured interviews
Structured Interviews
Conducted when it is known what information is needed
Interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to ask
Visual Aids are sometimes used
Information gathered in these interviews will be tabulated and analyzed
Information from interviews should be as free as possible of bias (errors or inaccuracies in data
collected)
Possible ways to minimize bias
Establish Credibility and Rapport, and Motivate Individuals to Respond
State the purpose of the interview and assure confidentiality
Be pleasant, sincere, sensitive, and non-evaluative
The Questioning Technique
Funneling - starting with broad open-ended questions and going into a more narrow and focused
questions
Unbiased Questions
Clarifying Issues - restating/rephrasing important information given
Helping the Respondent to Think through Issues
Taking Notes - interviewer should not rely on memory
Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews
Unstructured Interviews - usually face-to-face
Structured Interviews - may be face-to-face or through telephone
Face-to-Face Interviews
Advantages - researcher can adapt the questions as necessary; researcher may pick up nonverbal
cues
Disadvantages - geographical limitations; cost of training interviewers to minimize bias is high
Telephone Interviews
Advantages - a number of different people may be reached in a short time period; can eliminate
discomfort of respondent
Disadvantages - respondent may just end the interview without warning; researcher will not see
nonverbal communication
Computer Aided Interviewing (CAI)
 Questions are flashed onto the computer screen
Prevents interviewers from asking wrong/out of sequence questions
CATI and CAPI
CATI - Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Responses to surveys can be obtained from people all over the world
CAPI - Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing
Can be self-administered (respondents use their own computers)
Computer-Aided Survey Services
Being offered to companies engaged in occasional data gathering
Advantages:
1) Researcher can start analyzing the data even as the field survey is in progress, results can be
transmitted through modem in raw or tabulated form
2) Data is automatically cleaned up and errors are fixed while being collected
3) Biases due to ordering questions in a particular way can be eliminated since meaningful start
patterns can be incorporated in the questioning process
4) Skip patterns can be programmed into the process
5) Questions can be customized to incorporate the respondents terminology of concepts into
subsequent questions
Advantages of Software Packages
Automatic indexing of data can be done using special programs
2 modes of operation:
Indexing - specific responses coded in a particular way
Retrieval of data with a fast search speed
Text-oriented database management retrieval program allows user to go through text, inserting
mark that link related units of text
Once links created, program allows user to activate them by opening multiple windows on the
screen
Review of Interviewing
Can be structured or unstructured
Unstructured Interviews - conducted in order to have an idea about what is, and is not, important
and relevant to particular problem situations
Structured Interviews - gives more in-depth information about specific variables of interest
Can be conducted face to face, over the telephone, or over the medium of PC
Computer assisted interviewing, which entails heavy initial investment, is an asset for
interviewing and analyses of qualitative, spontaneous responses.
Part II: Questionnaires
- Preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within
rather closely defined alternatives
Personally Administered Questionnaires
When survey is confined to a local area, and the organization is willing and able to assemble
groups of employees to respond to questionnaires
Advantages:
Research team can collect all the completed responses within a short period of time
 Doubts of respondents can be clarified on the spot
Researcher afforded the opportunity to introduce topic and motivate respondents to offer frank
answers
Less time and less time compared to interview; does not require much skill to administer
Employees may be given blank questionnaires to be collected personally or mailed back after a
few days
Mail Questionnaires
Wide geographical area can be covered in the survey
Disadvantages:
Return rates are typically low (30% response rate is considered acceptable)
Difficult to establish the representativeness of the sample because those responding may not at
all represent the population
Techniques for improving rates of response:
Send follow-up letters
Enclosing monetary amounts as incentives
Providing respondent with self-addressed stamped envelopes
Keep the questionnaire brief
Respondents are notified in advance of the forthcoming survey
Restricted if the researcher has to reach subjects with very little education
Guidelines for questionnaire design:
Focused on three areas:
Wording of the questions
Planning of issues of how variables will be categorized, scaled, and coded after receipt of the
responses
General appearance of the questionnaire
 Principles of Wording - refers to factors such as:
Content and Purpose of the questions
Nature of the variable tapped will determine what kinds of questions will be asked (subjective:
beliefs, perceptions, attitudes; objective: age, educational levels)
Language and Wording of the Questionnaire
Should approximate the level of the understanding of the respondents
Choice of words should be based on educational level, usage of terms, and idioms in the culture
Type and form of questions
Open ended vs. Closed questions
Open ended questions - allow respondents to answer in any way they choose
Closed question - would ask respondents to make choices among set of alternatives given by
researcher; helps researcher to code easily
Many questionnaires end with a final open-ended question that invites respondents to comment
on topics that might not have been covered fully or adequately
Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
Good questionnaire includes both positive and negatively worded questions
Uninterested respondent is more likely to stay involved and remain alert when positive and
negatively worded questions are interspersed (shaken out of tendency to mechanically respond)
Double-barreled Questions
Lends itself to different possible responses
Such questions should be avoided as it would confuse the respondents
Ambiguous questions
 Responses to ambiguous questions have built-in biases inasmuch as different respondents might
interpret such items in the questionnaire differently
Recall-Dependent Questions
Questions might require respondents to recall experience from the past that are hazy in their
memory
Better source of obtaining these information are from records
Leading Questions
Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to give responses
that the researcher would like or want them to give
Loaded Questions
Bias in questions occurs when they are phrased in an emotionally charged manner
Social Desirability
Questions should not be worded such that they elicit socially desirable responses
Sometimes, certain items are deliberately introduced at various points in the questionnaire and an
index of each individuals social desirability tendency
Length of questions
Simple short questions > Long ones
Rule of thumb: a question SHOULD NOT exceed 20 words, or exceed one full line in print
Sequencing of questions
GENERAL to SPECIFIC
RELATIVELY EASY to PROGRESSIVELY MORE DIFFICULT
Facilitate the easy and smooth progress of respondent through the items in the questionnaire
Classification Data or Personal Information
Unless absolutely necessary, it is best not to ask for the name of the respondent
If questionnaire has to be identified with the respondent for any reason, the questionnaire could
be numbered and connected by the researcher in a separate, private document to ensure
anonymity
Asking personal info at the beginning vs. at the end
By the time respondent reaches the end, he is convinced of the legitimacy and genuineness of the
questions
If at the beginning, respondent may have psychologically identified themselves with the
questionnaire and may feel a commitment to respond
Wise policy to ask personal info by providing a range of responses
Principles of Measurement
Appropriate scales have to be used depending on the type of data that need to be obtained
Goodness of data is assessed through test of validity and reliability
Validity - how well a technique, instrument, or process measures a particular concept
Reliability - indicates how stably and consistently the instrument taps the variable
Data have to be obtained in a manner that makes for easy categorization and coding
General Appearance or GETUP of the Questionnaire
Necessary to pay attention to how the questionnaire looks
A good introduction
Discloses identity of researcher and conveys the purpose of the survey
Establish some rapport with respondents
Assurance of confidentiality
 Should end on a courteous note, thanking the respondent
Organizing Questions, Giving Instructions and Guidance, and Good Alignment
Questions aligned neatly to allow respondent expending the least time and effort and without
straining the eyes
Information on Income and Other Sensitive Personal Data
Such questions should be justified by explaining how this information might contribute to
knowledge and problem solving
Open-Ended Questions at the End
Allows respondent to comment on any aspect they choose
Concluding the Questionnaire
Should end on a courteous note, reminding the respondent to check that all the items have been
completed
Review of Questionnaire Design
Relates to how the questions are worded and measured, and how the entire questionnaire is
organized
Pretesting of Structured Questions
Important to pretest the instrument to ensure questions are understood by the respondents
Use small number of respondents to test the appropriateness of the questions and their
comprehension and obtain additional information on their general reactions to the questionnaire
and how they felt about completing the instrument

Electronic Questionnaire Design and Surveys

CAPPA System
Facilitates the preparation and administration of questionnaire particularly useful for marketing
research.
Includes 10 programs enabling the user to design a sophisticated computerized questionnaire,
computerize the data collection process, and analyze the data collected.
A program is designed into this system to check for syntactical or logical errors in coding
Includes data analytic programs such as cross-tabs, ANOVA, multiple regression, etc.

Software programs of SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

1. SPSS Data Entry Builder for creating surveys that can be administered over the web,
phone or mail;
2. SPSS Data Entry Enterprise Server for entering the responses;
3. 11.0 for data analysis and charts
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews and Questionnaires

Part III: Other Methods of Data Collection

Observational Surveys
People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their
activities and behaviors or other items of interest can be noted and recorded.
Movements, work habits, the statements made and meeting conducted by them, facial
expressions, and body language can be observed.
Other environmental factors such as layout, work-flow patterns, the closeness of the seating
arrangement, and the like, can also be noted.

Two roles that a researcher may play while gathering field observational data:
 Nonparticipant Observer
The researcher collects the needed data in that capacity without becoming an integral part of the
organizational system (Example: the researcher might sit in the corner of an office and watch and
record how the manager spends her time.)
It is necessary that observers are physically present at the workplace for extended periods of time
and makes observational studies time consuming.
Participant-Observer
The researcher enters the organization or the research setting, and becomes a part of the work
team. (Example: if a researcher wants to study group dynamics in work organizations, then she
may join the organization as an employee and observe the dynamics in groups while being a part
of the work organization and work groups)

Structured versus Unstructured Observational Studies

A. Structured Observational Studies
a. Non-participant observer
b. Participant observer type
*both of these can be structured or unstructured
- Observer has a predetermined set of categories planned to be studied
- Formats can be specifically designed to suit each goal of that research
- Important matters
- Duration and frequency
- Activities that precede or follow it
- Relevant environmental conditions
- Task relevant behaviors (emotion, communication)
- Observations are recorded, analyzed, minimal personal inferences
B. Unstructured Observational Studies
Possible no definite ideas
Observer records practically everything
Hallmark of qualitative research
Set of tentative hypotheses as a guide
Patterns can be traced
pave the way for theory building and hypotheses testing

1. Advantages of Observational Studies

a. Generally more reliable and free from bias
b. Easier to note the effects of environmental influence on specific outcomes
c. Easier to observe certain groups of individuals
2. Disadvantages of Observational Studies
a. Necessary to be physically present
b. slow, tedious, expensive
c. Observer fatigue which can lead to bias
d. Moods, feelings, attitudes can be guess but cognitive thought process cannot
e. Training needed to know what and how to observe and avoid bias
Biases in Observational Studies
Researchers POV are prone to observer bias
Reading errors, memory lapse, error in interpreting activities, behaviors, events, and nonverbal
cues
Ennui (listlessness// boredom) can cause bias
Interobserver reliability (agreements divided by disagreements) = reliability coefficient
Respondent bias can also be a threat (act differently under observation)

Summary of Observational Studies

Have a formulated research purpose
Systematically planned
2 kinds
Structured
Unstructured
Investigator can be
Participant
Non-participant