Measuring Radiation

http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/measurement.asp When scientists measure radiation, they use

different terms depending on whether they are discussing radiation coming from a radioactive
source, the radiation dose absorbed by a person, or the risk that a person will suffer health effects
(biological risk) from exposure to radiation. This fact sheet explains some of the terminology
used to discuss radiation measurement.

Units of Measure
Most scientists in the international community measure radiation using the System Internationale
(SI), a uniform system of weights and measures that evolved from the metric system. In the
United States, however, the conventional system of measurement is still widely used.

Different units of measure are used depending on what aspect of radiation is being measured. For
example, the amount of radiation being given off, or emitted, by a radioactive material is
measured using the conventional unit curie (Ci), named for the famed scientist Marie Curie, or
the SI unit becquerel (Bq). The radiation dose absorbed by a person (that is, the amount of
energy deposited in human tissue by radiation) is measured using the conventional unit rad or
the SI unit gray (Gy). The biological risk of exposure to radiation is measured using the
conventional unit rem or the SI unit sievert (Sv).

Measuring Emitted Radiation

When the amount of radiation being emitted or given off is discussed, the unit of measure used is
the conventional unit Ci or the SI unit Bq.

A radioactive atom gives off or emits radioactivity because the nucleus has too many particles,
too much energy, or too much mass to be stable. The nucleus breaks down, or disintegrates, in an
attempt to reach a nonradioactive (stable) state. As the nucleus disintegrates, energy is released
in the form of radiation.

The Ci or Bq is used to express the number of disintegrations of radioactive atoms in a

radioactive material over a period of time. For example, one Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109)
disintegrations per second. The Ci is being replaced by the Bq. Since one Bq is equal to one
disintegration per second, one Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109) Bq.

Ci or Bq may be used to refer to the amount of radioactive materials released into the
environment. For example, during the Chernobyl power plant accident that took place in the
former Soviet Union, an estimated total of 81 million Ci of radioactive cesium (a type of
radioactive material) was released.

Measuring Radiation Dose

When a person is exposed to radiation, energy is deposited in the tissues of the body. The
amount of energy deposited per unit of weight of human tissue is called the absorbed dose.
Absorbed dose is measured using the conventional rad or the SI Gy.

The rad, which stands for radiation absorbed dose, was the conventional unit of measurement,
but it has been replaced by the Gy. One Gy is equal to 100 rad.

Measuring Biological Risk

A person's biological risk (that is, the risk that a person will suffer health effects from an
exposure to radiation) is measured using the conventional unit rem or the SI unit Sv.

To determine a person's biological risk, scientists have assigned a number to each type of
ionizing radiation (alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays) depending on that type's
ability to transfer energy to the cells of the body. This number is known as the Quality Factor (Q).

When a person is exposed to radiation, scientists can multiply the dose in rad by the quality
factor for the type of radiation present and estimate a person's biological risk in rems. Thus, risk
in rem = rad X Q.

The rem has been replaced by the Sv. One Sv is equal to 100 rem.

Abbreviations for Radiation Measurements

When the amounts of radiation being measured are less than 1, prefixes are attached to the unit
of measure as a type of shorthand. This is called scientific notation and is used in many scientific
fields, not just for measuring radiation. The table below shows the prefixes for radiation
measurement and their associated numeric notations.

Prefix Equal to Which is this much Abbreviation Example

atto- 1 X 10-18.000000000000000001 a aCi

femto- 1 X 10-15.000000000000001 f fCi

pico- 1 X 10-12.000000000001 p pCi

nano- 1 X 10-9 .000000001 n nCi

micro- 1 X 10-6.000001 m m Ci

milli- 1 X 10-3.001 m mCi

centi- 1 x 10-2.01 c cGy

When the amount to be measured is 1000 (that is, 1 X 103) or higher, prefixes are attached to the
unit of measure to shorten very large numbers (also scientific notation). The table below shows
the prefixes used in radiation measurement and their associated numeric notations.

Prefix Equal to Which is this much Abbreviation Example

kilo- 1 X 1031000 k kCi

mega- 1 X 1061,000,000 M MCi

giga- 1 X 109100,000,000 G GBq

tera- 1 X 1012100,000,000,000 T TBq

peta- 1 X 1015 100,000,000,000,000 P PBq

exa- 1 x 1018100,000,000,000,000,000 E EBq

Common Radiation Exposures

People are exposed to radiation daily from different sources, such as naturally occurring
radioactive materials in the soil and cosmic rays from outer space (of which we receive more
when we fly in an airplane). Some common ways that people are exposed to radiation and the
associated doses are shown in the table below.

Source of exposure Dose in rem Dose in sievert (Sv)

Exposure to cosmic rays during a roundtrip airplane flight from New York to Los Angeles 3
mrem 0.03 mSv

One dental x-ray 4?15 mrem 0.04?0.15 mSv

One chest x-ray 10 mrem 0.1 mSv

One mammogram 70 mrem 0.7 mSv

One year of exposure to natural radiation (from soil, cosmic rays, etc.) 300 mrem 3 mSv

For more information

For more information about radiation measurement, you may visit the website for the Health
Physics Society , or the Environmental Protection Agency's "Radiation Topics ".
For more information about radiation, see CDC's Radiation Emergencies website. You may also
call the CDC public response hotline at 800-CDC-INFO or 888-232-6348 (TTY).
http://www.geigercounters.com/FoodContaminant.htm

Since Fukushima, much interest has developed in the application of checking food and
water for possible radiation contamination. Here are your options:

Rely on government agencies, such as the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)

and the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) in the US, or
Procure the same equipment used by those agencies and conduct your own
tests. These include specialized devices like Multi-Channel Analyzers for Gamma
Spectrometry, etc. which are quite thorough and able to detect very low levels of
contaminants, along with which isotopes are present.
Or, acquire a personal radiation detector which, while not as effective or thorough as
the above alternatives, is readily available to the lay person and easy to use.

In the field of radiation detectors, the two most popular designs are Scintillation
Counters and Geiger Counters. Many scintillation counters are more sensitive in
general, and able to detect certain radiation at greater ranges. These devices tend to
be more expensive than Geiger counters, and generally larger, more specialized, and
less compact in design.

The most popular design of radiation detector is a Geiger counter because it is

readily available, easy to use, of compact design in many cases, and in an affordable
price range. And certain models are quite sensitive. So for one who chooses to use a
Geiger counter to check food and drink for radioactive contamination, certain criteria
are recommended:

Its Geiger-Mueller (GM) tube should be of a type that can also detect Alpha
radiation, by virtue of incorporating a thin mica end window.
The larger in diameter of that thin mica end window, the more efficient, sensitive, and
thorough will be the test. These large ones are known as Pancake GM tubes, as in
the Inspector line of instruments.
The Geiger counter should read out in a Digital display, preferred over an analog
meter, for quantifying low levels of radiation that may be present.
The instrument should offer an automatic Timed Count or Timed Measurement
feature that is necessary to reveal smaller levels of contamination that a momentary
scan might miss.
Of the Geiger counter models within our selection that meet at least 1 of the above
criteria, here is a comparison:

Criteria
Model/Criteria Alpha Pancake Digital Timed Count
Met
Monitor 4 Yes No No No 1
CRM-100 Yes No Yes Yes 3
Radalert 100 Yes No Yes Yes 3
Digilert 200 Yes No Yes Yes 3
PRM-8000 Yes No Yes Yes 3
Detector Yes Yes No No 2
Inspector Alert Yes Yes Yes Yes 4
Inspector USB Yes Yes Yes Yes 4
PRM-9000 Yes Yes Yes Yes 4
Inspector EXP Yes Yes Yes Yes 4

Now for the specific details of checking for contamination, and here is my disclaimer -
these are only procedures that I would follow, and are not represented as the best or
most thorough, or foolproof.

Remove any packaging or housing that could otherwise shield radiation.

Always orient or aim any thin mica end window as close as possible to the
substance without touching, so perhaps a quarter or half inch away.
When scanning liquids, pour into a shallow container of broad surface area. Do
not use a stone or metal container which could itself be weakly radioactive and distort
the test - plastic or glass are probably best. Likewise, do not set the container on a
stone or granite countertop or floor.
Or in preparation for a scan of liquid, you could also absorb it with a paper towel,
and then scan the moistened towel.
Start with a "momentary scan" by slowing moving the detector across the entire
surface area, looking for any sustained increase in the radiation level beyond
background, evidenced by a sustained increase in the frequency of any audible
clicking, along with a sustained increase in the numerical level of radiation shown on
any visual display.
If the momentary scan does not reveal any radiation from the substance, and if you
want to be more thorough, then resort to a "timed count". I recommend a
sampling period of at least 10 minutes, and even longer depending on how thorough
you choose to be. The idea is that if a timed count of the substance, conducted for
say 10 minutes, shows a higher accumulation of radiation than does a similar timed
count of normal background radiation, then that test reveals a weak radiation
emission that the momentary scan missed.
In the end, the effectiveness of a Geiger counter in detecting contaminated food and
drink, in my opinion, comes down to a matter of degree. Heavily contaminated food is
potentially detectable by many Geiger Counters of reasonable sensitivity. Weakly
radioactive food might be detectable by some pancake GM tube models in combination
with a timed count process. But there could theoretically be a minimum amount of
radiation particles missed by any Geiger counter. So anyone using a Geiger counter for
this purpose needs to take responsibility for that decision, versus other alternatives.

As a matter of interest, I have scanned everything from milk to soy sauce to sake, and
the only radioactive item I have found so far is a batch of captured Arizona
rainwater. Specifically, I detected 6 CPM (Counts per Minute) of radiation from the
sample, using the Digilert 100 Digital Geiger counter, a standard-tubed (not pancake)
model, so that instrument is still pretty sensitive to have achieved that feat. I would add,
though, that a momentary scan itself of the captured rainwater failed to reveal any
contamination - the radioactivity become apparent only through a 20 minute timed count.

In another example, a Canadian customer used the Inspector to determine that his
imported Japanese tea leaves were contaminated. He conducted a 30 minute timed
count, showing a total reading of 53 CPM from the tea, versus background alone of 35
CPM. The difference of 18 CPM over a 30 minute period is not only statistically
significant, but conclusively points to radioactivity from the food.

As an additional resource on the topic of detecting radiation in food, I repeat here a

summary written by International Medcom, manufacturer of the Inspector Alert and
Radalert 100 models of Geiger counter:

Accurate measurement of radiation in food requires a multi-channel analyzer and a

special oven for ashing the food to concentrate the radioactivity. Our instruments have
been used for experimental, educational, and screening purposes in checking food.

Measuring radiation in food is tricky. Naturally occurring radiation in potassium-rich food

(such as bananas, when dried into banana chips, and salt substitutes) from Potassium
40 can easily be detected with the Inspector and (with less sensitivity) the Radalert 50.
In the case of fallout from nuclear testing or accidents (such as Chernobyl), you would
be looking mostly for Strontium 90, Cesium 137, and possibly Plutonium 239. Of our
instruments, the Inspector is the best for this application because of its higher sensitivity.
The Inspectors efficiency for Sr90 and Cs137 beta is good, and it does detect the
Cs137 gamma. It does detect Pu239, but Pu239 can have health effects at very low
concentrations, which can be difficult to detect with any instrument.

Before you screen for radiation in food, you should establish a baseline measurement in
the same location where you plan to test the food. It is best to accumulate the baseline
counts for 12 hours as described below.
When you measure, you should put the mica window of the instrument directly over the
food you are measuring, as close as possible. In the case of milk or other liquids, fill a
container very close to the top so you can measure directly, without the glass in the way.
If all your milk is from the same source, you might want to boil or evaporate some to
concentrate it, then take a measurement from that. Set the display to Total and
accumulate the counts for 12 hours in each location. Divide the total count for the period
by the exact number of minutes to get the average CPM.

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