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Heat Exchangers:
Design, Operation, Maintenance and Enhancement
2 Table of contents
Table of contents
1 Introduction 8
1.1 Programm outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Instructor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.6.2 Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.6.3 Vapor Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.4 Tube-Bundle Bypassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.5 Tie Rods and Spacers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.6.6 Tubesheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5 Thermal Design 66
5.1 Design Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.1 Fluid Stream Allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.2 Shell and tube velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1.3 Stream temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.4 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.5 Fluid physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.2 Design data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.3 Tubeside design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.1 Heat-transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3.2 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4 Shell side design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4.1 Shell configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4.2 Tube layout patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4.3 Tube pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4.4 Baffling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.4.5 Equalize cross-flow and window velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.6 Shellside stream analysis (Flow pattern) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.4.7 Heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4.8 Heat transfer coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.4.9 Pressure drop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
5.5 Design Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6 Specification sheet 80
9 Troubleshooting 106
9.1 Heat exchangers problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.2 Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.2.1 Costs of fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.2.2 Facts about fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2.3 Types of Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2.4 Fouling Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2.5 Conditions Influencing Fouling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2.6 Fouling control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.2.7 Fouling cleaning methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.3 Leakage/Rupture of the Heat Transfer Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.3.1 Cost of leakage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.3.2 Cause of differential thermal expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.4 Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Bibliography 121
1 Introduction
Heat exchanger is an important and expensive item of equipment that is used almost in
every industry (oil and petrochemical, sugar, food, pharmaceutical and power industry).
A better understanding of the basic principles of heat transfer and fluid flow and their
application to the design and operation of heat exchangers that you gain from this course
will enable you to improve their efficiency and extend their life. You understand how to use
the applicable API, TEMA and ASME recommended practices, standards and codes for
heat exchangers. This will enable you to communicate with the designers, manufacturers
and bidders of heat exchangers. You will understand how to avoid fouling, corrosion and
failure and leak problems by your design. You will also be able to survey and troubleshoot
heat exchangers and assist in performing inspection, cleaning, and maintenance. You will
be exposed to recent development and future trend in heat exchangers.
The course includes worked examples to reinforce the key learning as well as a demon-
stration of mechanical design and challenging problems encountered in the operation of
heat exchangers.
Objectives
To learn the classification, code and standards (API, TEMA,...) and selection pro-
cedure for heat exchangers.
To review the thermal and mechanical design of heat exchangers.
To learn the installation, operation and maintenance procedure for heat exchanger.
To acquire information that will enable decisions to be made on the repair and
refurbishment of aging equipment as well as repair vs. replacement options.
To learn techniques of failure elimination and appropriate maintenance and trou-
bleshooting procedures.
To delineate the factors that lead to overall economically advantageous decisions.
Who should attend: Project engineers, process engineers and plant engineers in the oil,
chemical, sugar, power, and other industries who requires a wider and deeper appreciation
of heat exchangers design, performance and operation. The detailed review of thermal
and mechanical design is particularly useful to plant and maintenance engineers as well
as to those generally knowledgeable in the subject, but who require a refresher or up-
date. Codes and standards are useful for project engineer to help him communicate with
manufacturers, designers and bidders of heat exchangers. Troubleshooting procedures are
important for process engineers. Participants will be taken through an intensive primer
of heat transfer principles as applicable to heat exchangers.
1.2 Instructor
Faculty: Ali. Rabah, BSc. MSc., PhD., MSES., Assistant professor, De-
partment of Chemical Engineering University of Khartoum
Dr. Rabah holds a BSc. degree (Chemical Engineering) from the University of Khartoum,
MSc. degree from university of Nairobi, Kenya, and PhD. degree from University of
Hannover, Germany. He has a wide professional experience in teaching heat and mass
transfer and engineering thermodynamics to BSc and MSc Chemical, Mechanical and
Petroleum Engineering students.
Dr. Rabah is a consultant engineer to a number of chemical industries and factories.
He has developed and delivered numerous designs of heat exchangers, evaporators and
boilers. He designed, for example, a 5 ton/hr (10 bar) fired tube boiler. His design is
under fabrication.
Dr. Rabah has designed and manufactured double pipe heat exchangers for education
proposes to a number of chemical engineering departments country-wide e.g. University
of Nileen.
Dr. Rabah assumed engineering design positions with responsibilities covering design,
construction and inspection of heat transfer equipments. The design projects are spon-
sored by the federal ministry of research and technology and the University of Khartoum
consultancy cooperation.
Dr. Rabah is a member of the Sudan Engineering Society (SES) and serving as a member
of editorial board of SES Journal. He is a reviewer to a number of world wide soft-
ware packages for chemical engineering simulations and the prediction of thermodynamic
properties.
Dr. Rabah has a number of publications in field of heat transfer and thermodynamics.
Transfer process
1. Direct contact
2. indirect contact
(a) Direct transfer type
(b) Storage type
(c) Fluidized bed
Surface compactness
1. Compact (surface area density 700m2 /m3 )
2. non-compact (surface area density < 700m2 /m3 )
Construction
1. Tubular
(a) Double pipe
(b) Shell and tube
(c) Spiral tube
2. Plate
(a) Gasketed
(b) Spiral plate
(c) Welded plate
3. Extended surface
(a) Plate fin
(b) Tube fin
4. Regenerative
(a) Rotory
i. Disc-type
ii. Drum-type
(b) Fixed-matrix
Flow arrangement
1. Single pass
(a) Parallel flow
(b) Counter flow
(c) Cross flow
2. Multipass
(a) Extended surface H.E.
i. Cross counter flow
ii. Cross parallel flow
(b) Shell and tube H.E.
i. Parallel counter flow (Shell and fluid mixed, M shell pass, N Tube pass)
ii. Split flow
iii. Divided flow
(c) Plate H.E. (N-parallel plate multipass)
Number of fluids
1. Two-fluid
2. Three fluid
3. N-fluid (N > 3)
Transfer mechanisms
1. Single phase convection on both sides
2. Single phase convection on one side, two-phase convection on the other side
3. Two-phase convection on both sides
4. Combined convection and radiative heat transfer
Classification based on service: Basically, a service may be single phase (such as the
cooling or heating of a liquid or gas) or two-phase (such as condensing or vaporizing).
Since there are two sides to an STHE, this can lead to several combinations of ser-
vices. Broadly, services can be classified as follows: single-phase (both shellside and
tubeside); condensing (one side condensing and the other single-phase); vaporizing
(one side vaporizing and the other side single-phase); and condensing/vaporizing
(one side condensing and the other side vaporizing). The following nomenclature is
usually used:
Heat exchanger: both sides singlephase and process streams (that is, not a
utility).
Cooler: one stream a process fluid and the other cooling water or air. Dirty
water can be used as the cooling medium. The top of the cooler is open to the
atmosphere for access to tubes. These can be cleaned without shutting down
the cooler by removing the distributors one at a time and scrubbing the tubes.
Heater: one stream a process fluid and the other a hot utility, such as steam
or hot oil.
Condenser: one stream a condensing vapor and the other cooling water or air.
Figure 2.1. Double pipe heat exchanger. Courtesy of Perry, Chemical engineering hand book
Elbew 3/4"
Galv. pipe
Union 2"
Threaded 3/4" Part A
Cu pipe 3/4"
Tee 3/4"x1/2"
Part B
Specification Sheet
Bypass
Item Qty Item Qty
Valve 3/4"
Double pipe heat exchanger is perhaps the simplest of all heat exchanger types. The
advantages of this type are:
Limitation: The double pipe heat exchanger is generally used for the application where
the total heat transfer surface area required is less than or equal to 20 m2 (215 ft2 ) because
it is expensive on a cost per square meter (foot) basis.
Figure 2.3. Spiral tube heat exchanger. Courtesy of The German Atlas
The shell and tube heat exchanger is further divided into three catogaries as
2. U tube
3. Floating head
Other advantages are that the tubes can be cleaned mechanically after removal of the
channel cover or bonnet, and that leakage of the shellside fluid is minimized since there
are no flanged joints.
A disadvantage of this design is that since the bundle is fixed to the shell and cannot be
removed, the outsides of the tubes cannot be cleaned mechanically. Thus, its application
is limited to clean services on the shellside. However, if a satisfactory chemical clean-
ing program can be employed, fixed-tubesheet construction may be selected for fouling
services on the shellside.
In the event of a large differential temperature between the tubes and the shell, the
tubesheets will be unable to absorb the differential stress, thereby making it necessary to
incorporate an expansion joint. This takes away the advantage of low cost to a significant
extent.
2.4.2 U-tube
As the name implies, the tubes of a U-tube heat exchanger (Figure 2.6) are bent in
the shape of a U. There is only one tubesheet in a Utube heat exchanger. However,
the lower cost for the single tubesheet is offset by the additional costs incurred for the
bending of the tubes and the somewhat larger shell diameter (due to the minimum U-bend
radius), making the cost of a U-tube heat exchanger comparable to that of a fixedtubesheet
exchanger.
The advantage of a U-tube heat exchanger is that because one end is free, the bundle
can expand or contract in response to stress differentials. In addition, the outsides of the
tubes can be cleaned, as the tube bundle can be removed.
The disadvantage of the U-tube construction is that the insides of the tubes cannot be
cleaned effectively, since the U-bends would require flexible- end drill shafts for cleaning.
Thus, U-tube heat exchangers should not be used for services with a dirty fluid inside
tubes.
In the design without packing service construction (Figure 2.8), the entire tube bundle,
including the floating-head assembly, can be removed from the stationary end, since the
shell diameter is larger than the floating-head flange. The floatinghead cover is bolted
directly to the floating tubesheet so that a split backing ring is not required. The advan-
tage of this construction is that the tube bundle may be removed from the shell without
removing either the shell or the floatinghead cover, thus reducing maintenance time. This
design is particularly suited to kettle reboilers having a dirty heating medium where U-
tubes cannot be employed. Due to the enlarged shell, this construction has the highest
cost of all exchanger types.
Gasketed plate
Fixed plate
Spiral plate
The frame and channel plates have portholes which allow the process fluids to enter alter-
nating flow passages (the space between two adjacent-channel plates) Fig.2.10. Gaskets
around the periphery of the channel plate prevent leakage to the atmosphere and also pre-
vent process fluids from coming in contact with the frame plates. No inter fluid leakage
is possible in the port area due to a dual-gasket seal. Fig.2.11 shows the plate profiles.
Expansion of the initial unit is easily performed in the field without special considerations.
The original frame length typically has an additional capacity of 15-20 percent more
channel plates (i.e. surface area). In fact, if a known future capacity is available during
fabrication stages, a longer carrying bar could be installed, and later, increasing the
surface area would be easily handled. When the expansion is needed, simply untighten
the carrying bolts, pull back the frame plate, add the additional channel plates, and
tighten the frame plate.
Applications: Most PHE applications are liquid-liquid services but there are numerous
steam heater and evaporator uses from their heritage in the food industry. Industrial users
typically have chevron style channel plates while some food applications are washboard
style.
Fine particulate slurries in concentrations up to 70 percent by weight are possible with
standard channel spacings. Wide-gap units are used with larger particle sizes. Typical
particle size should not exceed 75 percent of the single plate (not total channel) gap.
Close temperature approaches and tight temperature control possible with PHEs and the
ability to sanitize the entire heat transfer surface easily were a major benefit in the food
and pharmaceutical industry.
Advantages: -
Disadvantages: -
stacking of plates method of assembly, entirely braze the plates together with copper or
nickel brazing, diffusion bond then pressure form plates and bond etched, passage plates
Fig. 2.12 and Fig. 2.13.
Typical applications include district heating where the low cost and minimal maintenance
have made this type of heat exchanger especially attractive.
Most methods of welded-plate manufacturing do not allow for inspection of the heat-
transfer surface, mechanical cleaning of that surface, and have limited ability to repair
or plug off damage channels. Consider these limitations when the fluid is heavily fouling,
has solids, or in general the repair or plugging ability for severe services.
of plate, with welded-on spacer studs, upon each other into clock-spring shape Fig.2.14
and Fig.2.15. This forms two passages. Passages are sealed off on one end of the SHE by
welding a bar to the plates; hot and cold fluid passages are sealed off on opposite ends of
the SHE. A single rectangular flow passage is now formed for each fluid, producing very
high shear rates compared to tubular designs. Removable covers are provided on each
end to access and clean the entire heat transfer surface.
Pure countercurrent flow is achieved and LMTD correction factor is essentially = 1.0.
Since there are no dead spaces in a SHE, the helical flow pattern combines to entrain
any solids and create high turbulence creating a self-cleaning flow passage. There are
no thermal-expansion problems in spirals. Since the center of the unit is not fixed, it
can torque to relieve stress. The SHE can be expensive when only one fluid requires a
high alloy material. Since the heat-transfer plate contacts both fluids, it is required to be
fabricated out of the higher alloy. SHEs can be fabricated out of any material that can be
cold-worked and welded. The channel spacings can be different on each side to match the
flow rates and pressure drops of the process design. The spacer studs are also adjusted in
their pitch to match the fluid characteristics. As the coiled plate spirals outward, the plate
thickness increases from a minimum of 2 mm to a maximum (as required by pressure)
up to 10 mm. This means relatively thick material separates the two fluids compared to
tubing of conventional exchangers.
a) Spiral flow in both channels b) Flow are both spiral and axial
Applications: The most common applications that fit SHE are slurries. The rectan-
gular channel provides high shear and turbulence to sweep the surface clear of blockage
and causes no distribution problems associated with other exchanger types. A localized
restriction causes an increase in local velocity which aids in keeping the unit free flowing.
Only fibers that are long and stringy cause SHE to have a blockage it cannot clear itself.
As an additional antifoulant measure, SHEs have been coated with a phenolic lining. This
provides some degree of corrosion protection as well, but this is not guaranteed due to
pinholes in the lining process.
There are three types of SHE to fit different applications:
Type I is the spiral-spiral flow pattern (Fig. 2.15a). It is used for all heating and
cooling services and can accommodate temperature crosses such as lean/rich services
in one unit. The removable covers on each end allow access to one side at a time to
perform maintenance on that fluid side. Never remove a cover with one side under
pressure as the unit will telescope out like a collapsible cup.
Type II units are the condenser and reboiler designs (Fig. 2.15b). One side is spiral
flow and the other side is in cross flow. These SHEs provide very stable designs
for vacuum condensing and reboiling services. A SHE can be fitted with special
mounting connections for reflux-type ventcondenser applications. The vertically
mounted SHE directly attaches on the column or tank.
Type III units are a combination of the Type I and Type II where part is in spiral
flow and part is in cross flow. This SHE can condense and subcool in a single
unit. The unique channel arrangement has been used to provide on-line cleaning,
by switching fluid sides to clean the fouling (caused by the fluid that previously
flowed there) off the surface. Phosphoric acid coolers use pond water for cooling
and both sides foul; water, as you expect, and phosphoric acid deposit crystals. By
reversing the flow sides, the water dissolves the acid crystals and the acid clears up
the organic fouling. SHEs are also used as oleum coolers, sludge coolers/ heaters,
slop oil heaters, and in other services where multiple flow- passage designs have not
performed well.
Plate-fin
Tube-fin
Figure 2.16. Examples of extended surfaces on one or both sides. Plate fins on both sides
(left) and Tubes and plate fins (right).
In this work, being most widely used one, the TEMA standard is presented.
shell;
shell cover;
tubes;
channel;
channel cover;
tubesheet;
baffles; and
nozzles.
Other components include tie-rods and spacers, pass partition plates, impingement plate,
longitudinal baffle, sealing strips, supports, and foundation. Table 3.1 shows the nomen-
clature used for different parts of shell and tube exchanger in accordance with TEMA
standards; the numbers refer to the feature shown in Fig. 3.2 to Fig. 3.8.
Because of the number of variations in mechanical designs for front and rear heads and
shells, and for commercial reasons, TEMA has divided STHE into main three components:
front head, shell and rear head. Fig. 3.1 illustrates TEMA nomenclature for the various
construction possibilities. TEMA has classified the front head channel and bonnet types as
given the letters (A,B,C,N,D) and the shell is classified according to the nozzles locations
for the inlet and outlet. There are type of shell configuration ( E,F,G,H,J,K,X). Similarly
the rear head is classified ( M,N,P,S,T,U,W).
Exchangers are described by the letter codes of the three sections. The first letter stands
for the front head, the second letter for the shell type and the third letter for the rear head
type. For example a BFL exchanger has a bonnet cover, two-shell pass with longitudinal
baffles and a fixed tube sheet rear head.
In addition to these the size of the exchanger is required to be identified with the notation.
The size is identified by the shell inside diameter (nominal) and tube length (both are
rounded to the nearest integer in inch or mm). Demonstration examples are shown below:
Type AES size 23-192 in (590-4880): This exchanger has a removable channel
cover (A), single pass shell (E) and Split ring floating front head (S) it has , 23 in
(590 mm) inside diameter with tubes of 16 ft (4880 mm) long.
Type BGU Size 19-84 (480-2130)This exchanger has a bonnet-type stationary
front head (B), split flow shell (G) and U-tube bundle rear head(U) with 19 in (480)
inside diameter and 7 ft (2130 mm) tube length.
Type AFM size 33-96 (840-2440): This exchanger has a removable channel and cover
front head (A), two-pass shell (F) and fixed tube sheet bonnet-type rear head (M)
with 331/8 in (840 mm) inside diameter and 8ft (2440 mm) tube length.
Figure 3.1. TEMA-type designations for shell-and-tube heat exchangers. (Standards of Tubu-
lar Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978.)
In the above illustration the term single pass and two pass shell have been used. This
mean that the shell side fluid travels only one through the shell (single pass) or twice (two
pass shell). Two pass shell mean that the fluid enters at one end, travel to other end and
back to the end where it entered (making U-turn). Similarly there are multiple pases. To
be remembered is that the number of tube passes is equal to or greater than the number
of shell passes. Generally the multi shell and tube passes are usually designated by two
numerals separated by a hyphen, with the first numeral indication the number of shell
pass and the other stands for the tube passes. For example a one-shell pass and two tube
pass AEL exchanger will be written as 1-2 AEL. To be remembered is that this not an
TEMA standards. TEMA requires the number of shell and tube passes to be spelled out
as in the pervious examples. In a heat exchanger specification sheet there is a space for
indicating the number of shell and tube passes. Another identification of the shell and
tube heat exchanger is the number of shell passes. 1 shell pass, 2 shell pass, etc. This is
not a TEMA standardization. The tube passes can be equal to or greater than the shell
pass.
Number of tube passes No practical Any even Limited to one No practical No practical No practical
limitations number possible or two passes limitations limitations limitations
Internal gaskets
eliminated Yes Yes Yes No Yes No
3.2 Classification by construction STHE 33
U-tube
Floating head
Figure 3.2. Heat-exchanger-component nomenclature. Fixed tube heat sheet shell and tube
heat exchanger. (Standard of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, 6th ed., 1978.)
The tube-side header (or channel) may be welded to the tube sheet, as shown in Fig. 3.1
for type C and N heads. This type of construction is less costly than types B and M or
A and L and still offers the advantage that tubes may be examined and replaced without
disturbing the tube-side piping connections. There is no limitation on the number of
tube-side passes. Shell-side passes can be one or more, although shells with more than
two shell side passes are rarely used. Tubes can completely fill the heat-exchanger shell.
Clearance between the outermost tubes and the shell is only the minimum necessary
for fabrication. Between the inside of the shell and the baffles some clearance must be
provided so that baffles can slide into the shell. Fabrication tolerances then require some
additional clearance between the outside of the baffles and the outermost tubes. The edge
distance between the outer tube limit (OTL) and the baffle diameter must be sufficient
to prevent vibration of the tubes from breaking through the baffle holes. The outermost
tube must be contained within the OTL.
Clearances between the inside shell diameter and OTL are 13 mm (1/2 in) for 635-mm-
(25-in-) inside-diameter shells and up, 11 mm for 254- through 610-mm (10- through
24-in) pipe shells, and slightly less for smaller-diameter pipe shells.
Tubes can be replaced. Tube-side headers, channel covers, gaskets, etc., are accessible for
maintenance and replacement. Neither the shell-side baffle structure nor the blind gasket
is accessible. During tube removal, a tube may break within the shell. When this occurs,
it is most difficult to remove or to replace the tube. The usual procedure is to plug the
appropriate holes in the tube sheets.
Differential expansion between the shell and the tubes can develop because of differences
in length caused by thermal expansion. Various types of expansion joints are used to
eliminate excessive stresses caused by expansion. The need for an expansion joint is a
function of both the amount of differential expansion and the cycling conditions to be
expected during operation. A number of types of expansion joints are available (Fig. 3.3)
a Flat plates. Two concentric flat plates with a bar at the outer edges. The flat plates
can flex to make some allowance for differential expansion. This design is generally
used for vacuum service and gauge pressures below 103 kPa (15 lbf/in2). All welds
are subject to severe stress during differential expansion.
b Flanged-only heads. The flat plates are flanged (or curved). The diameter of these
heads is generally 203 mm (8 in) or more greater than the shell diameter. The
welded joint at the shell is subject to the stress referred to before, but the joint
connecting the heads is subjected to less stress during expansion because of the
curved shape.
c Flared shell or pipe segments. The shell may be flared to connect with a pipe
section, or a pipe may be halved and quartered to produce a ring.
d Formed heads. A pair of dished-only or elliptical or flanged and dished heads can
be used. These are welded together or connected by a ring. This type of joint is
similar to the flanged-only-head type but apparently is subject to less stress.
e Flanged and flued heads. A pair of flanged-only heads is provided with concentric
reverse flue holes. These heads are relatively expensive because of the cost of the
fluing operation. The curved shape of the heads reduces the amount of stress at the
welds to the shell and also connecting the heads.
f Toroidal. The toroidal joint has a mathematically predictable smooth stress pat-
tern of low magnitude, with maximum stresses at sidewalls of the corrugation and
minimum stresses at top and bottom. The foregoing designs were discussed as ring
expansion joints by Kopp and Sayre, Expansion Joints for Heat Exchangers (ASME
Misc. Pap., vol. 6, no. 211). All are statically indeterminate but are subjected
to analysis by introducing various simplifying assumptions. Some joints in current
industrial use are of lighter wall construction than is indicated by the method of
this paper.
g Bellows. Thin-wall bellows joints are produced by various manufacturers. These are
designed for differential expansion and are tested for axial and transverse movement
as well as for cyclical life. Bellows may be of stainless steel, nickel alloys, or copper.
(Aluminum, Monel, phosphor bronze, and titanium bellows have been manufac-
tured.) Welding nipples of the same composition as the heat-exchanger shell are
generally furnished. The bellows may be hydraulically formed from a single piece
of metal or may consist of welded pieces. External insulation covers of carbon steel
are often provided to protect the light-gauge bellows from damage. The cover also
prevents insulation from interfering with movement of the bellows (see h).
h Toroidal bellows. For high-pressure service the bellows type of joint has been modi-
fied so that movement is taken up by thin-wall small-diameter bellows of a toroidal
shape. Thickness of parts under high pressure is reduced considerably (see f ).
The U-tube design offers the advantage of reducing the number of joints. In high-pressure
construction this feature becomes of considerable importance in reducing both initial and
maintenance costs. The use of U-tube construction has increased significantly with the
development of hydraulic tube cleaners, which can remove fouling residues from both the
straight and the U-bend portions of the tubes. Rods and conventional mechanical tube
cleaners cannot pass from one end of the U tube to the other. Power-driven tube cleaners,
which can clean both the straight legs of the tubes and the bends, are available. Hydraulic
jetting with water forced through spray nozzles at high pressure for cleaning tube interiors
and exteriors of removal bundles is reported in the recent ASME publications.
U-tube can be used for high pressure and high temperature application like kettle reboiler,
evaporator, tank section heaters ,etc.
The tank suction heater, as illustrated in Fig. 3.5, contains a U-tube bundle. This design
is often used with outdoor storage tanks for heavy fuel oils, tar, molasses, and similar
fluids whose viscosity must be lowered to permit easy pumping. Uusally the tube-side
heating medium is steam. One end of the heater shell is open, and the liquid being heated
passes across the outside of the tubes. Pumping costs can be reduced without heating the
entire contents of the tank. Bare tube and integral low-fin tubes are provided with baffles.
Longitudinal fin-tube heaters are not baffled. Fins are most often used to minimize the
fouling potential in these fluids.
Kettle-type reboilers, evaporators, etc. , are often U-tube exchangers with enlarged shell
sections for vapor-liquid separation (Fig.3.6). The U-tube bundle replaces the floating-
heat bundle of Fig. 3.4.
The U-tube exchanger with copper tubes, cast-iron header, and other parts of carbon
steel is used for water and steam services in office buildings, schools, hospitals, hotels, etc.
Nonferrous tube sheets and admiralty or 90-10 copper-nickel tubes are the most frequently
used substitute materials. These standard exchangers are available from a number of
manufacturers at costs far below those of custombuilt process-industry equipment.
Internal floating head (pull- through design) Fig3.9 design which allows the tube bundle to
be pulled entirely through the shell for service or replacement. In order to accommodate
the rear head bolt circle, tubes must be removed resulting in a less efficient use of shell
size. In addition, the missing tubes result in larger annular spaces and can contribute to
reduced flow across the effective tube surface, resulting in reduced thermal performance.
Some designs include sealing strips installed in the shell to help block the bypass steam.
Another floating head design that partially addresses the above disadvantages is a split-
ring floating head. Here the floating head bonnet is bolted to a split backing ring instead
of the tube sheet. This eliminates the bolt circle diameter and allows a full complement
of tubes to fill the shell. This construction is more expensive than a common pull through
design, but is in wide use in petrochemical applications. For applications with high
pressures or temperatures, or where more positive sealing between the fluids is desired,
the pull-through design should be specified.
Two other types, the outside packed lantern ring and the outside packed stuffing box
designs offer less positive sealing against leakage to the atmosphere than the pull though
or split ring designs, but can be configured for single tube pass duty. More details about
the various types of floating head shell and tube heat exchanger is given the following
sections
Packed-Lantern-Ring Exchanger: (Fig. 3.7 ) This construction is the least costly
of the straight-tube removable bundle types. The shell- and tube-side fluids are each
contained by separate rings of packing separated by a lantern ring and are installed at the
floating tube sheet. The lantern ring is provided with weep holes. Any leakage passing
the packing goes through the weep holes and then drops to the ground. Leakage at the
packing will not result in mixing within the exchanger of the two fluids. The width of the
floating tube sheet must be great enough to allow for the packings, the lantern ring, and
differential expansion. Sometimes a small skirt is attached to a thin tube sheet to provide
the required bearing surface for packings and lantern ring. The clearance between the
outer tube limit and the inside of the shell is slightly larger than that for fixed-tube-sheet
and U-tube exchangers.
The use of a floating-tube-sheet skirt increases this clearance. Without the skirt the
clearance must make allowance for tubehole distortion during tube rolling near the outside
edge of the tube sheet or for tube-end welding at the floating tube sheet.
The packed-lantern-ring construction is generally limited to design temperatures below
191 C (375 F) and to the mild services of water, steam, air, lubricating oil, etc. Design
gauge pressure does not exceed 2068 kPa (300 lbf/in2 ) for pipe shell exchangers and is
limited to 1034 kPa (150 lbf/in2 ) for 610- to 1067-mm- (24- to 42-in-) diameter shells.
There are no limitations upon the number of tube-side passes or upon the tube-side
design pressure and temperature. The outside-packed floating-head exchanger was the
most commonly used type of removable- bundle construction in chemical-plant service.
The floating-tube-sheet skirt, where in contact with the rings of packing, has fine machine
finish. A split shear ring is inserted into a groove in the floating-tube-sheet skirt. A slip-
on backing flange, which in service is held in place by the shear ring, bolts to the external
floating- head cover. The floating-head cover is usually a circular disk. With an odd
number of tube-side passes, an axial nozzle can be installed in such a floating- head cover.
If a side nozzle is required, the circular disk is replaced by either a dished head or a channel
barrel (similar to Fig. 11-36f ) bolted between floating-head cover and floating-tube-sheet
skirt. The outer tube limit approaches the inside of the skirt but is farther removed from
the inside of the shell than for any of the previously discussed constructions. Clearances
between shell diameter and bundle OTL are 22 mm (7.8 in) for small-diameter pipe shells,
44 mm (1e in) for large-diameter pipe shells, and 58 mm (2g in) for moderatediameter
plate shells.
Internal Floating-Head Exchanger: (Fig. 3.9) The internal floating-head design
is used extensively in petroleum-refinery service, but in recent years there has been a
decline in usage. The tube bundle is removable, and the floating tube sheet moves (or
floats) to accommodate differential expansion between shell and tubes. The outer tube
limit approaches the inside diameter of the gasket at the floating tube sheet. Clearances
(between shell and OTL) are 29 mm for pipe shells and 37 mm for moderatediameter plate
shells. A split backing ring and bolting usually hold the floating-head cover at the floating
tube sheet. These are located beyond the end of the shell and within the larger-diameter
shell cover. Shell cover, split backing ring, and floating-head cover must be removed before
the tube bundle can pass through the exchanger shell. With an even number of tube-side
passes the floating-head cover serves as return cover for the tube-side fluid. With an odd
number of passes a nozzle pipe must extend from the floating-head cover through the shell
cover. Provision for both differential expansion and tube-bundle removal must be made.
cover bolts directly to the floating tube sheet. The tube bundle can be withdrawn from
the shell without removing either shell cover or floating-head cover. This feature reduces
maintenance time during inspection and repair.
The large clearance between the tubes and the shell must provide for both the gasket
and the bolting at the floating-head cover. This clearance is about 2 to 2.5 times that
required by the split-ring design. Sealing strips or dummy tubes are often installed to
reduce bypassing of the tube bundle.
TEMA K shell, also termed a kettle reboiler, is specified when the shell side stream
will undergo vaporization. The liquid level of a K shell design should just cover the
tube bundle, which fills the smaller diameter end of the shell. This liquid level is
controlled by the liquid flowing over a weir at the far end of the entrance nozzle. The
expanded shell area serves to facilitate vapor disengagement for boiling liquid in the
bottom of the shell. To insure against excessive liquid carry-though with the vapor
stream, a separate vessel as described above is specified. Liquid carry-through can
also be minimized by installing a mesh demister at the vapor exit nozzle. U-bundles
are typically used with K shell designs. K shells are expensive for high pressure
vaporization due to shell diameter and the required wall thickness.
The TEMA X shell, or crossflow shell is most commonly used in vapor condensing
applications, though it can also be used effectively in low pressure gas cooling or
heating. It produces a very low shell side pressure drop, and is therefore most
suitable for vacuum service condensing. In order to assure adequate distribution
of vapors, X-shell designs typically feature an area free of tubes along the top of
the exchanger. It is also typical to design X shell condensers with a flow area at
the bottom of the tube bundle to allow free condensate flow to the exit nozzle.
Careful attention to the effective removal of non-condensables is vital to X-shell
constructions.
The bonnet (Fig. 3.1B) bolts to the shell. It is necessary to remove the bonnet in
order to examine the tube ends. The fixed-tubesheet exchanger of Fig. 3.1b has
bonnets at both ends of the shell.
The channel (Fig. 3.1A) has a removable channel cover. The tube ends can be
examined by removing this cover without disturbing the piping connections to the
channel nozzles. The channel can bolt to the shell as shown in Fig. 3.1a and c.
The Type C and Type N channels of Fig. 3.1 are welded to the tube sheet. This
design is comparable in cost with the bonnet but has the advantages of permitting
access to the tubes without disturbing the piping connections and of eliminating a
gasketed joint.
Special High-Pressure Closures (Fig. 3.1D) The channel barrel and the tube sheet
are generally forged. The removable channel cover is seated in place by hydrostatic
pressure, while a shear ring subjected to shearing stress absorbs the end force. For
pressures above 6205 kPa (900 lbf/in2) these designs are generally more economical
than bolted constructions, which require larger flanges and bolting as pressure in-
creases in order to contain the end force with bolts in tension. Relatively light-gauge
internal pass partitions are provided to direct the flow of tube-side fluids but are
designed only for the differential pressure across the tube bundle.
1. Plain tube
2. Finned tube
3. Duplex or bimetallic tube. These tube are in reality two tube of different materials,
one closely fitted over the other with no gap between them. They are made by
drawing the outer tube onto the inner one or by shrink fitting. These are used
where corrosive nature of the tube side fluid is such that no one metal or alloy is
compatible with fluids.
1. Plain tube
Standard heat-exchanger tubing is (1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1 1/4, 1 1/2 inch in
outside diameter (1 inch= 25.4 mm). Wall thickness is measured in Birmingham
wire gauge (BWG) units. The most commonly used tubes in chemical plants and
petroleum refineries are 19- and 25-mm (3/4- and 1-in) outside diameter. Standard
tube lengths are 8, 10, 12, 16, and 20 ft, with 20 ft now the most common ( 1 ft=
0.3048 m).
Manufacturing tolerances for steel, stainless-steel, and nickel alloy tubes are such
that the tubing is produced to either average or minimum wall thickness. Seamless
carbon steel tube of minimum wall thickness may vary from 0 to 20 percent above the
nominal wall thickness. Average-wall seamless tubing has an allowable variation of
plus or minus 10 percent. Welded carbon steel tube is produced to closer tolerances
(0 to plus 18 percent on minimum wall; plus or minus 9 percent on average wall).
Tubing of aluminum, copper, and their alloys can be drawn easily and usually is
made to minimum wall specifications.
Common practice is to specify exchanger surface in terms of total external square
feet of tubing. The effective outside heat-transfer surface is based on the length of
tubes measured between the inner faces of tube sheets. In most heat exchangers
there is little difference between the total and the effective surface. Significant
differences are usually found in high-pressure and double-tube-sheet designs.
Tube thickness The tube should be able to stand:
The tube thickness is given a function of the tube out side diameter in accordance
with B.W.G.
2. Finned tube: As the name implies, finned tube have fins to the tubular surface.
Fins can be longtiudinal, radial or helical and may be on the outside or inside or on
both sides of the tube. Fig. 5.7shows some of the commonly used fins. The fins are
generally used when at least one of the fluid is gas.
Figure 3.13. Examples of extended surfaces on one or both sides. (a) Radial fins. (b) Serrated
radial fins. (c) Studded surface. (d) Joint between tubesheet and low fin tube with three times
bare surface. (e) External axial fins. ( f ) Internal axial fins. (9) Finned surface with internal
spiral to promote turbulence. (h) Plate fins on both sides. (i) Tubes and plate fins.
(a) Integrally finned tube, which is available in a variety of alloys and sizes, is
being used in shell-and-tube heat exchangers. The fins are radially extruded
from thick-walled tube to a height of 1.6 mm (1/16 in) spaced at 1.33 mm (19
fins per inch) or to a height of 3.2 mm (1/8 in) spaced at 2.3 mm (11 fins per
inch). External surface is approximately 2 1/2 times the outside surface of a
bare tube with the same outside diameter. Also available are 0.93-mm- (0.037-
in-) high fins spaced 0.91 mm (28 fins per inch) with an external surface about
3.5 times the surface of the bare tube. Bare ends of nominal tube diameter are
provided, while the fin height is slightly less than this diameter. The tube can
be inserted into a conventional tube bundle and rolled or welded to the tube
sheet by the same means, used for bare tubes. An integrally finned tube rolled
into a tube sheet with double serrations and flared at the inlet is shown in
Fig. 11-39. Internally finned tubes have been manufactured but have limited
application.
(b) Longitudinal fins are commonly used in double-pipe exchangers upon the
outside of the inner tube. U-tube and conventional removable tube bundles
are also made from such tubing. The ratio of external to internal surface
generally is about 10 or 15:1.
(c) Transverse fins upon tubes are used in low-pressure gas services. The primary
application is in air-cooled heat exchangers (as discussed under that heading),
but shell-and-tube exchangers with these tubes are in service.
4. Enhance surface These kind of tubes enhance the heat transfer coefficient (Fig.
5.7h,i). This may be achieved by two techniques.
(a) The surface is contoured or grooved in a variety of ways forming valley and
ridges. These are applicable in condenser and.
(b) The surface is prepared with special coating to provide a large number of
nucleation sites for use in boiling operations.
do
pt
o
d
Flow pt
pt
Square pitch Equilateral triangular pitch Rotaed square
4
Four tube passes
1 1
2 3 2 3
5 4 5 4
6 6
Six tube passes
3.6.2 Baffle
Baffles are used to direct the side and tube side flows so that the fluid velocity is increased
to obtain higher heat transfer rate and reduce fouling deposits. In horizontal units baffle
are used to provide support against sagging and vibration damage. There are different
types of baffles:
1. segemntal
2. disc and doughnut
3. orifice
4. rod type
5. nest type
6. longitudinal
7. impingment
Figure 3.16. Types of baffle used in shell and tube heat exchanger. (a) Segmental. (b)
Segmental and strip. (c) Disc and doughnut. (d) Oriffice.
Minimum baffle spacing is generally one-fifth of the shell diameter and not less
than 50.8 mm (2 in). Maximum baffle spacing is limited by the requirement to
provide adequate support for the tubes. The maximum unsupported tube span
in inches equals 74d0.75 (where d is the outside tube diameter in inches). The
unsupported tube span is reduced by about 12 percent for aluminum, copper, and
their alloys.
Baffles are provided for heat-transfer purposes. When shell-side baffles are not
required for heat-transfer purposes, as may be the case in condensers or reboilers,
tube supports are installed.
Maximum baffle cut is limited to about 45 percent for single segmental baffles so
that every pair of baffles will support each tube. Tube bundles are generally pro-
vided with baffles cut so that at least one row of tubes passes through all the baffles
or support plates. These tubes hold the entire bundle together. In pipe-shell ex-
changers with a horizontal baffle cut and a horizontal pass rib for directing tube
side flow in the channel, the maximum baffle cut, which permits a minimum of one
row of tubes to pass through all baffles, is approximately 33 percent in small shells
and 40 percent in larger pipe shells.
Maximum shell-side heat-transfer rates in forced convection are apparently obtained
by cross-flow of the fluid at right angles to the tubes. In order to maximize this
type of flow some heat exchangers are built with segmental-cut baffles and with no
tubes in the window (or the baffle cutout). Maximum baffle spacing may thus equal
maximum unsupported-tube span, while conventional baffle spacing is limited to
one-half of this span.
The maximum baffle spacing for no tubes in the window of single segmental baffles
is unlimited when intermediate supports are provided. These are cut on both sides
of the baffle and therefore do not affect the flow of the shell-side fluid. Each support
engages all the tubes; the supports are spaced to provide adequate support for the
tubes.
2. Rod Baffles Rod or bar baffles (fig. 3.17) have either rods or bars extending
through the lanes between rows of tubes. A baffle set can consist of a baffle with
rods in all the vertical lanes and another baffle with rods in all the horizontal lanes
between the tubes. The shell-side flow is uniform and parallel to the tubes. Stagnant
areas do not exist.
One device uses four baffles in a baffle set. Only half of either the vertical or the
horizontal tube lanes in a baffle have rods. The new design apparently provides a
maximum shell-side heat-transfer coefficient for a given pressure drop.
the impingement plate is often placed in a conical nozzle opening or in a dome cap
above the shell.
Impingement baffles or flow-distribution devices are recommended for axial tube-
side nozzles when entrance velocity is high.
(a)
(B)
(c) (d)
Figure 3.18. Impingment baffless;(a)Flat plate (b)curved plate (c)expanded or flared nozzle
(d) jacket type.
1. Dummy tubes. These tubes do not pass through the tube sheets and can be
located close to the inside of the shell.
2. Tie rods with spacers. These hold the baffles in place but can be located to
prevent bypassing.
3. Sealing strips. These longitudinal strips either extend from baffle to baffle or may
be inserted in slots cut into the baffles.
4. Dummy tubes or tie rods with spacers may be located within the pass partition
lanes (and between the baffle cuts) in order to ensure maximum bundle penetration
by the shell-side fluid.
When tubes are omitted from the tube layout to provide entrance area about an
impingement plate, the need for sealing strips or other devices to cause proper
bundle penetration by the shell-side fluid is increased.
baffle
Rods
3.6.6 Tubesheets
Tubesheets are usually made from a round flat piece of metal with holes drilled for the
tube ends in a precise location and pattern relative to one another. Tube sheet materials
range as tube materials. Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by pneumatic or hydraulic
pressure or by roller expansion. Tube holes can be drilled and reamed and can be machined
with one or more grooves. This greatly increases the strength of the tube joint.
0.4mm
3 mm
b c
a
The tubesheet is in contact with both fluids and so must have corrosion resistance al-
lowances and have metalurgical and electrochemical properties appropriate for the fluids
and velocities. Low carbon steel tube sheets can include a layer of a higher alloy metal
bonded to the surface to provide more effective corrosion resistance without the expense
of using the solid alloy. The tube hole pattern or pitch varies the distance from one tube
to the other and angle of the tubes relative to each other and to the direction of flow. This
allows the manipulation of fluid velocities and pressure drop, and provides the maximum
amount of turbulance and tube surface contact for effective heat transfer. Where the
tube and tube sheet materials are joinable, weldable metals, the tube joint can be further
strengthened by applying a seal weld or strength weld to the joint. A strength weld has
a tube slightly reccessed inside the tube hole or slightly extended beyond the tube sheet.
The weld adds metal to the resulting lip. A seal weld is specified to help prevent the
shell and tube liquids from intermixing. In this treatment, the tube is flush with the tube
sheet surface. The weld does not add metal, but rather fuses the two materials. In cases
where it is critical to avoid fluid intermixing, a double tube sheet can be provided. In this
design, the outer tube sheet is outside the shell circuit, virtually eliminating the chance
of fluid intermixing. The inner tube sheet is vented to atmosphere so any fluid leak is
easily detected.
Mechanisms of attaching tubes to tube sheet
Welded Tube Joints When suitable materials of construction are used, the tube
ends may be welded to the tube sheets. Welded joints may be seal-welded for addi-
tional tightness beyond that of tube rolling or may be strength-welded. Strength-
welded joints have been found satisfactory in very severe services. Welded joints
may or may not be rolled before or after welding (see Fig. 3.20b).
The variables in tube-end welding were discussed in two unpublished papers [39] and
[119]. Tube-end rolling before welding may leave lubricant from the tube expander in
the tube hole. Fouling during normal operation followed by maintenance operations
will leave various impurities in and near the tube ends. Satisfactory welds are rarely
possible under such conditions, since tube-end welding requires extreme cleanliness
in the area to be welded.
Tube expansion after welding has been found useful for low and moderate pres-
sures. In high-pressure service tube rolling has not been able to prevent leakage
after weld failure.
Double-Tube-Sheet Joints This design prevents the passage of either fluid into
the other because of leakage at the tube-to-tubesheet joints, which are generally the
weakest points in heat exchangers. Any leakage at these joints admits the fluid to
the gap between the tube sheets. Mechanical design, fabrication, and maintenance
of double- tube-sheet designs require special consideration (see Fig. 3.20c).
RATING SIZING
Given: Geometry Given: Q(duty)
mh , Ch , Th1 , ph mh , Ch , Th1 , ph
mc , Cc , Tc1 , pc mc , Cc , Tc1 , pc
Find: Q(Duty) Find: Geometry
The are three design approaches generally used in the design of heat exchanger. These
are
LMTD-method,
NTU--method and
-method.
4.1 LMTD-Method
Assumptions
Q = U ATlm F (4.1)
where
T2 T1
Tlm = (4.2)
ln(T2 /T1 )
The temperature difference T1 , T2 for different tube heat exchanger are defined below:
Tci
Tci Tco Tco Tci
Tco
Thi Tho Thi Tho Tho
Cocurrent Counter current Shell and Tube
T1 T2
Cocurrent Thi Tci Tho Tco
Counter current Thi Tco Tho Tci
Shell and tube Thi Tco Tho Tci
Plate heat exchanger Thi Tco Tho Tci
1. counter current
2. co-current
Solution
Thi=110 oC Thi=110 oC
T1=45oC
Tho=75oC Tco=65oC
Tho=75oC
T1 =75 T2 =10oC T2=40oC
Tco=65oC
Tci= 35 oC
Tci= 35 oC
where
T1 T2 t2 t1
R= , S= (4.7)
t2 t1 T1 t 1
or in words
T1 T2 35 65 t2 t1 75 110
R= = = 0.86, S= = = 0.467 (4.10)
t2 t1 75 110 T1 t1 35 110
t2
T2
t2
T2
Figure 4.3. Temperature distribution for 1-2 and 2-4 shell and tube heat exchanger
Figure 4.4. Temperature correction factor: one shell, 2 shell pass, divide flow shell and split
flow shell and cross flow
methods.
Heat exchangers
Water Water 800-1500
Organic solvents organic solvent 100-300
light oils light oils 100-400
heavy oils heavy oils 50-300
Gases gass 10-50
Coolers
Organic solvents water 250-750
light oils water 350-900
heavy oils water60-900
gase water 20-300
organic solvent brine 150-500
water brine 600-1200
Gases Brine 15-250
Heaters
Steam Water 1500-4000
Steam organic solvent 500-1000
Steam light oils 300-900
Steam heavy oils 60-450
Steam gass 30-300
Dowtherm Heavy oils 50-300
Dowtherm Gases 20-200
flue gases steam 30-100
flue gases hydrocarbon vapor 30-100
Condensers
Aqueous vapor water 1000-1500
Organic vapor Water 700-1000
Organic (some non condensable gases) Water 500-700
Vacuum condensers Water 200-500
Vaporizers
Steam Aqueuos solutions 1000-1500
Steam Light organics 900-1200
Steam Heavy organics 600-900
Alternatively the overall heat transfer coefficient is evalauted from the individual heat
transfer coefficient as:
1 1 1 do ln (do /di ) do 1 do 1
= + + + + (4.11)
Uo ho hod 2kw di hi di hid
where
Uo = the overall coefficient based on the outside area of the tubeW/m2 o C
ho = outside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 o C
hi = inside fluid film coefficient, W/m2 o C
hod = outside dirt coefficient (Fouling factor), W/m2 o C
hi = inside dirt coefficient,W/m2 o C
kw = thermal conductivity of the tube wall material, W/mo C
do = tube outside diameter, m
di = tube inside diameter, m
Design equations for the heat transfer coefficient for various flow geometry (tube, plate)
and configuration are given in Appendix 1. Design equation for the heat transfer coefficient
for condensation and boiling is given also in appendix A.
4.2 - NTU
The effectiveness () of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio between the actual heat
load to the maximum possible heat load.
Q
= (4.14)
Qmax
This is related to the heat exchanger size and capacity as
= f (N T U, C) (4.15)
Where N T U is number of transfer unit and is defined as
UA
NT U = N = (4.16)
Cmin
and C is the heat capacity ratio defined using energy equation as:
Q = Mh Cph (Thi Tho ) = Mc Cpc (Tco Tci ) (4.17)
Cmin
C= (4.21)
Cmax
Tc
= (4.23)
Tspan
Thi
Tco
Tspan Tho
Tci
0 A
Parallel flow
1 exp [N (1 + C)]
= (4.24)
1+C
Counter current flow
1 exp [N (1 + C)]
= (4.25)
1 C exp [N (1 C)]
Cross flow
1. Both fluid unmixed mixed
" #
exp(N Cn) 1
= 1 exp (4.26)
Cn
where
n = N 0.22 (4.27)
2. Both fluid mixed
" #1
1 C 1
= + (4.28)
1 exp(N ) 1 1 exp(N C) 1 N
Condenser
= 1 eN (4.32)
Evaporator
= 1 eN (4.33)
Alternatively these equations are presented in a graphical form. The various curves of
vs N T U can be found in textbooks like Kern (1964( and Perry and Green (2000).
Tm
= (4.36)
Tspan
where Tm is the mean temperature difference and Tspan is the maximum temperature
difference (Thi Tci ) (see Fig. 4.5). The Theta method is related is related to the associated
and N T U methods by expressions
Tm
= = (4.37)
Tspan NT U
The relationship between parameters are often presented in graphical form as shown in
Fig.4.6. However, they all depend on finding Tm or Tlm
Figure 4.6. correction charts for mean temperature difference: (a) One shell pass and any
multiple of two tube passes. (b) Two shell passes and any multiple of four tube passes.[121].
5 Thermal Design
5.1 Design Consideration
5.1.1 Fluid Stream Allocations
There are a number of practical guidelines which can lead to the optimum design of a
given heat exchanger. Remembering that the primary duty is to perform its thermal duty
with the lowest cost yet provide excellent in service reliability, the selection of fluid stream
allocations should be of primary concern to the designer. There are many trade-offs in
fluid allocation in heat transfer coefficients, available pressure drop, fouling tendencies
and operating pressure.
The higher pressure fluid normally flows through the tube side. With their small
diameter and nominal wall thicknesses, they are easily able to accept high pressures
and avoids more expensive, larger diameter components to be designed for high
pressure. If it is necessary to put the higher pressure stream in the shell, it should
be placed in a smaller diameter and longer shell.
Place corrosive fluids in the tubes, other items being equal. Corrosion is resisted
by using special alloys and it is much less expensive than using special alloy shell
materials. Other tube side materials can be clad with corrosion resistant materials
or epoxy coated.
Flow the higher fouling fluids through the tubes. Tubes are easier to clean using
common mechanical methods.
Because of the wide variety of designs and configurations available for the shell
circuits, such as tube pitch, baffle use and spacing, multiple nozzles, it is best to
place fluids requiring low pressure drops in the shell circuit.
The fluid with the lower heat transfer coefficient normally goes in the shell circuit.
This allows the use of low-fin tubing to offset the low transfer rate by providing
increased available surface.
Quiz: The top product of a distillation column is condensed using sea water. Allocate
the fluids in the tube and the shell of the heat exchanger?.
Liquids
Vapors
For vapors, the velocity used will depend on the operating pressure and fluid density; the
lower values in the range given below will apply to molecular weight materials
Vacuum 50 to 70 m/s
Atmospheric pressure 10 to 30 m/s
High pressure 5 to 10 m/s
Liquids
two value. Alternatively, the method suggested by Frank (1978) can be used; in which
11. maximum shell diameter. This is based upon tube-bundle removal requirements
and is limited by crane capacities. Such limitations apply only to exchangers with
removable tube bundles, namely U-tube and floating-head. For fixed-tubesheet
exchangers, the only limitation is the manufas fabrication capability and the avail-
ability of components such as dished ends and flanges. Thus, floating-head heat
exchangers are often limited to a shell I.D. of 1.4-1.5 m and a tube length of 6 m
or 9 m, whereas fixedtubesheet heat exchangers can have shells as large as 3 m and
tubes lengths up to 12 m or more.
12. materials of construction. If the tubes and shell are made of identical materials, all
components should be of this material. Thus, only the shell and tube materials of
construction need to be specified. However, if the shell and tubes are of different
metallurgy, the materials of all principal components should be specified to avoid
any ambiguity. The principal components are shell (and shell cover), tubes, channel
(and channel cover), tubesheets, and baffles. Tubesheets may be lined or clad.
13. special considerations. These include cycling, upset conditions, alternative operating
scenarios, and whether operation is continuous or intermittent.
!c
a b
N u = CRe P r , (5.2)
w
or
!a b !c
k GD Cp
h=C (5.3)
D k w
where
hde
Nu = k
Nusselt number
Cp
Pr = k
Prandtl number
ud
Re
Reynolds number
4A
de P
hydraulic diameter
A cross-sectional area
P wetted perimeter
u fluid velocity
w fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
k fluid thermal conductivity
Cp fluid specific heat
0.021 gases
C= 0.023 non-viscous liquid
0.027 viscous liquid
a = 0.8
b = 0.3 for cooling
b = 0.4 for heating
c = 0.14
various approaches have been taken, for example the frictional pressure gradient is given
as
!
dp 4o 4f G2
= = , (5.5)
dz f d 2d
where G is the mass flux in kg/m2 s and f is the friction factor calculated using a Blasius-
type model as
0.3164
Re0.25 Re 2320
f=
64
Re
Re < 2320 .
4f G2 L
p = , (5.6)
2 d
Mass velocity strongly influences the heat-transfer coefficient. For turbulent flow, the
tubeside heat-transfer coefficient varies to the 0.8 power of tubeside mass velocity, whereas
tubeside pressure drop varies to the square of mass velocity. Thus, with increasing mass
velocity, pressure drop increases more rapidly than does the heat-transfer coefficient.
Consequently, there will be an optimum mass velocity above which it will be wasteful to
increase mass velocity further.
Furthermore, very high velocities lead to erosion. However, the pressure drop limitation
usually becomes controlling long before erosive velocities are attained. The minimum
recommended liquid velocity inside tubes is 1.0 m/s, while the maximum is 2.5-3.0 m/s.
Pressure drop is proportional to the square of velocity and the total length of travel.
Thus, when the number of tube passes is increased for a given number of tubes and a
given tubeside flow rate, the pressure drop rises to the cube of this increase. In actual
practice, the rise is somewhat less because of lower friction factors at higher Reynolds
numbers, so the exponent should be approximately 2.8 instead of 3.
Tubeside pressure drop rises steeply with an increase in the number of tube passes. Con-
sequently, it often happens that for a given number of tubes and two passes, the pressure
drop is much lower than the allowable value, but with four passes it exceeds the allowable
pressure drop. If in such circumstances a standard tube has to be employed, the designer
may be forced to accept a rather low velocity. However, if the tube diameter and length
may be varied, the allowable pressure drop can be better utilized and a higher tubeside
velocity realized.
The following tube diameters are usually used in the CPI: (1/4, 3/8, 1/2, 5/8, 3/4, 1, 1
1/4, 1 1/2 in. Of these, 3/4 in. and 1 in. are the most popular. Tubes smaller than 3/4
in. O.D. should not be used for fouling services. The use of small-diameter tubes, such as
1 in., is warranted only for small heat exchangers with heat-transfer areas less than 20-30
m2 .
It is important to realize that the total pressure drop for a given stream must be met.
The distribution of pressure drop in the various heat exchangers for a given stream in a
particular circuit may be varied to obtain good heat transfer in all the heat exchangers.
Consider a hot liquid stream flowing through several preheat exchangers. Normally, a
pressure drop of 0.7 kg/cm2 per shell is permitted for liquid streams. If there are five
such preheat exchangers, a total pressure drop of 3.5 kg/cm2 for the circuit would be
permitted. If the pressure drop through two of these exchangers turns out to be only 0.8
kg/cm2 , the balance of 2.7 kg/cm2 would be available for the other three.
A triangular (or rotated triangular) pattern will accommodate more tubes than a square
(or rotated square) pattern. Furthermore, a triangular pattern produces high turbulence
and therefore a high heat-transfer coefficient. However, at the typical tube pitch of 1.25
times the tube O.D., it does not permit mechanical cleaning of tubes, since access lanes
are not available. Consequently, a triangular layout is limited to clean shellside services.
For services that require mechanical cleaning on the shellside, square patterns must be
used. Chemical cleaning does not require access lanes, so a triangular layout may be used
for dirty shellside services provided chemical cleaning is suitable and effective.
A rotated triangular pattern seldom offers any advantages over a triangular pattern, and
its use is consequently not very popular.
For dirty shellside services, a square layout is typically employed. However, since this is an
in-line pattern, it produces lower turbulence. Thus, when the shellside Reynolds number
is low (< 2,000), it is usually advantageous to employ a rotated square pattern because
this produces much higher turbulence, which results in a higher efficiency of conversion
of pressure drop to heat transfer.
As noted earlier, fixed-tubesheet construction is usually employed for clean services on
the shellside, Utube construction for clean services on the tubeside, and floating-head
construction for dirty services on both the shellside and tubeside. (For clean services
on both shellside and tubeside, either fixed-tubesheet or U-tube construction may be
used, although U-tube is preferable since it permits differential expansion between the
shell and the tubes.) Hence, a triangular tube pattern may be used for fixed-tubesheet
exchangers and a square (or rotated square) pattern for floating-head exchangers. For
U-tube exchangers, a triangular pattern may be used provided the shellside stream is
clean and a square (or rotated square) pattern if it is dirty.
For a triangular pattern, TEMA specifies a minimum tube pitch of 1.25 times the tube
O.D. Thus, a 25- mm tube pitch is usually employed for 20-mm O.D. tubes.
For square patterns, TEMA additionally recommends a minimum cleaning lane of 4 in.
(or 6 mm) between adjacent tubes. Thus, the minimum tube pitch for square patterns
is either 1.25 times the tube O.D. or the tube O.D. plus 6 mm, whichever is larger. For
example, 20-mm tubes should be laid on a 26-mm (20 mm + 6 mm) square pitch, but
25-mm tubes should be laid on a 31.25-mm (25 mm 1.25) square pitch.
Designers prefer to employ the minimum recommended tube pitch, because it leads to
the smallest shell diameter for a given number of tubes. However, in exceptional cir-
cumstances, the tube pitch may be increased to a higher value, for example, to reduce
shellside pressure drop. This is particularly true in the case of a cross-flow shell.
5.4.4 Baffling
Type of baffles. Baffles are used to support tubes, enable a desirable velocity to be
maintained for the shellside fluid, and prevent failure of tubes due to flow-induced vibra-
tion. There are two types of baffles: plate and rod. Plate baffles may be single-segmental,
double-segmental, or triple-segmental, as shown in Figure 5.2.
to the 1.7-2.0 power. For laminar flow (Re < 100), the exponents are 0.33 for the heat-
transfer coefficient and 1.0 for pressure drop. Thus, as baffle spacing is reduced, pressure
drop increases at a much faster rate than does the heat-transfer coefficient.
This means that there will be an optimum ratio of baffle spacing to shell inside diameter
that will result in the highest efficiency of conversion of pressure drop to heat transfer.
This optimum ratio is normally between 0.3 and 0.6.
Baffle cut. As shown in Figure 5.3, baffle cut is the height of the segment that is cut in
each baffle to permit the shellside fluid to flow across the baffle. This is expressed as a
percentage of the shell inside diameter. Although this, too, is an important parameter
for STHE design, its effect is less profound than that of baffle spacing.
Baffle cut can vary between 15% and 45% of the shell inside diameter.
Both very small and very large baffle cuts are detrimental to efficient heat transfer on the
shellside due to large deviation from an ideal situation, as illustrated in Figure 5.4.
It is strongly recommended that only baffle cuts between 20% and 35% be employed. Re-
ducing baffle cut below 20% to increase the shellside heat-transfer coefficient or increasing
the baffle cut beyond 35% to decrease the shellside pressure drop usually lead to poor de-
signs. Other aspects of tube bundle geometry should be changed instead to achieve those
goals. For example, doublesegmental baffles or a divided-flow shell, or even a cross-flow
shell, may be used to reduce the shellside pressure drop.
For single-phase fluids on the shellside, a horizontal baffle cut (Figure 5.5) is recommended,
because this minimizes accumulation of deposits at the bottom of the shell and also
prevents stratification. However, in the case of a two-pass shell (TEMA F), a vertical cut
is preferred for ease of fabrication and bundle assembly.
Since the flow fractions depend strongly upon the path resistances, varying any of the
following construction parameters will affect stream analysis and thereby the shellside
performance of an exchanger:
Using a very low baffle spacing tends to increase the leakage and bypass streams. This
is because all five shellside streams are in parallel and, therefore, have the same pressure
drop. The leakage path dimensions are fixed. Consequently, when baffle spacing is de-
creased, the resistance of the main cross-flow path and thereby its pressure drop increases.
Since the pressure drops of all five streams must be equal, the leakage and bypass streams
increase until the pressure drops of all the streams balance out. The net result is a rise
in the pressure drop without a corresponding increase in the heat-transfer coefficient.
The shellside fluid viscosity also affects stream analysis profoundly. In addition to influ-
encing the shellside heat transfer and pressure drop performance, the stream analysis also
affects the mean temperature difference (MTD) of the exchanger. This will be discussed
in detail later. First, though, lets look at an example that demonstrates how to optimize
baffle design when there is no significant temperature profile distortion.
Kerns method
Donohues method
Bell-Delaware method
Tinkers method
Besides these methods there is some proprietary methods putout by various organization
for use by their member companies. A number of these method are based on one of the
above methods. Some are based upon a judicious combination of methods 3 and 4 above
and supplemented by further research data. Among the most popular of the proprietary
methods, judged by their large clientele are
Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI), Alliambra, california. This method is also
known as stream analysis method.
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS), Engineering Science Division, AERE,
Harwell, United Kingdom Method.
In this work only Kerns method is given below. Bell-Delaware method may be found in
Coulson and Richardsons
Step1
Step 9
Specification
Estimate tube-side heat
Define duty Q
transfer coefficient
Make energy balance if needed
to calcualted unspecified flow
Step 10
rates or temperature
Decide baffle spacing and estimate
Q=Mccpc(Tc2-Tc1)=MhCph(Th1-Th2)
shell side heat transfer coefficient
Step2
Calculate physical properties Step 11
Calculate overall heat transfer
Step3
Coefficient including fouling factors
Assume value of overall
Uo,cal
coefficient Uo,ass
Step 4 No
Set Uo,ass=Uo,cal 0<(Uo,cal-Uo,ass)/Uo,ass<30
Decide number of shell and
tube passes
Calculate Tlm, F and Tm
Step 12
Step 5 Estimate tube and shell side
Determine heat transfer area pressure drop
required Ao=q/Uo,assTm
No Is pressure drops
Step 6 within specification?
Decide type, tube size, material,
layout
Assign fluids to shell or tube
Step 13
Step 7 Estimate cost of heat exchanger
Calculate number of tubes
Yes Can design be
Step 8 optmized to
Calculate shell diameter reduce cost?
Accept design
Figure 5.7. Design procedure for shell and tube heat exchanger.
6 Specification sheet
Specification sheet is a data sheet that contains the information provided by the customer
to the vendor for the process and mechanical designs of an exchanger. After the process
design is done, the engineer fills in some further information. The rest of the information
is filled after the mechanical design is completed. The specification sheet is a medium of
communication between different parties involved in the procurement, design and fabri-
cation of heat exchanger. It is also used to compare the performance of the installed unit
with the design conditions.
Some variations include information for alternate designs and different systems of units
(British, SI, metric).
1. The design submitted by the bidders should meet the heat transfer and pressure
drop requirements. Set the upper and lower limit of pressure drop for each bid.
2. if the designs offered by bidder vary, the spec-sheet provided to them should be
checked to see if any anomalies exist
3. Adequate vent, drainage and safety valve should be provided
4. Units should not have hot spot or dead zones
5. Information about vibration analysis must be checked
6. for fouling on the shell side, the tube lay out should permit easy cleaning
7. The fabrication shop should have a good reputation and certificate of inspection
8. The material of construction should be available at the country of the bidder or
their import should not pose any difficulty
9. the delivery should be on schedule
10. cost should be low, cost escalation should be included
11. the payment, penalty, and guarantee clauses in the contact should be evenly balance
and be unduly favorable to the bidder
7.1 Storage
Standard heat exchangers are protected against the elements during shipment. If they
cannot be installed and put into operation immediately upon receipt at the jobsite, cer-
tain precautions are necessary to prevent deterioration during storage. Responsibility for
integrity of the heat exchangers must be assumed by the user. The manufacturer will not
be responsible for damage, corrosion or other deterioration of heat exchanger equipment
during transit and storage.
Good storage practices are important, considering the high costs of repair or replacement,
and the possible delays for items which require long lead times for manufacture. The
following suggested practices are provided solely as a convenience to the user, who shall
make his own decision on whether to use all or any of them.
1. On receipt of the heat exchanger, inspect for shipping damage to all protective cov-
ers. If damage is evident, inspect for possible contamination and replace protective
covers as required. If damage is extensive, notify the carrier immediately.
2. If the heat exchanger is not to be placed in immediate service, take precautions to
prevent rusting or contamination.
3. Heat exchangers for oil service, made of ferrous materials, may be pressure-tested
with oil at the factory. However, the residual oil coating on the inside surfaces of
the exchanger does not preclude the possibility of rust formation. Upon receipt,
fill these exchangers with appropriate oil or coat them with a corrosion prevention
compound for storage. These heat exchangers have a large warning decal, indicating
that they should be protected with oil.
4. The choice of preservation of interior surfaces during storage for other service appli-
cations depends upon your system requirements and economics. Only when included
in the original purchase order specifications will specific preservation be incorporated
prior to shipment from the factory.
5. Remove any accumulations of dirt, water, ice or snow and wipe dry before moving
exchangers into indoor storage. If unit was not filled with oil or other preservative,
open drain plugs to remove any accumulated moisture, then reseal. Accumulation
of moisture usually indicates rusting has already started and remedial action should
be taken.
6. Store under cover in a heated area, if possible. The ideal storage environment for
heat exchangers and accessories is indoors, above grade, in a dry, low humidity at-
mosphere which is sealed to prevent entry of blowing dust, rain or snow. Maintain
temperatures between 70 F and 105 F (wide temperature swings may cause con-
densation and sweating of steel parts). Cover windows to prevent temperature
variations caused by sunlight. Provide thermometers and humidity indicators at
several points, and maintain atmosphere at 40% relative humidity or lower.
7. In tropical climates, it may be necessary to use trays of renewable dessicant (such as
silica gel), or portable dehumidifiers, to remove moisture from the air in the storage
enclosure. Thermostatically controlled portable heaters (vented to outdoors) may
be required to maintain even air temperatures inside the enclosure.
8. Inspect heat exchangers and accessories frequently while they are in storage. Start
a log to record results of inspections and maintenance performed while units are
in storage. A typical log entry should include, for each component, at least the
following:
(a) Date
(b) Inspectors name
(c) Identification of unit or item
(d) Location
(e) Condition of paint or coating
(f) Condition of interior
(g) Is free moisture present?
(h) Has dirt accumulated?
(i) Corrective steps taken
9. To locate ruptured or corroded tubes or leaking joints between tubes and tubesheets,
the following procedure is recommended:
7.2 Installation
7.2.1 Installation Planning
1. On removable bundle heat exchangers, provide sufficient clearance at the stationary
end to permit the removal of the tube bundle from the shell. On the floating head
end, provide space to permit removal of the shell cover and floating head cover.
2. On fixed bundle heat exchangers, provide sufficient clearance at one end to permit
removal and replacement of tubes and at the other end provide sufficient clearance
to permit tube rolling.
3. Provide valves and bypasses in the piping system so that both the shell side and
tube side may be bypassed to permit isolation of the heat exchanger for inspection,
cleaning and repairs.
4. Provide convenient means for frequent cleaning as suggested under maintenance.
5. Provide thermometer wells and pressure gauge pipe taps in all piping to and from
the heat exchanger, located as close to the heat exchanger as possible.
6. Provide necessary air vent valves for the heat exchanger so that it can be purged to
prevent or relieve vapor or gas binding on both the tube side and shell side.
7. Provide adequate supports for mounting the heat exchanger so that it will not settle
and cause piping strains. Foundation bolts should be set accurately. In concrete
footings, pipe sleeves at least one pipe size larger than the bolt diameter slipped over
the bolt and cast in place are best for this purpose as they allow the bolt centers to
be adjusted after the foundation has set.
8. Install proper liquid level controls and relief valves and liquid level and temperature
alarms, etc.
9. Install gauge glasses or liquid level alarms in all vapor or gas spaces to indicate any
failure occurring in the condensate drain system and to prevent flooding of the heat
exchanger.
10. Install a surge drum upstream from the heat exchanger to guard against pulsation
of fluids caused by pumps, compressors or other equipment.
11. Do not pipe drain connections to a common closed manifold; it makes it more
difficult to determine that the exchanger has been thoroughly drained.
7.3 Operation
1. Be sure entire system is clean before starting operation to prevent plugging of tubes
or shell side passages with refuse. The use of strainers or settling tanks in pipelines
leading to the heat exchanger is recommended.
3. Start operating gradually. See Table 1 for suggested start-up and shut-down proce-
dures for most applications. If in doubt, consult the nearest manufactuerer repre-
sentative for specific instructions.
4. After the system is completely filled with the operating fluids and all air has been
vented, close all manual vent connections.
5. Re-tighten bolting on all gasketed or packed joints after the heat exchanger has
reached operating temperatures to prevent leaks and gasket failures. Standard pub-
lished torque values do not apply to packed end joints.
6. Do not operate the heat exchanger under pressure and temperature conditions in
excess of those specified on the nameplate.
7. To guard against water hammer, drain condensate from steam heat exchangers and
similar apparatus both when starting up and shutting down.
8. Drain all fluids when shutting down to eliminate possible freezing and corroding.
9. In all installations there should be no pulsation of fluids, since this causes vibration
and will result in reduced operating life.
11. Heat exchangers that are out of service for extended periods of time should be
protected against corrosion as described in the storage requirements for new heat
exchangers. Heat exchangers that are out of service for short periods and use water
as the flowing medium should be thoroughly drained and blown dry with warm air,
if possible. If this is not practical, the water should be circulated through the heat
exchanger on a daily basis to prevent stagnant water conditions that can ultimately
precipitate corrosion.
1. Clean exchangers subject to fouling (scale, sludge deposits, etc.) periodically, de-
pending on specific conditions. A light sludge or scale coating on either side of the
tube greatly reduces its effectiveness. A marked increase in pressure drop and/or
reduction in performance usually indicates cleaning is necessary. Since the difficulty
of cleaning increases rapidly as the scale thickens or deposits increase, the intervals
between cleanings should not be excessive.
2. Neglecting to keep tubes clean may result in random tube plugging. Consequent
overheating or cooling of the plugged tubes, as compared to surrounding tubes, will
cause physical damage and leaking tubes due to differential thermal expansion of
the metals.
3. To clean or inspect the inside of the tubes, remove only the necessary tube side
channel covers or bonnets, depending on type of exchanger construction.
4. If the heat exchanger is equipped with sacrificial anodes or plates, replace these as
required.
5. To clean or inspect the outside of the tubes, it may be necessary to remove the tube
bundle. (Fixed tubesheet exchanger bundles are non-removable).
6. When removing tube bundles from heat exchangers for inspection or cleaning, ex-
ercise care to see that they are not damaged by improper handling.
The weight of the tube bundle should not be supported on individual tubes
but should be carried by the tubesheets, support or baffle plates or on blocks
contoured to the periphery of the tube bundles.
Do not handle tube bundles with hooks or other tools which might damage
tubes. Move tube bundles on cradles or skids.
To withdraw tube bundles, pass rods through two or more of the tubes and
take the load on the floating tubesheet.
Rods should be threaded at both ends, provided with nuts, and should pass
through a steel bearing plate at each end of the bundle.
Insert a soft wood filler board between the bearing plate and tubesheet face to
prevent damage to the tube ends.
Screw forged steel eyebolts into both bearing plates for pulling and lifting.
As an alternate to the rods, thread a steel cable through one tube and return
through another tube.
A hardwood spreader block must be inserted between the cable and each
tubesheet to prevent damage to the tube ends.
7. If the heat exchanger has been in service for a considerable length of time without
being removed, it may be necessary to use a jack on the floating tubesheet to break
the bundle free.
Use a good-sized steel bearing plate with a filler board between the tubesheet
face and bearing plate to protect the tube ends.
8. Lift tube bundles horizontally by means of a cradle formed by bending a light-gauge
plate or plates into a U-shape. Make attachments in the legs of the U for lifting.
9. Do not drag bundles, since baffles or support plates may become easily bent. Avoid
any damage to baffles so that the heat exchanger will function properly.
10. Some suggested methods of cleaning either the shell side or tube side are listed
below:
Circulating hot wash oil or light distillate through tube side or shell side will
usually effectively remove sludge or similar soft deposits.
Soft salt deposits may be washed out by circulating hot fresh water.
Some commercial cleaning compounds such as Oakite or Dowell may be
effective in removing more stubborn deposits. Use in accordance with the
manufacturers instructions.
11. Some tubes have inserts or longitudinal fins and can be damaged by cleaning when
mechanical means are employed. Clean these types of tubes chemically or consult
the nearest manufacturer representative for the recommended method of cleaning.
If the scale is hard and the above methods are not effective, use a mechanical
means. Neither the inside nor the outside of the tube should be hammered
with a metallic tool. If it is necessary to use scrapers, they should not be sharp
enough to cut the metal of the tubes. Take extra care when employing scrapers
to prevent tube damage.
Do not attempt to clean tubes by blowing steam through individual tubes. This
overheats the individual tube and results in severe expansion strains and leaking
tube-to-tubesheet joints.
12. Table 2 shows safe loads for steel rods and eyebolts.
8.1 Introduction
Traditionally, when maintenance is performed on shell-and-tube heat exchangers, the
only options considered when tube defects are found are to plug tubes and, when the
number of plugs became too great, replace the heat exchanger. The decision to replace
the heat exchanger was based on a number of factors. These included: the number of
tubes plugged, the number of forced outages due to tube damage (and the cost associated
with replacing lost power and repairing the damaged tubes), the impact that the plugged
heat exchanger is having on the plant (due to lost flow or heat transfer surface area),
the rate at which tube plugging is occurring, the availability of funds to replace the heat
exchanger, and the expected life of the unit (how much longer will the unit operate before
retirement).
From a sampling of industry data, tube failures have been shown to cause between 31%
to 87% (depending on the data source) of the events related to feedwater heaters (1).
Since so many of the failures were related to the tubing, the replacement of an entire heat
exchanger due to damage in one area is an expensive as well as a schedule and manpower
intensive option.
The typical means for major heat exchanger repair included complete replacement, re-
bundling, and retubing, as described below.
For the replacement option, the entire heat exchanger shell and tube bundle are
replaced with a new unit.
For rebundling, the shell is temporarily removed from the heat exchanger and the
old tube bundle, including, at a minimum, tubes, tube supports, and tubesheet, are
removed. A new tube bundle is inserted and the shell is welded back in place.
For retubing, either the shell (u-tube design) or tube side access cover (straight
tubes) is removed from the heat exchanger and the old tubes are removed from the
bundle. New tubes are then inserted and re-attached to the tubesheet (typically by
either mechanical expansion, welding, or both). In many instances, the existing shell
side hardware is used as-is, although some modifications may be made. Retubing
is typically performed on straight tube heat exchangers, such as condensers and
coolers.
Since the 1970s, tube sleeving has been used to allow damaged tubes to remain in ser-
vice. The sleeves are installed by various means (roll, explosive, or hydraulic expansion,
explosively welded, or press-fit or epoxied in place) over the defective area of the tube.
Through the use of sleeving, which is a low-cost option to retubing, rebundling, or re-
placement, the useful life of a heat exchanger can be economically extended. The decision
to perform sleeving also can be made with short notice as opposed to replacement (2-6
weeks compared with 18 months), possibly allowing repairs to be performed the same
outage that the damage is noted. Tube expansion also can be performed to minimize or
eliminate leakage within heat exchangers. In the tubesheet, tubes can be re-expanded to
strengthen the original tube-to-tubesheet joint, reducing or eliminating leakage and pro-
longing the life of the heat exchanger. Expansions also can be made deep within the tube
to expand the tube into tube support plates and end plates. These expansion can reduce
tube-to-plate clearance for vibration control or, at end plates, to minimize steam flow
from the high to low pressure side of the plate.Since the 1970s, tube sleeving has been
used to allow damaged tubes to remain in service. The sleeves are installed by various
means (roll, explosive, or hydraulic expansion, explosively welded, or press-fit or epoxied
in place) over the defective area of the tube. Through the use of sleeving, which is a low-
cost option to retubing, rebundling, or replacement, the useful life of a heat exchanger
can be economically extended. The decision to perform sleeving also can be made with
short notice as opposed to replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), possibly
allowing repairs to be performed the same outage that the damage is noted.
Tube expansion also can be performed to minimize or eliminate leakage within heat ex-
changers. In the tubesheet, tubes can be re-expanded to strengthen the original tube-
to-tubesheet joint, reducing or eliminating leakage and prolonging the life of the heat
exchanger. Expansions also can be made deep within the tube to expand the tube into
tube support plates and end plates. These expansion can reduce tube-to-plate clearance
for vibration control or, at end plates, to minimize steam flow from the high to low
pressure side of the plate.
of tubes are removed from service. At that point the plugs would be removed and
sleeves installed, thereby minimizing the overall maintenance cost.
2. The location and quantity of the tube defects need to be examined to decide if
tube repair is an option. Tube repair may be appropriate if the damage is limited
to a certain area of the tube, which would allow the use of a short repair sleeve.
If the damage is over a significant portion of the tube, it is possible to install a
longer sleeve (up to the full length of the tube) to ensure that all tube defects are
repaired. However, if the u-bend region of the tube is damaged then tube repair is
not possible. Also, it would not be possible to install a sleeve if a large portion of
the tube had damage but there was inadequate clearance for a long sleeve at the
tube end.
3. One of the more important items to consider when deciding whether a heat ex-
changer can be repaired is the condition of the remainder of the heat exchanger.
The condition of the shell side components, such as the impingement plates, tube
supports, end plates, and other structural members, should be in good shape if a
long term repair is being planned. An evaluation also should be made of the shell
thickness in areas that are prone to shell erosion/corrosion. If the tube repair is only
a short-term fix, to allow component operation until a replacement heat exchanger
can be installed, the condition of the shell side is not as critical.
4. The life expectancy of the power plant needs to be factored into the decision to
repair or replace a heat exchanger. If the only problem with the heat exchanger is
in one section of the tube, and the expected run time on the unit is relatively short,
it would be advantageous to repair rather than replace the heat exchanger since it
will be very difficult to pay back the cost for replacement over the remaining plant
life.
5. The outage time required to repair a heat exchanger, even when tube and shell side
inspections are performed, is typically much less than for replacement. In addition,
very few, if any, plant modifications need to be made to make the repairs. This
allows other work to be performed in the vicinity of the heat exchanger. Along
with the shorter outage duration, the site support required for repair is much less.
Usually, there are no shell or head modifications required since all work can usually
be performed through the manways and pass partition plates. Less repair equipment
is required, resulting in less space being needed in the area of the heat exchanger
for setup and storage. In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is
much less than for replacement (2- 6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a
decision on repair to be made just before, or even during, an outage.
6. At nuclear plants, the added cost for the disposal of radioactively contaminated
heat exchangers must be taken into account. Before disposal, there is the cost of
surveying the heat exchangers for release and, if contamination is found, they must
either be decontaminated or disposed of as radioactive waste. Tube repairs can
eliminate these costs.
7. If the heat exchanger is being replaced to eliminate detrimental materials in the
cooling system (i.e. copper in the condensate/feedwater system) then tube sleeving
will not be beneficial. The only solution would be to retube/rebundle/replace to
change out the tube material.
2. Sleeving
3. Tube expansion
1. Retubing
2. Rebundling
4. two piece serrated ring and pin plugs (installed with a hydraulic cylinder),
In addition to the tube end plug, there also may be a stabilizer rod or cable that is inserted
into the tube to minimize future tube vibration damage.
At the beginning of the life of a heat exchanger, inserting a few plugs into damaged tubes
has little effect on the performance of the heat exchanger. However, if heat exchanger
problems continue, and the number of plugs increases significantly, it is possible that
the heat exchanger will eventually reach a point that it will not handle the full load
that is placed on it. This is due to a combination of loss of heat transfer area and the
increased pressure drop. In addition, as the number of plugged tubes increases, abnormal
temperature conditions (either hot or cold spots) may be set up in the heat exchanger.
These conditions can result in an acceleration of tube damage, creating a faster demise
of the heat exchanger.
Once the number of plugs reaches a unacceptable level, the heat exchanger will need to be
repaired, replaced, or bypassed. However, bypassing the unit is usually not recommended,
at least for a long time period, since it will result in a loss of efficiency and heat transfer
area. Also, the heat load from the bypassed heat exchanger will be transferred to another
heat exchanger in the string, resulting in greater than normal operating flow rates and
higher degradation in that heater.
The following sections show the options that can be used to replace or repair the entire
heat exchanger or just the tubes.
8.4.2 Sleeving
An alternate approach to retubing, rebundling, or replacement of a heat exchanger is to
install sleeves over the defective portions of the tubes. The sleeve consists of a smaller
diameter piece of tubing that is inserted into the parent tube and positioned over the
tube defects. After insertion, each end of the sleeve is expanded into the parent tube
material. These expansions serve the dual function of structurally anchoring the sleeve
into the tube and providing a leak limiting path, allowing the sleeve to become the new
pressure boundary for the tube. This means that a sleeved tube can have a 100% through-
wall indication and still remain in-service, since the sleeve is now the new structural and
pressure boundary. The installation of the sleeve into the tube will allow the majority of
the tubes heat transfer area and flow to be maintained.
If heat exchanger repair by sleeving is a possibility then a strategy needs to be used to
prepare for future repair. It may be cost effective to plug a quantity of tubes, per the non-
destructive examination results, each outage using a removable plug. When the quantity
of plugged tubes reaches a certain level the plugs can be removed and sleeves installed.
Using this approach will minimize the cost and time during each inspection outage while
allowing the maximum tube repair later in the heat exchangers life.
There are three types of sleeves that are installed into heat exchanger tubes. These are
1. full length,
2. partial length structural, and
3. partial length barrier sleeves.
The three types are discussed below. Figure Figure 8.1 shows the sleeve layout.
These sleeves are installed from one end of the tube to the other in straight tubed heat
exchangers. After insertion, the full length of the sleeve is expanded into the parent
tube. This step serves the dual purpose of maintaining heat transfer as high as possible
(typically 75%-90%) while minimizing flow pressure drop through the tube. After the full
length expansion step, shown in Figure 8.2, the sleeve ends are trimmed flush with the
existing tube ends and the sleeve is roll expanded into the tubesheet.
The full length sleeve is typically used in a condenser or cooling water heat exchanger when
the tubes have multiple defects along their length. Full length sleeving is an attractive
option when a relatively small percentage of the tubes require repair. Through sleeving,
the majority of the tube heat transfer area can be left in service, resulting in a heat
exchanger that is close to its as designed condition.
Full length sleeving is comparable in many ways to retubing in the methods employed to
install the sleeves. However, since removal of the existing tube is not required, and the
typical number of tubes that will be full length sleeved are below the number that would
be retubed, the cost for material and manhours are much less than for retubing, making
sleeving a cost-effective option to return and keep tubes in service.
This type of sleeve is used to repair shorter defects in the tube. The sleeve can be
installed anywhere along the straight length of the tube. Various methods are used to
expand the sleeve in place. These include roll expansion (both in the tubesheet and in
the freespan portion of the tube), hydraulic expansion in the freespan portion of the tube,
and full length expansion. These expansion types are discussed below. The installation
of a hydraulically expanded sleeve is shown in Figure 8.3.
If one end of the sleeve is in the tubesheet, a torque-controlled roll expansion will be
made. This expansion is similar to the original tube-to-tubesheet roll. Freespan roll
expansions are made to either a torque controlled setting or to a diameter controlled
hardstop setting. Usually, freespan roll expansions are only used when the sleeve
length is relatively short, since it can be difficult to insert a roll expander deep into
the tube. Both the tubesheet and freespan roll expansion parameters are set so that
they can provide both the structural and leakage requirements for the sleeve.
For sleeves installed deep within the tube, a hydraulic expansion device is used to
connect the sleeve to the tube. The expander consists of multiple plastic bladders
that are filled with high pressure water. As the water pressure increases, the bladders
expanded against the inside of the sleeve, pushing the sleeve into the tube. The
expansion process, which is computer controlled, continues until either a preset
volume of water or a preset pressure is reached. At this point the sleeve is properly
expanded and the bladders are depressurized. Hydraulic expansions can be made
anywhere along the tube length since the expander is connected to flexible high
pressure tubing and is not restricted by tube end access. The expansion parameters
are qualified to meet the proper structural and leakage requirements for the sleeve.
Full length expansions are not usually used for structural or leak limiting purposes
but instead are used to improve heat transfer and flow through the sleeve and to
close the annulus between the sleeve and tube. The full length expansion is made
by placing a tool, with seals on each end, into the sleeve. The inside of the sleeve
is filled and then pressurized with water to a preset pressure setting, expanding the
sleeve into tight contact with the tube. After the full length expansion is made,
the ends of the sleeve are typically either roll or hydraulically expanded to form the
structural and leak limiting sleeve-to-tube joint.
Many times, the partial length structural sleeves are used to repair indications at one
particular area of the tube, such as wear damage at tube support locations, cracking
in roll transitions, or pitting indications at one discreet location along the tube length.
Longer versions of these sleeves also have been used to repair an entire damaged section
of a heat exchanger, such as a desuperheater or drain cooler section of a feedwater heater.
Because of the wide variety of uses, the sleeve length can range from as short as 1 foot to
over 12 feet in length.
Qualification testing is performed on the structural sleeves to ensure that they can with-
stand the design temperature and pressure conditions imposed on them. The test results
must show that the sleeve will be the new pressure boundary even with a 100% through-
wall indication in the parent tube. Sleeves of this type, using mechanical expansions (roll
and hydraulic), have reliably been in-service for more than 15 years.
These sleeves, also known as shields, are used at the ends of the tubes to act as a barrier
to tube end erosion. These sleeves are usually very thing, are not designed to act as a
pressure boundary or structural repair, and are installed in areas of high turbulence. The
materials for these sleeves are compatible with the existing tube material and may include
plastic inserts. The sleeves are either roll or hydraulic expanded or pressed or epoxied
in place. If tube end erosion is occurring, or is expected to occur, the use of these tube
end sleeves will protect and prolong the life of the parent tube, although over time tube
erosion may begin to occur at the end of the sleeve. Many heat exchanger tube ends have
been protected with shields, significantly prolonging the life of the tubes.
Prior to choosing to perform tube sleeving, the following factors should be considered.
The length, location, and quantity of tube defects that would require sleeving need
to be determined. If the defects are in one or a few short areas then either a single or
a couple of partial length sleeves could be used. However, if the defects are spaced
throughout the length of the tube, then the only option would be a full length sleeve.
The parent tube in the area where the sleeve will be expanded is to be defect free.
This will insure the highest sleeve-to-tube joint integrity. Also, the tube support
designations must be clearly identified to insure that the sleeve is installed at the
correct location along the tube length. This is especially true in areas where there
may be skipped baffles and the tube only touches every other support plate.
The condition of the remainder of the tube away from the sleevable defects needs
to be known. If there are u-bend defects that may require plugging then the tube
should not be sleeved. Sleeving is an option if the remainder of the tube is in good
shape.
The space available at the tube end to insert a sleeve and its installation tooling
needs to be known, as shown in Figure 8.4. If a short, partial length sleeve is being
used, the amount of space required is not as critical, although there can still be
access issues around the tubesheet periphery for hemi-head channel covers and at
pass partition plates. However, if a full length sleeve is required, there will need to
be a significant amount of clearance from the tubesheet face.
Inspection records need to be reviewed to determine if there are any tube inside
diameter (ID) restrictions that would block the sleeve from being inserted to the
target location. The size of the eddy current probe used for the inspection, plus any
other hardware that has been inserted into the tube, can be used to help determine
the tube ID access issues.
The post-sleeving tube inspection requirements need to be considered. Typically,
the ability to inspect the tube beyond a sleeve is not a significant issue. While
the presence of the sleeve reduces the inside diameter of the tube, which will result
in the need for a smaller inspection probe, the probe will remain large enough
to detect pluggable tube indications (usually greater than 40%), however small
indications may go undetected. As part of the post-sleeve inspection, the sleeve and
its attachment to the tube should be examined. There is no need to inspect the
section of the parent tube between the sleeve expansions since this is no longer part
of the pressure boundary.
If tube cleaning is to be performed in the heat exchanger, then the type of sleeve to
be installed needs to be evaluated. If on-line cleaning is performed, the sleeve size
cannot restrict the passage of the balls or brushes. For off-line cleaning, the projec-
tiles need to pass through the sleeve without becoming stuck. Many sleeves that are
installed in tubes that require cleaning are full length expanded to ensure the best
results for the cleaning equipment. If it appears that tube sleeving is possible, then
information will be needed to ensure that the heat exchanger is properly repaired.
The following information is used when planning for sleeving.
Tube sleeving will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.
If it is expected that sleeving may be performed, then it is important that the proper
sleeve material be purchased in advance of the job.
The sleeve material needs to be compatible with the heat exchanger parent tubing
and with the water chemistry within the heat exchanger. The galvanic corrosion
potential between the sleeve and tube needs to be determined. Also, effects of crevice
corrosion between the sleeve and tube, in the heat exchanger water chemistry, need
to be considered to determine if sleeving is a viable repair option.
The sleeve dimensions need to fit the heat exchanger operating and design condi-
tions plus any restrictions within the tube ID. The sleeve outside diameter (OD) is
to be designed to fit into the tube but must be long enough to limit the amount of
sleeve expansion. The sleeve wall thickness needs to be sized for the heat exchanger
operating parameters, including any ASME Code minimum wall thickness calcula-
tions, if needed. The sleeve length must be long enough to span the expected tube
defects but needs to be sized to fit any tube end clearance restrictions.
Before installing sleeves into heat exchanger tubes, testing needs to be performed to
set the installation parameters. Depending on the type of sleeve being used, these
tests may include setting the rolling torque, hydraulic expansion constants, and full
length expansion pressure. In addition, depending on the application for the sleeve,
there may be a need to do qualification testing, which would consist of hydrostatic
leak and pressure tests and temperature and pressure cycling. These tests would
verify that the expansion parameters were set correctly for the sleeve application.
If a large quantity of sleeves are being installed, it may be necessary to calculate
the heat transfer and flow loss due to sleeving. These calculations will give a sleeve-
to-plug ratio that can be used to determine the expected improvement in heat
exchanger performance after sleeving is complete (and tubes have been returned to
service, if applicable).
The sleeve may need to be full-length expanded based on the heat exchanger oper-
ating environment. However, the production rates for sleeve installation are lower
when full length expansions are performed. While full length expansion is typi-
cally not needed in many applications, such as most feedwater heaters, it should be
considered for the following.
if tube ID cleaning needs to routinely be performed
if a long sleeve is being inserted that would severely restrict the tubes heat
transfer or flow
In some heat exchangers, typically feedwater heaters, there are internal plates which
separate one zone of the heat exchanger from another (usually condensing [steam] from
drain cooler [liquid]). Due to the pressure differential across the plate, and the different
temperatures and phases between the two sections, it is important that leakage not occur
through the plate. However, in some feedwater heaters, the plate design is too thin,
resulting in leakage of steam from the condensing to the drain cooler zones, as shown in
Figure 8.5. When this occurs there is erosion of the end plate and tube vibration due to
the high steam velocities and the steam condensing to liquid in the drain cooler region.
The vibration causes wear at the tube supports which can lead to tube failure. The
leakage of steam also increases the drain cooler temperature, resulting in a less efficient
heat exchanger. Expanding the tube can reduce the gap between the tube and the end
plate. The expansion can be performed using either a roll or hydraulic expander. Once the
expander is in position the tube is expanded until it contacts the end plate. An accurate
expansion, which does not over-expand the tube into the plate (the tube needs to be able
to slide in the plate after expansion so that it does not buckle during heatup/cooldown),
Tube-to-Tubesheet Expansion
In some heat exchanger designs, with a certain combination of materials, leaks develop
between the tube and tubesheet. In many low pressure units, the tube is only expanded
into the tubesheet, with no subsequent weld. Many of the leaks that occur in these units
are the result of a fabrication error and can be corrected by re-expanding the joint to
the correct expansion size. However, leakage occasionally occurs in high pressure heat
exchangers, typically feedwater heaters, even when the tubes have been welded to the
tubesheet. The two prime causes of this leakage are in areas where the original tube-to-
tubesheet weld has either cracked or eroded due to flow (in the case of soft materials, such
as carbon steel) or where there is a crack in a tube-totubesheet expansion transition.
For the first case it may be possible to re-expand the tube using a qualified roll
expansion process. The expansion would increase the contact pressure between the
tube and tubesheet, increasing the resistance to flow and decreasing or eliminating
Re-expanding tubes that either may be leaking or that could develop leaks in the future
could significantly extend the life of an otherwise good heat exchanger. By re-expanding
the tubes, forced outages can be avoided and damage from the high pressure water spray-
ing on adjacent tubes and on the shell will be eliminated. The cost to perform tube
re-expansions will be minimal when compared with the cost of replacement heat exchang-
ers and the cost of forced outages.
If it appears that tube expansion is possible, then information will be needed to ensure
that the heat exchanger is properly repaired. The following information is used when
planning for tube expansion.
Tube expansion will need to be coordinated with eddy current inspection and plug
removal.
The tube expander design (diameter and length) needs to be based on the require-
ments for the expansion. Before performing tube expansions into heat exchanger
tubes, testing needs to be performed to set the tooling operating parameters. De-
pending on the type of expansion, these tests may include setting the rolling torque
for tubesheet re-expansions or setting the hydraulic expansion constants for end
plate expansions. In addition, for the tube-intotubesheet re-expansion process, qual-
ification testing should be performed. This would consist of hydrostatic leak and
pressure tests and temperature and pressure cycling. These tests would verify that
the expansion parameters were set correctly for the tube reexpansions. exchanger.
straight tubes,
the remaining components (shell, tube supports, internal structural pieces) of the
heat exchanger are in good shape.
The old tubes are removed from the unit and new ones, typically manufactured from
an improved material, are inserted, and then expanded, into place. Insertion of the new
tubes is shown in Figure 8.6. In addition to performing retubing to replace damaged
tubes, retubing has been performed to eliminate detrimental materials (such as copper
from condenser tubes) to minimize damage to other equipment within the plant (nuclear
steam generators or fossil boilers).
8.5.2 Rebundling
Some heat exchangers are designed to be rebundled rather than replaced. For these units
the entire tube bundle, including tubes, tubesheet, and tube supports are replaced, as
shown in Figure 8.7. The original shell and any other internal structural pieces would
be reused (although any necessary internal repairs could be made when the shell was
removed). The new tube bundle can be manufactured to ensure that original design
problems with the existing unit are corrected. However, the same basic design must
be maintained since the new bundle must fit within the existing heat exchanger shell.
Rebundling costs about 15-25% more than retubing.
8.6 Conclusions
The costs associated with heat exchanger replacement can be significant. These costs
include the new heat exchanger or tube bundle, the manpower required to remove the
old and install the new heat exchanger components, plant modifications to allow for the
removal of the heat exchanger, and the amount of outage time associated with replace-
ment. In addition, the replacement of a heat exchanger can adversely affect other work
going on in the their vicinity. Because of the cost and time involved, and if the damage
is confined to only the tubing (which is typically the case), repair of the heat exchanger,
through either sleeving or tube expansion, should be considered. If the tube damage is
confined to one general area, there is a good possibility that the expense of a replacement
can be avoided. In addition, the time required to prepare for tube repair is much less
than for replacement (2-6 weeks compared with 18 months), allowing a decision on repair
to be made just before, or even into, an outage.
By removing plugs and installing sleeves, it is possible to return lost heat transfer area to
service. Tubes that would be likely to fail in the near term also can be repaired. This will
improve the performance and reliability of the heat exchanger. The cost to perform the
repairs is also much less than for replacement (usually less than 1/10th the cost). Sleeving
has been shown to be a proven tube repair technique, having been performed since the
1970s. During this time, tube repairs have economically extended the useful life of heat
exchangers worldwide.
As the number of plugged tubes approaches the upper limits or if damage is consistently
occurring in one area of a heat exchanger, tube repair, through both sleeving and tube
expansions, should be considered to minimize future damage and extend the life of the
heat
The following table shows the various heat exchanger repair options and the factors to
be considered when choosing each of the options. Note that the table contains selected
criteria for evaluating component repair versus replacement options. A final decision to
implement a particular option should be made on a case by case basis with proper weight
given to all factors. The information listed in this table is for relative comparison purposes
only.
9 Troubleshooting
9.1 Heat exchangers problems
Heat transfer equipment provides the economic and process viability for many plant op-
erations. The basis for successful application of such equipment depends on the designer.
The problem that should be anticipated by the design to avoid high maintenance or
cleaning and costly shut down production include:
1. Fouling
2. Leakage
3. Corrosion
To anticipate maintenance problems the designer should need to be familiar with the
plant location, process flow sheet, plant operation. Some of the questions that must be
considered are:
1. will the heat exchanger need cleaning? how often? what cleaning method will be
used?
2. what penalty will the plant pay for leakages between the tubeside and shell side?
3. what kind of production upsets can occur that could affect the heat exchanger?will
cycling occur?
5. will the heat exchanger be likely to require repairs? if so, will the repairs present
any special problem?
9.2 Fouling
9.2.1 Costs of fouling
Increased maintenance costs
Loss of plant capacity and/or efficiency Loss of waste heat recovery options
3. surface structure
Fluid Properties
1. suspended solids
2. dissolved solids
3. dissolved gases
4. trace elements
To make the heat transfer process inherently safer, designers must look at possible in-
teractions between heating/cooling fluids and process fluids. For relatively low-pressure
equipment (<1000 psig), a complete failure of tubes may not be a credible overpressure
scenario if the design pressure of the low-pressure side and associated equipment is greater
than two-thirds of the design pressure of the high- pressure side (API RP 521 1993), or if
the geometry of the tube layout is such that a complete break is not physically possible.
For high-pressure equipment (> 1000 psig), however, a complete failure should be consid-
ered credible, regardless of pressure differential.
9.4 Corrosion
The heat transfer surface reacts chemically with elements of the fluid stream producing
a less conductive, corrosion layer on all or part of the surface.
2. the deposit of corrosion products reduce both heat transfer and flow rate.
galvanic corrosion
uniform corrosion
Pitting
Crevice Corrosion
Overthinning: Expanding the tube into the tube sheet reduces the tube wall thick-
ness and work-hardens the metal.
9.4.6 Pitting
Pitting is a localized form of corrosive attack. Pitting corrosion is typified by the formation
of holes or pits on the tube surface.
Causes:
Methods for reducing the effects of pitting corrosion: Reduce the aggressiveness of the
environment (pH, O2) Use more pitting resistant materials Improve the design of the
system
Coatings
Inhibitors
Cathodic protection
Proper materials selection
Flanges
Deposits
Washers
Rolled tube ends
Threaded joints
O-rings
Gaskets
Lap joints
Sediment
Eliminate the crevice from the design. For example close fit. A 3-mm- long gap is
thus created between the tube and the tube hole at this tube-sheet face. The tube
is allowed to protrude 3 mm of the tube sheet.
Select materials more resistant to crevice corrosion
Reduce the aggressiveness of the environment
9.4.10 Fabrication
Expanding the tube into the tube sheet reduces the tube wall thickness and work-hardens
the metal. The induced stresses can lead to stress corrosion. Differential expansion
between tubes and shell in fixed-tube-sheet exchangers can develop stresses, which lead
to stress corrosion.
When austenitic stainless-steel tubes are used for corrosion resistance, a close fit between
the tube and the tube hole is recommended in order to minimize work hardening and the
resulting loss of corrosion resistance. In order to facilitate removal and replacement of
tubes it is customary to roller-expand the tubes to within 3 mm of the shellside face of
the tube sheet. A 3-mm- long gap is thus created between the tube and the tube hole
at this tube-sheet face. In some services this gap has been found to be a focal point for
corrosion.
It is standard practice to provide a chamfer at the inside edges of tube holes in tube sheets
to prevent cutting of the tubes and to remove burrs produced by drilling or reaming the
tube sheet. In the lower tube sheet of vertical units this chamfer serves as a pocket
to collect material, dirt, etc., and to serve as a corrosion center. Adequate venting of
exchangers is required both for proper operation and to reduce corrosion.
Improper venting of the water side of exchangers can cause alternate wetting and drying
and accompanying chloride concentration, which is particularly destructive to the series
300 stainless steels.
Certain corrosive conditions require that special consideration be given to complete drainage
when the unit is taken out of service.
Particular consideration is required for the upper surfaces of tube sheets in vertical heat
exchangers, for sagging tubes, and for shell-side baffles in horizontal units.
9.5 Troubleshooting
This chapter presents potential failure mechanisms for heat transfer equipment and sug-
gests design alternatives for reducing the risks associated with such failures. The types
of heat exchangers covered in this chapter include:
This chapter presents only those failure modes that are unique to heat transfer equipment.
Some of the generic failure scenarios pertaining to vessels may also be applicable to heat
transfer equipment. Unless specifically noted, the failure scenarios apply to more than
one class of heat transfer equipment.
1. A low liquid level in the column, plus a coinciding temporary condensate backup
and accumulation of inert gas in the reboiler shell, significantly diminished the EO
liquid fraction leaving the reboiler. Nevertheless, sufficient heat transfer capacity re-
mained to satisfy the vaporization rate required by the column controls, so operation
appeared normal.
2. A localized imbalance resulted in some reboiler tubes losing thermosyphon action,
so that the existing EO was essentially all vapor. Due to ongoing reaction with
traces of water, high boiling glycols accumulated in the stalled tubes, increasing
the boiling point while reducing the heat flux and resulting mass flow rate. This
self-reinforcing process continued leading to minimal EO vapor velocity through the
stalled tubes. Since the vapor was no longer in equilibrium with boiling EO it could
momentarily attain the 150o C temperature of the reboiler steam supply.
3. The insides of the reboiler tubes had collected a thin film of EO polymer containing
percent-level amounts of catalytic iron oxides. This film had in numerous places
peeled away from the tube wall producing a catalytic surface of low heat capacity
and negligible effect on mass flow rate. EO vapor heating was aided by the absence of
liquid plus the small vapor velocity through the stalled tubes. These conditions led
to a rapid rate of film heating which encouraged a fast disproportionation reaction of
EO to predominate over slower polymerization reactions. The previously unknown
fast reaction between EO vapor and supported high surface area iron oxide led to a
hotspot and initiation of vapor decomposition. Once ignited the EO decomposition
flame spread rapidly through the column causing overpressurization.
system. The heat exchanger that failed was fabricated from ASTM A515 grade 70 car-
bon steel. After the accident, all process equipment in the plant which could potentially
operate at less than 200F was reviewed for suitable low-temperature toughness [116].
Ed. Note: It should have been recognized that upstream cryogenic conditions may have
a deleterious effect on downstream equipment during normal and abnormal operations.
9.8 Discussion
9.8.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table
To arrive at the optimal design solution for a given application, use Tables 9.1-9.4 in con-
junction with the design basis selection methodology presented earlier. Use of the design
solutions presented in the table should be combined with sound engineering judgment and
consideration of all relevant factors.
This common failure scenario may result from corrosion, thermal stresses, or mechanical
stresses of heat exchanger internals. The leak/rupture of tubes leads to contamination or
overpressure of the low-pressure side. Failure to maintain separation between heat transfer
and process fluids may lead to violent reaction in the heat transfer equipment or in the
downstream processing equipment. To make the heat transfer process inherently safer,
designers must look at possible interactions between heating/cooling fluids and process
fluids.
For relatively low-pressure equipment (<1000 psig), a complete failure of tubes may not
be a credible overpressure scenario if the design pressure of the low-pressure side and
associated equipment is greater than two-thirds of the design pressure of the high- pressure
side [2], or if the geometry of the tube layout is such that a complete break is not physically
possible. For high-pressure equipment (> 1000 psig), however, a complete failure should
be considered credible, regardless of pressure differential.
Double tube sheets or seal welding may be used for heat exchangers handling toxic chem-
icals. For heat transfer problems involving highly reactive/ hazardous materials, a triple-
wall heat exchanger may be used. This type of heat exchanger consists of three chambers
and uses a neutral material to transfer heat between two highly reactive fluids. Alter-
natively two heat exchangers can be used with circulation of the neutral fluid between
them.
There are known cases of cooling tower fires that have resulted from contamination of
cooling water with hydrocarbons attributable to tube leakage. Gas detectors and separa-
tors may be installed on the cooling water return lines, or in the cooling tower exhaust
(air) stream.
Thermal stresses can be reduced by limiting the temperature differences be-
tween the inlet and outlet streams. In addition, alternate flow arrangements may be
used to avoid high thermal stresses. Thermal cycling of heat transfer equipment should
be kept to a minimum to reduce the likelihood of leaks and ruptures.
It is desirable to design heat exchangers to resist fouling. Sufficient tube side velocity may
reduce fouling. However, higher tube side velocities may also lead to erosion problems.
In some cases fouling will cause higher tube wall temperatures, leading to overheating of
reactive materials, loss of tube strength, or excessive differential thermal expansion.
Accumulation of noncondensable gases can result in loss of heat transfer capability. Heat
exchangers in condensing service may need a vent nozzle, or other means of removing
noncondensable gases from the system.
Emergency relief devices are often sized for external fire. Heat transfer equipment, such
as air coolers, present a unique challenge when it comes to sizing relief devices. These
exchangers are designed with large heat transfer areas. This large surface area may result
in very large heat input in case of external fire. Indeed, it may not be practical to install
a relief device sized for external fire case due to large relief area requirements. Other
mitigation measures, such as siting outside the potential fire zone or diking with sloped
drainage, may be used to reduce the likelihood and magnitude of external fire impinging
on the heat exchanger. Alternative heat exchanger designs may also be used to reduce
the surface area presented to an external fire.
55-62 oC
55 oC 55-62 oC 67 oC Control controlled
uncontrolled vlave
Control Bypass
vlave
30 oC 30 oC
Organic Organic
o o
125 C 70 C
Water Water
Symptom: Shellside outlet Diagnosis: Heat exchanger is Cure: Tube side water
temperaturee cannot be considerablyo versized for the temperature reduced to 70oC
controlled within desired duty (because of an alternative and control valve removed.
range (55-62 oC) by service). Temperature correction Control valve is installed
controlling flow of 125 oC factors F for LMTD fluctuate in new shellside bypass
water to tubes. The heat widely with small changes in line
exchanger is 4 tube pass. tube side flow
560 oC
200 oC Symptom: Shell assumed
banana shape and piping
600 oC connections leaked. leakage
between tube and shell side
487 oC
Diagnosis: vertically cut baffle
and inlets and outlets of top shell
side, caused stratification of
gases at top of shell. Poor
distribution of hot gases lead
belows joint
to unequal expansionof tubes
Cure: increase the number of baffles
from two to three; weld baffles in the
shell; install sealing strips at edges of
bundle; installed three concentric cones
in tube side inlet; install vapor belt - for
shellside inlet nozzle; change baffles
from vertical to horizontal cut.
Control hunting: As condensate backs up in the exchanger, the heat transfer rate to
the process is greatly reduced. The control valve opens wide enough to allow flow
into the exchanger. As condensate drains out, the steam space is now greater and
the steam pressure increases. The process overheats, the control valve closes down,
and the cycle repeats.
Temperature shock: Condensate backed up inside the steam space cools the tubes
that carry the process fluid. When this sub-cooled condensate is suddenly replaced
by hot steam due to poor steam trap operations, the expansion and contraction of
the tubes stress the tube joints. Constantly repeating this cycle causes premature
failure.
Corrosion from:
1. Flooding - A flooded heat exchanger will permit the oxygen to dissolve, as well
as carbon dioxide and other gases found in the steam. Because the condensate
is often sub-cooled due to the time it is in the exchanger, these gases are more
readily dissolved. Together the cool condensate and dissolved gases are ex-
tremely corrosive and will tend to decrease the efficiency of the heat exchanger
and reduce the heat transfer through the tubes.
2. Steam collapse - Under very low loads with the steam valve closed, the steam
volume collapses to smaller volume condensate, inducing a vacuum. When
the vacuum breaker opens, atmospheric air and condensate mix inside the
exchanger, increasing the possibility of corrosion of the tubes, shells, tube
sheet and tube supports.
3. Freezing - Steam/air coils cannot afford poor condensate drainage, especially
if the coil experiences air below freezing temperature. Condensate backed up
inside the coil will freeze, often within seconds, depending on the air temper-
ature. A low temperature detection thermostat is recommended on the coil
leaving side to sense freezing conditions. As we previously explained, the only
way to avoid stall is to eliminate back pressure on the steam trap. There are
a number of options available for designing a system that greatly reduces the
risk of stall. The following are two such options:
Install the heat exchanger in a position so that the condensate freely drains by
gravity to the condensate return line. In many cases this is not possible because
of existing piping around the area in which the heat exchanger is needed (e.g., the
heat exchanger is installed at a level lower than the condensate return tank).
Use an electric or pressure driven condensate pump package installed below the
steam trap to pump condensate back to the boiler.
In actual practice, the first option may not be possible, and so the use of electric or
pressure driven pumps to return condensate to the boiler room should be considered.
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Kerns method
Donohues method
Bell-Delaware method
Tinkers method
Besides these methods there is some proprietary methods putout by various organization
for use by their member companies. A number of these method are based on one of the
above methods. Some are based upon a judicious combination of methods 3 and 4 above
and supplemented by further research data. Among the most popular of the proprietary
methods, judged by their large clientele are
Heat Transfer Research Inc. (HTRI), Alliambra, california. This method is also
known as stream analysis method.
Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS), Engineering Science Division, AERE,
Harwell, United Kingdom Method.
In this work only Kerns method is given below. Bell-Delaware method may be found in
Coulson and Richardsons
!0.14
0.55 1/3
N u = 0.36Re Pr , (A.3)
w
where
hde
Nu = k
Nusselt number
Cp
Pr = k
Prandtl number
Gde
Re =
Reynolds number
4A
de = P
hydraulic diameter
A= cross-sectional flow area
P = wetted perimeter
M
G= As
Mass flux
(pt do )Ds lB
As = pt
fluid viscosity at the tube wall temperature
pt = pitch diameter
Ds = shell diameter
lB = Baffle spacing
do
pt
As
pt
A.2 Condensation
A.2.1 Condensation on vertical plate or outside vertical tube
!1/4
k 3 g
hm = 0.943 , (A.5)
T L
where
hm = mean heat transfer coefficient
L= lenth of the plate or the vetical tube
k thermal conductivity of the saturated liquid film
= liquid density
= liquid viscosity
= latent heat of evaporization
T = Ts Tw temperature difference across the condensate film
g= acceleration due to gravity
Ts = saturation temperature of the condensate film
Tw = wall temperature
where
J= number of tubes in a row (Fig. ??)
In the above equation the condensate film properties save the latent heat of vaporization
are evaluated at the film temperature.
Ts + Tw
Tf = , (A.8)
2
the latent heat of vaporization is evaluated at the condensate temperature. For the case
of subcooling or superheating the heat transfer coefficient is corrected by substituting the
corrected latent heat the heat transfer equation (Rohsenow et al. [121] and Carey [18]) in
Nusselt [109])
= + 0.68cp T . (A.9)
where hn and hc is the nucleate and convective boiling heat transfer coefficient respectively.
The convective boiling heat transfer coefficient for a completely wetted tube (i.e. all types
of flow patterns save stratified and stratified-wavy flow) is calculated as
!0.37
hc L
+ 1.2x 0.4 (1 x)
= (1 x) 0.01 +
hL0 G
!0.67 2 0.5
h L
G0 x 0.01 1 + 8(1 x)
0.7 . (A.12)
hL0 G
The heat transfer coefficients hL0 and hG0 are those of single phase flow, assuming that
the total mass velocity is pure liquid or pure vapor respectively. They are calculated in
the case of a fully developed turbulent flow from the Gnielinski [46] model
(/8)(Re 1000)P r
Nu = , (A.13)
1 + 12.7(/8)0.5 (P r2/3 1)
taken in to account the respective dimensionless group N uL0 , N uG0 , ReL0 , ReG0 , P rl and
P rg . These dimensionless groups are defined as
hL0/G0 d
N uL0/G0 = , (A.14)
kL/G
md
ReL0/G0 = , (A.15)
L/G
L/G cp,L/G
P rL/G = . (A.16)
kL/G
The friction factor is
= (1.82logRe 1.62)2 . (A.17)
For a partial wetting of the tube (stratified or stratified-wavy flow) the average heat
transfer coefficient at the tube circumference under the thermal boundary condition of a
constant wall temperature is given as
hc = hwet (1 ) + hG , (A.18)
where hwet is the convective boiling heat transfer coefficient at the wetted part of the
tube and it is calculated by using equation A.12. In the non-wetted part of the tube,
the convective heat transfer coefficient hg is calculated from the Gnielinski [46] model
(equation A.13). In this case Re and N u are defined with the hydraulic diameter of the
vapor-occupied part of the tube cross-section
!
sin
dh = d , (A.19)
d + 2 sin(/2)
The void fraction is calculated using the Rauhani [117] model given as
( ! )1
1/4
x x 1 x 1.18(1 x)[g(
L G )]
= (1 + 0.12(1 x))
+ + 1/2
(A.22)
G G L m
.L
The wetting boundary can be estimated (see Fig. A.2) from the void fraction as
fG
= . (A.23)
fG + fL
With some mathematical manipulation of equation A.23 the non-wetted perimeter can
calculated iteratively from the following relationship
= 2 + sin , (A.24)
with the assumption that no bubbles in the liquid phase and no entrainment (hold-up) in
the vapor phase, the scaling parameter of equation A.18 can thus be calculated as
G
= , (A.25)
2
where G = 0.5.
UG
fG
Ui
d
fL h
UL
Figure A.2. Cross-section and perimeter parts of the vapor flow in a horizontal tube.
The local nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient hnb of a horizontal tube is estimated
as !n(pr)
hnb q
= Cf F (pr )F (Ra )F (d)F (m,
x)
. (A.26)
ho qo
The value with a subscript o is a reference value.
The pressure function is given as
!
1.6p6.5
r
F (pr ) = 2.692p0.43
r + , (A.27)
1 p4.4
r
where
qcr,cb = 2.79qcr,0,1 p0.4
r (1 pr ) . (A.29)
The critical value of qcr,0,1 at a reduced pressure pr of 0.1 is given as
The function for the effect of surface roughness and tube diameter is F (Ra ) =(Ra /Rao )0.133
and F (d)=(do /d)0.5 respectively. The pressure dependence of the heat flux exponent n(pr )
can be predicted as
n(pr ) = 0.9 0.3p0.3
r . (A.31)
The experimental value of the specific constant Cf for a number of substances is be found
in VDI-Warmeatlas[157], for example for water it is 0.72. In absence of an experimental
value it can be estimated as
!0.11
Mf
Cf = 0.789 f , (A.32)
MH2
f is the molecular weight and M
where M f = 2.016. The correction factor for a stratified
H2
and a stratified-wavy flow pattern under the thermal boundary condition of a constant
wall temperature is 0.86 for all other type of flow patterns it is taken as unity (VDI-
Warmeatlas[157]).
Table A.1 shows the reference factors for the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient for
R134a and R290.
Table A.1. Values of the reference parameters used in evaluation of the local nucleate boiling
heat transfer coefficient.
Refrigerant ho qo Rao do
W/m2 K W/m2 m m
The nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient hn is given by the Cooper [27] model as
0.55 f 05
hn = 55p0.12
r (0.4343 ln pr ) M q . (A.37)
The convective heat transfer coefficient is given by a modified form of the Dittus-Boelter
[33] model as
0.4 kL
hc = 0.0133ReL0.69 PrL . (A.38)
d
The liquid Reynolds number is given as
4m(1
x)
ReL = . (A.39)
(1 )G
where is the liquid film thickness it is given as
d(1 )
= , (A.40)
2(2 dry )
where dry is
(m wavy m)
dry = strat , (A.41)
(m
wavy m strat )
where strat is calculated iteratively from equation A.24. The mass flux under a stratified
and wavy flow pattern is
(226.3)2 fL fG2 G (L G )L g cos
m
strat = , (A.42)
0.3164(1 x) 1.75 2 0.25
L
and
( " F2 (q)
#)0.5
16fG3 gdL G 2 F1 (q)
We 1
m
wavy = 2
(1 x) + + 50 ,
x 2 2 (1 (2hL 1)2 )0.5 25hL Fr L cos
(A.43)
respectively. The parameters fL , fG , hL are defined in Fig.A.2. is the angle of inclination
to the horizontal and
!2 ! !
q q q
F1 (q)
= 646.0 + 64.8 ; F2 (q)
= 18.8 + 1.023 . (A.44)
qcrit qcrit qcrit
The stratified-wavy flow model is also valid for the stratified flow patten with strat
replacing dry and for the annular flow condition with dry is set to zero and the film
thickness is set to (1 )d/4.
hn = 0.6683Co0.2 (1 x)
0.8 hL0 f (FrL0 ) + 1058.0Bo0.7 (1 x)
0.8 FF l hL0 , (A.46)
and
hc = 1.136Co0.9 (1 x)
0.8 hL0 f (FrL0 ) + 667.2Bo0.7 (1 x)
0.8 FF l hL0 , (A.47)
respectively, where F rL0 is the liquid Froude number, Bo is the boiling number and Co
is the convection number. These dimensionless groups are defined as
!0.5 0.8
m q G 1 x
F rL0 = , Bo = , Co = . (A.48)
L gd mh
v L x
coefficient hL0 is obtained from the Petukhov and Popov [114] correlation or Gnielinski
[46] correlation. The Petukhov and Popov [114] correlation is valid in the range of 0.5
PrL 2000 and 104 ReL0 5 106 and it is given as
The Gnielinski [46] correlation (equation A.13) is valid in the range of 0.5 PrL
2000 and 2300 ReL0 5 104 . The friction factor in equation A.49 is given by
equation A.17.
kL 0.8 0.4
hc = 0.023 ReL P rL , (A.51)
d
where
(1 x)
md
cpL L
ReL = , P rL = , (A.52)
L kL
The suppression factor for the convection part is
1 if 1/Xtt > 0.1
F = h i0.736 ,
2.35 1 + 0.213 if 1/Xtt 0.1
Xtt
kL0.79 c0.45
p,L L
0.49
0.24
hn = 0.00122 Tsat p0.75
sat , (A.54)
0.5 0.29
L 0.24
G h 0.24
V
where
The convective boiling part is calculated from the Dittus-Boelter [33] correlation (equation
A.51).
h = max(hc , hn ) , (A.57)
where the subscript n and c in equation A.57 refers to the nucleate and convective boiling
respectively. The convective heat transfer coefficient is defined as
where
Co F rL > 0.04
N= ,
0.38F rL0.4 Co F rL < 0.04
where hL is calculated using the Dittus-Boelter [33] correlation (equation A.51). The
nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient is calculated as follows
For N > 1
230hL Bo0.5 Bo > 0.0003
hn = .
0.5
1 + 46hL Bo Bo < 0.0003
where
14.7
Bo > 0.0011
F = .
15.43 Bo < 0.0011
and
!0.14
kL h 4 i0.11 m
2 hV
hc = 0.115 2
x (1 x) 0.27
PrL , (A.63)
d L g
respectively. The parameter $ is defined as
where
!0.15
3 kw 1/3
hn1 = 7.4 10 P e0.6 Kp0.5 P rL , (A.65)
kL
!0.09 !0.2
kL kw G 1/6
hn2 = 0.087 Re0.6
m P rL , (A.66)
b kL L
! s
qb p 2
Pe = , Kp = q , b= , (A.67)
hV G aL g(L G ) g(L G )
" !# !
wm b m L qb Rem L
Rem = , wm = 1+x 1 , Re = , NCB = .
L L G hV G L Re G
(A.68)
where !0.5
2
(b.d) = 0.511 , (A.70)
g(L G )
1
F = 2.37 0.29 + , (A.71)
Xtt
4048Xtt1.22 Bo1.13 Xtt < 1
S= .
2.0 0.1Xtt0.28 Bo0.33 1 Xtt 5
where Tb is the saturated (boiling) temperature of the pure component, the index j and
k stands for the more volatile and less volatile component respectively. L /B0 = 5 105
is the mass transfer coefficient. The ideal nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient for a
mixture hid,n is calculated from the heat transfer coefficient of pure components as
" #1
X x
ei
hid,n = , (A.73)
hi,n
and Bo /L = 5.103 and L and hV is the ideal density and enthalpy of evaporation of
the mixture respectively. xe and ye is the liquid and vapor mole fraction of the more volatile
component respectively.
The same approach applies also to the convective part for the liquid-liquid immiscible
mixture. That is to say for a liquid-liquid miscible mixture the convective suppression
factor made analogous to that for the nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient as
( " #)
hid,c Bo q
Fc = 1 + (Tb,k Tb,j )(yej xej ) 1 exp . (A.74)
q L hV L
h = max(hn , hc ) , (A.75)
where hn and hc is obtained from equation A.77 and equation A.47 respectively
using the mixture properties.
h = hc , (A.76)
Region III: Severe diffusion-induced suppression region: 0.03< V1 < 0.2 and Bo
1E 4 ; V1 0.2
h = 1.136Co0.9 (1 x)
0.8 hL0 f (FrL0 ) + 667.2Bo0.7 (1 x)
0.8 FF l hL0 FD , (A.77)
0.678
FD = . (A.79)
1 + V1
Tw Tph
Fc = , (A.80)
Tw Ts
where Tw , Tph , and Ts is the wall, equilibrium temperature and saturation temperature
respectively. The nucleate part is also calculated using the original Chen [19] model for
the pure substance with mixture properties. It suppressed using the the suppression factor
given by equation A.79.
Fd = exp(0.027Tbp ) , (A.81)
where Tbp is difference between the dew and bubble point temperature of the mixture.
where ! !
1.01 xe1 xe1
b2 = (1 xe1 ) ln + xe1 ln + |ye1 xe1 |1.5 , (A.84)
1.01 ye1 ye1
0 x1 0.01
b3 = ,
e 0.1
x1
1 xe1 < 0.01
e
y1
!0.66
p
b4 = 152 , (A.85)
pc,1
!0.66
0.001 p
b5 = 0.92|ye1 xe1 | , (A.86)
pc,1
and
e
x1
=1 for xe1 = ye1 = 0 ,
e
y1
xe1 and ye1 is the liquid and vapor mole fraction of the more volatile component respec-
tively. p and pc,1 is system pressure and critical pressure of the more volatile component
respectively.
B Pressure drop
B.1 Single phase
The pressure drop due to friction exists because of the shear stress between the fluid and
the tube wall. Estimation of the friction pressure drop is somewhat more complex and
various approaches have been taken, for example the frictional pressure gradient is given
as !
dp 4o 2
4f m
= = , (B.1)
dz f d 2d
is the mass flux in kg/m2 s and f is the friction factor calculated using a Blasius-
where m
type model as 0.3164
Re0.25 Re 2320
f=
64
Re
Re < 2320 .
Integration of equation B.1 yields
2L
4f m
p = , (B.2)
2 d
dx 4q
= . (B.5)
dz mh
vd
Substitution of equation B.5 into equation B.4 yields the pressure drop due to acceleration
as !
4qm
G
pa = 1 L . (B.6)
dhv G L
In the separated flow model the static pressure drop due to acceleration can be derived
from the momentum balance as
! " #
dp d x 2
2 2
(1 x)
=m
+ . (B.7)
dz a
dz G (1 )L
Integration of equation B.7 between the inlet i and outlet o of the test section yields
" #
2 x 22 (1 x o )2 x 2i (1 x i )2
pa = (po pi )a = m
+ . (B.8)
o G,o (1 o )L,o i G,i (1 i )L,i
The void fraction may be obtained using the Rauhani [117] model which is given as:
( ! )1
1/4
x x 1 x 1.18(1 x)[g(
L G )]
= (1 + 0.12(1 x))
+ + 1/2
, (B.9)
G G L m
L
where L and G is the liquid and vapor density respectively, which are calculated from the
fundamental equation of state of Tillner-Roth and Baehr [152] for R134a. g is acceleration
due to gravity, is the surface tension, m
is the mass flux and x is the quality. The surface
tension is calculated using the method of Lucus [92] given in VDI-Warmeatlas [157].
The pressure drop due to friction exists because of the shear stress between the fluid and
the tube wall. Estimation of the friction pressure drop is somewhat more complex and
various approaches have been taken, for example in homogenous or separated flow models.
In the homogenous model the frictional pressure gradient is given as
!
dp 4o 2
2 m
= = , (B.10)
dz f
d dH
3.24F H
L0 = E + , (B.15)
F r0.045 W e0.035
where
L fG0
2 + x 2
E = (1 x) , (B.16)
G fL0
F = x 0.78 (1 x)
0.24 , (B.17)
m2
Fr = , (B.19)
gd2H
m 2d
We = , (B.20)
H
d is tube diameter, is the surface tension and %H is the homogenous density given by
equation B.11. fG0 and fL0 are the friction factors defined by a Blasius-type model as
0.079
fL0/G0 = , (B.21)
Re0.25
L0/G0
where Re = md/.
The range of the validity of the Friedel [42] model is L /G < 1000
The range of the applicability of the Lockhart and Martinelli [91] correlation is L /G >1000
and m <100 kg/m2 s.
Table B.1. Value of C for the Lockhart and Martinelli [91] correlation.
Liquid Gas Subscript C
Turbulent Turbulent tt 20
Viscous Turbulent vt 12
Turbulent Viscous tv 10
Viscous Viscous vv 05
where
(dpf /dz)G0
Y2 = , (B.25)
(dpf /dz)L0
n is 0.25 for a Blasius model. The parameter B is given by
55
B= 0 < Y < 9.5 , (B.26)
1/2
m
520
B= 9.5 < Y < 28 , (B.27)
Ym 1/2
15000
B = 2 1/2 28 < Y . (B.28)
Y m
The range of the validity of the Chisholm [22] correlation is L /G > 1000 and m
> 100
kg/m2 s.
C Physical properties
The fluid physical properties required for heat exchanger design are divided in thermo-
dynamic and trasport properties. The transport properties include viscosity, thermal
conductivity, surface tension and diffusion coefficient are generally calculated from the
existing correlations (Pery and Coulson). The thermodynamic properties include dem-
sity, specific heat temperature, pressure (vapor), enthalpy, latent heat of evaporation.
Beside the fluid properties the thermal conductivity of the material is necessary for the
evaluation of heat transfer coefficient. The thermodynamic properties are evaluated using
critical tables.
Table C.1. Coefficients of the correlation used for the prediction of the vapor dynamic viscosity.
where /k=386 K and the value of the coefficient C is given in table C.2.
The second term of equation C.22 represents the contribution of the moderately dense
fluid
1 (T ) = Fv (T )o (T ) , (C.25)
where
" !# (i1)
13
X kT 2
Fv (T ) = C A(1) + A(i) log , (C.26)
i=2
where C=0.6022137/0.29573 and the value of the coefficient A is given in table C.3
1 -0.17999496101 2 0.466692621102
3 -0.53460794103 4 0.33604074104
5 -0.13019164105 6 0.33414230105
7 -0.58711743105 8 0.71426686105
9 -0.59834012105 10 0.33652741105
11 -0.12027350105 12 0.24348205104
13 -0.120807957103
The third term in the viscosity equation C.22 is the contribution of the dense gas
3
X
2 (, T ) = F (i, T )i+1 , (C.27)
i=1
where
2 4
1 0.219664285
0.83651107 101
kT kT
2 2
2 0.17366936 10 0.83651107 10 kT
F (i, T ) = 2 3
3 3
3 0.167668649 10 0.149710093 10 +
kT kT
4
0.77012274 104 kT
The Fenghour et al. [40] correlation for the vapor viscosity of ammonia has an uncertainty
of 2% in the temperature range of T < Tc .
z 3 + z 2 + z(B 2 + B A) = 0 . (C.36)
where xei is the mole fraction of the component i, L,i is the viscosity of the component i
in kg/ms and G12 is an adjustable parameter normally obtained from experimental data.
For a polar-nonpolar mixture G12 = -0.22. The Reid et al. [118] model give the thermal
conductivity with a mean error of less then 5%.
where yei is the mole fraction of the component i and i is the viscosity of the pure
component i. ij is a parameter which may be estimated as
h i2
f /M
1 + (G,i /G,j )0.5 (M f )0.25
j i
ij = f /M
f )]0.5
, (C.43)
[8(1 + Mi j
f
G,j Mj
ji = f ij
. (C.44)
G,i M i
X f /1000
M m RTc,m Zec,m
f = f, m
M m yej M j c,m = , r,m = , pc,m = , (C.47)
j=1 c,m c,m c,m
where Xf and X f is the weight fraction of the component 1 and 2 respectively and and
1 2 1
2 is the thermal conductivity of the component 1 and 2 in W/mK respectively.
where G,m is the low-pressure gas mixture thermal conductivity, G,i is the low-pressure
thermal conductivity of the pure component i. For a binary mixture of two non-polar
gases or a non-polar and a polar gas, Aij may be calculated by the model given by Perry
and Green [112] as
h i
c /M
1 + (tr,i /tr,j )0.5 (M f )0.25 2
j i
Aij = f /M f )]0.5
, (C.50)
[8(1 + M i j
with
tr,i j exp(0.0464Tr,i ) exp(0.2412Tr,i )
= , (C.51)
tr,j i exp(0.0464Tr,j ) exp(0.2412Tr,j )
f is the molecular weight and is defined as
where M
" #(1/6)
f3
Tc,i M i
i = 210 , (C.52)
Pci4
f is in g/mol and is in W/mK. This model yields an error
where T is in K, p is in bar, M
of less than 5% in the prediction of the thermal conductivity of the gas mixture.
X X pc,j c,j
am = 1, nm = 11/9, Tc,m = xei Tc,j , c,m = xj c,j , Zec,j = , (C.55)
j=1 j RTc,j
X RTc,m Zec,m Tb,i
Zem = xej Zec,j , pc,m = , Ts,ri = , (C.56)
j c,m Tc,i
where Tb,i =T (p=1.01325 bar) is the normal boiling point temperature of the pure com-
ponent i. T is in K, p is in bar and is in N/m. The Lucas and Luckas correlation yields
an error of <5%.
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