'l'he Concept of Shear Stresses

predictionswith respectto crack formation and strength.However,with the

n developmentof cracksan extremelycomplex pattern of stresses ensues,and
many equations currently in use have little relevanceto the actual be-
havior of the member at this stage. Extensiveexperimental work, partic-
ularly in recentyears,hasgreatlyextendedthe identificationofvarious shear
resistingmechanisms,however,and thesewill be discussedin some detail.
Strength and Deforrnation Breslerand McGregor prepareda very usefulreviewof the shearproblem.t'r
2
The back gr oundof t he cur r ent ACI code pr ovisions, ? widely used since
of Members with Shear f 961, was reported by ACI-ASCE Committee 3261'3in 1962.A similar
report on the state of the art by ACI-ASCE Joint Committee 426 was
publishedin 1973.7a The evolution of the approach to the designfor shear

I in reinforcedconcrete mav be found in an interestinehistorical studv bv

H ognest ad.sT
I 7.1 INTRODUCTION

I The extensivestudy of the behavior of reinforced concrete flexural members

hasclarifiedthe flexuralfailuremechanismto the extentthat well-understood 7.2 THE CONCEPT OF SHEAR STRESSES
l conclusionsare now incorporatedin the design codes of many countries.

I Progressin the understandingand quantitative assessmentof the behavior

of memberssubjectedto flexureand shearhasbeensomewhatlessspectacular.
From considerationof equilibrium, the transverseor shearforce acrossany

I Hundredsof publications,the majority having appearedin the last l5 years,

speak for the complexity of the problem.
cross section of a structural member can be derived. The intensity of this
forceis convenientlyshown by a "shear iorce diagram."The sum of the shear

I The vast majority of structural members in reinforcedconcretecannot

stressesacross such a cross section must naturally balance the external
shearforceat that section.By establishingthe equilibrium of an infinitesimal

I escapehaving to resist shearing forces. These forces seldom act on their

own but rather in combinationwith flexure,axial load, and perhapstorsion.
elementwithin a member.it becomesevidentthat the verticaland horizontal
shearstressintensitiesat eachelementmust be the same.

It In addition to identifying the eflect of shear forcesacting alone,therefore,

it is necessary to examinethe possibleinteractionwith the other structural
actions.In flexural membersin particular, the shear resistingmechanisms
The horizontal shearstresses along any fiber of a homogeneous,isotropic,
uncracked beam can be easily derived from considerations of internal
equilibriumof flexuralstresses.Using the notation of Fig. 7.1,the equilibrium
interact intimately with the bond between concrete and the embedded
I reinforcementand the anchorageof the latter.
Shear transfer in reinforced concrete beams relies heavily on the tensile
of the cross-hatchedpart of the beam element will be satisfied when the
horizontal shearstressis
VA,v
{ and compressionstrength of the concrete.Thus it is not surprising that a (7 l)
shearfailurein generalis nonductile.Consequentlyan attempt must be made hI
to suppresssuch a failure.In earthquake-resistant structuresin particular, where1 is the secondmoment of area of the section.
heavyemphasisis placedon ductility, as outlined in other chapters,and lor It can be shown from first principlesthat with respectto the centroidal axis
this reasonthe designermust ensurethat a shearfailurecan neveroccur.This
I implies that when ductility is essential,the shearstrength of the member must z: !
fi be somewhat in excessof the maximum flexural strength it could possibly
develop.
A, !
and that there the shearflow Q : uh is always a maximum; that is,
It is still expedientto usethe classicalconceptsof shearstresses in homo-
geneous,isotropic, elastic bodies when dealing with reinforced concrete V
- ('7.2)
members.Suitably modified, this elastictheory approach can give acceptable 'lm^x
Z

I
1|
278

i
I
 I 272 The Conceptof Shear Stresses 213

I
I
II
l
I
I ti=t-l+,c+
(tce_ {-
=;
p' /-,,^".
f Al
<t
I
I
I -J'._tr,
->

,
I+
<l i
V E
_.;f_
u 'A ; ,t___f f i__
F#.,=v4,J b
"lll

I <-
ffi:r,FLW,,.- -
I
T Fig.7.2. Trajectories of principal stressesin a homogeneous isotropic beam.

F<-.r'xl
I Section Beam Flexur al Shear Shear
trajectoriesintersect the neutral axis at 45". When the principal tensile
It elemen stresses flow stresses

Fig. 7.1. Shear force, shear flow, and shear stressesin a homogeneousisotropic elastic beam.
stressesbecomeexcessive, cracks develop approximately at right anglesto

,lI
theseprincipal tensile stresstrajectories.
These traditional concepts were extended by pioneersTs of reinforced
where z is the internal lever arm, and this is normally the location of the concretetheory to the idealizedsection of a cracked reinforced concrete
maximum shearstressif the width b at that fiber is small enough(seeFig. 7.1). beam. As Fig. 7.3 shows,the horizontal force to be transferredacross the
t ')
q
The shear stressesso generatedcan then be combined with the flexural
stresses
at any fiber.Again by consideringthe equilibrium of an infinitesimal
crackedzone of the sectionremains constant; hence the shear flow in the
tension zone is constant. Using the concepts of Fig. 7.l, the incremental
element,the magnitude I and f, and the inclination E of the principal tension force is dT : ub*dx, and hence we have

'tI stresses,
resultingfrom the simultaneousapplicationof a tensilestress/ and
a shearstressu illustratedin Fig. 7.2, can be obtainedas follows:

principal tension
,
principalcompression fz : I
I
I : U+J+4F)
(f-
(7.3a)
'l):-
-
I dT
b* dx
dM I
dx b*jd
V
b-jd
(7.4)

! ,
(7.3b)

I inclinationof the principal tensilestresswith respectto the beam's

axis is found from
U
t ^ n zv:2 j or fan q (7.3c)
Jr

The inclination of the principal stressesis illustrated for the case of a Beam seclion Fl e x u ra l s t re s s e s Shear flow Shear stresses
{ uniformly loaded simply supported rectangular beam in Fig. 7.2.The stress Fig. 7.3. Shear stressesacrossan idealized cracked reinforced concrete section.

I I

J
 274 Strength and Deformationof Members with Shear

I/
v
q-- ('1.4a)
la

It is evident that shearstressdependson the width of the web, illustrated

for a particular examplein Fig. 7.3. Since the concretebelow the neutral 'ffi)),
T,^:
-----+-
C'
axis (N,4) is assumedto be in a stateof pure shear,this equation has been
ax's
used as the measureof diagonal tension in the cracked tension zone of a -"utr"\

reinforcedconcretebeam.This also implies that vertical shear stresses are

axis
----o -" 1 -" , " n c e
transmitted in this fashion acrosssections,irrespectiveof the presenceof
flexural cracks. T[- of member

In many countriesthis traditional shearstressequationis still used.It is a

convenient "index" to measure shear intensity, but as the subsequent T R e n t o rc e me n t

paragraphsreveal,it cannot be consideredas giving a shear stressat any I

s
particular locality in a crackedreinforcedconcretebeam. For convenience \, Fi g.7.4. E x ternaland i nternal ac ti onsi n a beam w i th v ari abl edepth
the ACI adoptedas an index of shearintensitythe simple equation L
!
I
ii V

b*d
(7.5) I

In certaincasesthe maximum shearstresscould occur at a fiber other than

at the web of the section. When the flange o a T section carries a large
compressionforce,as over the shadedareato the right of sectionI (Fig.7.3),
* v * ' | ,v' { ,* {v* * g
the shear at the flange-webjunction may become critical, and horizontal
reinforcementin the flange may be needed.In beams supporting floors of
buildings, the flexural reinforcementin the slab is usually adequatefor this
purpose.
When the depth of the member varies along its length, the magnitude of . t . v
the fiorcecausingshearstresseswill be affectedby the internal forcesinduced
by flexure.From Fig. 7.4 it is evidentthat the sloping internal compression
force,C : C' lcos9', hasa vertical component that resistssomeof the external
shear I/ applied to the section. Using the notation of Fig. 7.4, the effective
shear force can be expressedas

V " r r : V - C sin 0' : V - C' tan 0' : V - \tun O' (76)

where
M" : M - N r" (7.6a\
The externalshearis reducedonly if the depth of the member increasesin the
same direction in which the bending moments increase.When the opposite
is the case,the value of 0' in Eq. 7.6 must be taken as negative.Three typical
casesof the distribution of external and effectiveshear for haunched beams,
carrying uniformly distributed loads,are qualitatively depicted in Fig. 7.5. Fig.7.5. The effectiveshear in haunched beams

27s
 276 Strength and Deformation of Memben with Shear Shear Rcsistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams Without Web Reinforcement

I r 11
7.3 THE MECHANISM OF SHEAR RESISTANCEIN
REINFORCEDCONCRETEBEAMS WITHOUT WEB
REINFORCEMENT

7.3.1 The Formation of Diagonal Cracks

In a reinforced concrete member, flexure and shear combine to create a

biaxial state of stress.The principal stressesso generatedare illustrated in
Fig. 7.2. Cracks form when the principal tensile stressesexceedthe tensile
strength of the concrete.In a region of large bending moments' thesestresses
are greatestat the extreme tensile fiber of the member and are responsible
llt

I for the initiation of flexural cracks perpendicular to the axis of the member.
In the region of high shear force, significant principal tensile stresses,also
referred to as diagonal tension, may be generated at approximately 45'
to the axis of the member. These may result in inclined (diagonal tension)
l-.------
t-
\21

cracks. With few exceptionsthese inclined cracks are extensionsof flexural

cracks.Only in rather specialcases,as in webs of flangedbeams,are diagonal
tension cracks initiated in the vicinity of the neutral axis. The principal
of subsequentbehavior unless
stressconceptis of little value in the assessment t2)
the complex distribution of stressesin the concrete after cracking is consid- I: l 1t , _- G
ered. Either a reinforced concrete flexural member collapses immediately llo

I after the formation of diagonal cracks, or an entirely new shear carrying

mechanismdevelopswhich is capableof sustainingfurther load in a cracked
C

II
Fi g. 7.6. E q ui l i bri um requi rc mc ntsi n the s hear s pan of' a bei tm.
beam.
The diagonal cracking load originating from flexure and shear is usually
much smaller than would be expectedfrom principal stressanalysisand the
tensile strength of concrete.This condition is largely due to the presenceof ft may be seenthat the total external transverselorce V, is resistedby the
shrinkage stresses, the redistribution of shear stresses between flexural combinationof

1
cracks,and the locai weakeningofa crosssectionby transversereinforcement,
which causesa regular pattern of discontinuities along a beam.
In the early stages of reinforced concrete design, diagonal cracking was
considered to be undesirable. However, it is now recognized that diagonal
l. A shearforce acrossthe compressionzone V,.
2. A dowel force transmitted across the crack by the flexural reinforce-
menl Vu.

I
cracking under serviceload conditions is acceptable,provided crack widths
remain within the same limits acceptedfor flexure.
3. The vertical componentsof inclined shearing stressesDatransmitted
acrossthe inclinedcrack by meansof interlocking of the aggregateparticles.
To simplify the equilibrium statement, we assume that shear stresses

II
7.3"2 Equilibrium in the Shear Span of I Beam
Figure 7.6c shows part of a simply supported beam over which the shear
force is constant.The internal and external forcesthat maintain equilibrium
for this freebody, bounded on one side by a diagonal crack, can be identified.
transmitted by aggregateinterlock can be lumped into a single force G,
whose line of action passesthrough two distinct points of the section (see
Fig. 7.6h).With this simplificationthe lorce polygon in Fig. 7.6<'represenrs
the equi l i br iumof t he f r eebody.This condit ioncan alsobe st at edin t he f or m
V:V,+V,+V,l (1.11

I
I
I
 Strength and Deformation of Mernberswith Shear Without Web Reinforcemenl 219
278 Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams
the level of the flexural
representingthe contribution of the compressionzone,aggregateinterlock, length of the member at and immediately above
and dowel action to shearresistancein a beam without web reinforcemenr. wastermedthe shearflow' It is evidentthat suchsimplification
reinforcement,
The moment of resistance flow or bond force can be efficiently
of the beam is c;ipressecl
by of behavioris possibleonly if the shear
and the concretesurrounding
M : rV : j,l(T * /, cot a) (78) transferredbetweenthe flexuralreinforcement
of bond' exam ined in t he next chapt er '
If the contribution of the dowel force toward flexural resistanceis ignored i t. It gi vesri se t o t he phenom enon
it has been commonly believed that in the
(ajustifiablestepfor designpurposes,particularlyin the absenceofsrirrups;, For more than half a century
by "beam action" in this
the moment of resistance absenceof web reinforcemeni.shearwas resisted
simolifiesto
manner.
M : Tj(l (1.e) W henl oran yr easont hebondbet weenSt eelandconcr et eisdest r oyed
force T cannot change,
It is important to note that the moment and the tensionforce,relatedto over the entireiength of the shearspan, the tensile
ext er nal shear can be
eac hot her in F i g .7 .6 h a n d E q .7 .9 ,d o n o t o ccur at the samecrosssecti on hence ri T/ri .t: 0. Under such cir cum st ancest he
extreme casemay be
of t hebeam .I t i s s e e nth a t th e te n s i o ni n th e fi e xuralrci nforcementat cl i stance resisteclonly by inchned internal compression'This
by t he secondt er m
(x - .idcot a) from the support is governedby the moment at a distance termed..archact ion" lt s shearr esist anceis expr essed
-x
from the support of the beam. The increasein the steel stressesclcarly on the rieht-handside of Eq' 7'10,namely'
dependson t h e s l o p eo f th e i d e a l i z e dd i a g o nalcrack.w hen a i s a l i ttl e l css
t han45' ,jd c o t fl r/.T h i s m u s t b e ta k e n i n to accountw hen the curtai l mcnt v : r 4dx4 : c 4Qx! (7.t2)
-
of the flexural reinforcement is determineiJ.This shift in the tension forcc
compressionforce C'
dis t r ibut ionis e x a mi n e dmo rec l o s e l yi n S e c ti on7.5.l ,w hen the contri buti on Here the internaltension f is replacedby the internal
a compression force' with
of the web reinforcementis also considerecl. to signity that ir is the vertical component of
shear force'
consnt slope,which balancesthe external
(owing to slip' cracking'
7.3.3 The Principal Mechanismsof Shear Resistance In a normal reinforcedconcretebeam in which
q required for beam action cannot be
when t he r ela ti o n s h i p and other causes)the full bond force
b e tw e e nth ee x te rn a m
l omentand the i nternalmomenr as expressed by Eq' 7 10' will offer a com-
of r es is t ancgei v e nb y Eq . 7 .9a rec o mb i n e dw i th the w el l -know nrel ati onshi p developed.the two mechanisms,
agalnstshear forces' The extent to which each mechanism
betweenshearand the rate of changeof bendingmoment along a beam,the bined reststance
at various levelso[ externalload intensitywill
followingmodesof internalshearresistanceresult: contributesto shearresistance
with theseactions'
dependon the compatibility of deformationsassociated
, :#: *,r'^:jof * r y (7.10)
Beam Action in the Shear SPan
divide the tenstonzone
The term .il@rldx) expressesthe behavior o[ a true prismatic flexural Cracks inducedby load on a simply supportedbeam
m em berin wh i c h th e i n te rn a lte n s i l efo rc e ? "acti ngon a constantl everarm i.e,,t.ach of theseblocks may be considered
into a numberof blocks(seenig.
id c hanges f r om p o i n t to p o i n t a l o n gth e b e a m,to bal anccexactl ytheexternal its base at the compression zone of the concrete
to act as a cantileverwth
m om entint en s i tyT. h e te rm tl T l tl r. th e ra te o f changcor the i nternaltensi on andi tsfreeendjust beyondt hef lexur aI t ensionr einf or cem ent . Becauseof t he
force,is termed the bond orce,q, applied to the flexural reinforcemenrper analogy,the blcks *tt U" referredto as "concrete cantilevers'"
t o t ake place't he
unit lengt hof b e a m .(Se ea l s o F i g . 7 .3 .)S h o u ldthe i nternal l everarm remai n It w as sho wn in Eq. 7'll t hat f or per f ectbeam act ion
to be seenhow the
c ons t ant( a no rma l l y a c c e p te da s s u mp ti o no f the el asti ctheory anal ysi sof full bond force r1*uri b. effectivelyiesisted'It remains
pr is m at icf lex u ra l m e m b e rs )s o th a t d (k t)l d x: 0, thc equati on of perfect The resistance may be
concretecantileverscan fulfill ,uti'' u requirement'
" beam ac t ion " i s o b ta i n e dth u s to which a typical
examinedin more detail if we first identify all the actions
action (seeFig' 7'7)'
cantileveris subjected.The componentsof the cantilever
v : jd#: n, (t . tt ) are as follows:
l .Thei ncreaseof t het ensilef or ceint hef lexur alr einf or cem ent bet ween
T he s am er es u l tw a s o b ta i n e di n Eq . 7 .4 a ,w h ereq, thc bon< jforceper unrt : Tr ' Tz'
adjacentcracksproducesa bond force,AT
 Strength and Deformation of Members
vith Shear
Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams Without Web Reinforcement 28t
sc

P
I
--t
resistanceof the concrete depends largely on the tensile strength of the
concrete.the stresspattern resultingfrom the actions o P, Vn,and M, (see
\*i Fig. 7.7),and the depth s. of the critical cantileversection.The depth .s,is often
-T l quite small,particularly at advancedstagesof cracking. Beam 5 in Fig. 7.8,
which showsa seriesof beamstestedby Leonhardt and Walther,?' is a good

li exampl eof t his phenom enon.Exper im ent sT

of normal dimensionsat the most 20"/',,,
6 have indicat edt hat in beam s
o[ the bond force could be resisted

--= .v li v
by flexureat the "built-in end" of the concretecantilevers.
When sheardisplacementalong an inclinedcrack occurs,a certainamount
of shear will be transferredby means of the dowel action of the flexural
reinforcement.Where the bars bear against the cover concrete,the dowel
capacity will be limited by the tensile strength of the concrete.Once a
splitting crack occurs, the stiffness,hence the effectiveness, of the dowel
action is greatly reduced.This splitting also adversely affects the bond
performanceof the bars. The splitting strength of the concretein turn will
dependon the effectiveconcreteareabetweenbarsofa layer acrosswhich the
tension is to be resisted.Of particular importance is the relative position
of a bar at the time the concreteis cast.Becauseof increasedsedimentation
and water gain under top-castbars, they require considerablylarger shear
displacementsthan bottom-cast bars of a beam to offer the samedowel
resrstance.
TestsindicatedT' ? 8 that in beamswithout web reinlbrcementthe contri-
bution ofdowel action doesnot exceed25)iothe total cantileverresistance.
However,dowel action is more significantwhen stirrup reinforcementis used
becausea flexural bar can more effectivelybear against a stirrup that is
tightly bent around it. Neverthelss,cracks will develop approximately
Fig.7.7. Actions on a concrete parallelto the flexural bars beforethe stirrups contribute to carrying dowel
cantilever jn the shear span of a
beam.
forces.The stiffnessof the dowel mechanismdependsgreatly on the position
of a crack relativeto the adjacentstirrupswhich would be capableof sustain-

illl 2' Provided shear dispracementsoccur

stressesuo, and u",
3. The sameshear ^u!.be
at the two facesof a crack, shear
generatedby means.of aggregate
in,"r"king.
ing a dowel force.Taylor,t'8 Baumannand Rsch,7'eand others havestudied
the characteristics of dowel action in beamswith preformedsmooth diagonal
cracks.Qualit at ive load- displacem ent r elat ionshipsf or dowel act ion ar e
dis.plaiement,_yui'inauJe-aJ*.1
d, Z' acrossthe flexural reinforcement.
4' At the "buirt-in" end of the cantirever,
fo..", 4, una presentedin Fig. 7.9.When the sheardisplacementis large enough,and the
flexuralbarsare firmly supportedon stirrups,dowel forcescan be transferred
{ an axiar force p, a transverse by ki nki ng of t he bar s. 7r o This is par t icular lyr elevantwit hin plast ichinges
shearing rgr1e vr, and a moment
I M" are induced to equiribriate the
above- where the flexural reinforcementhas yielded or along joints where sliding
mentioned forceson the cantilever.
I It will be noticed that the cantirever
shearcan occur.(SeeFig. 1.29.)
When the two facesof a flexuralcrack of moderatewidth are given a shear
rf A, is resisted by dowel and aggregat.
fl
exurat
moment
-l-r,t..o.texertedby the bond force,

anceM of thecon'e;.ie;;s-;.; ;;;;

.resisr ;;ffi
forces in addition to the
displacementto eachother,a number of coarseaggregateparticlesprojecting
acrosssuch a crack will enablesmall shear forcesto be transmitted.Clearly
comparison between"thesethree modes l among many variables,the width and coarsenessof the crack, the shear
"1",,,",,".
of cantireverresistance.The flexural
ti displacement,and the strength of embedment (i.e.,concrete strength),are

ltJ
 - =.T'*f$ffi

Span
Mark a

r---l (in) {ml d

1 2 .6i n , tl 10.6 in. 2

3
r 35.4
41.3
0.90
1.'t 5
1.0
1.5

lt
(3?Omm) ( 270 m m ) 57.0 1.4 5 2.O
4 66.9 1.7 0 2.5
5 76.7
6 92.5 2.35 4.0
l"'l 7t1
8/1
1 12.1
14r .9
3.to
3.60
5.0
6.0
10/r 185.2 4,70 8.0
l*r..,".*l
{19Om m )
911 22A,2 5.80 7,O

Fig. 7 . 8 . C r a c k p i t t e r nin b e a m ste ste db v L e o n h a r d t a n d W al ther

 2U Strength and Deform.tion of Membrs with Shear Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeams Without Web Reinforcement 285

corresponding tension can be developed at the springing of the cantilever.

Such tensile forces normally lead to further crack propagation, which in
slender beams cannot be arrested.This is referred to as diagonal tension
failure.It is particularlyundesirablefor it usually occurs very suddenly.
Beams7ll and 8/l (Fig. 7.8)are good examplesof the failure of the beam
:o action in the shearspan.
We customarily refer to the shear strength of the compression zone of a
6 beam,on the assumptionthat aggregateinterlock and dowel actionsare not
3
( 2) After dowel c r ac k i ng, w i thou s ti r r up
viable means of shear resistance.However, recent experiments have shown
o
again that this is not the case.TaylorT'r2 examined the compressionzones
ofthe concreteabove diagonal cracks and found that the shearcarried in this
area(V, in Fig. 7.6)increasedslowly to a maximum of 25 to 4Oy. of the total
shearforce acrossthe sectionas the beamsapproached failure. The remainder
of the shear must therefore be carried below the neutral axis in the tension
zone of the beam. After the breakdown of the aggregate interlock and the
Do we ld isp lacement
A dowel mechanisms,the compressionzone is generallyunable to carry the
Fig. 7.9. General dowel shear-dowel displacementrelationship. increasedshear,in addition to the compression force resulting from flexure,
and the beam fails.

likely to be the most important. Surprisingly,a very considerableforce can be Arch Action in the Shear Span
transmittedthis way. In fact,aggregateinterlock failure could not be obtained
in one series of laboratory specimensT'6because other causes,such as The secondterm of Eq. 7.10signifiesthat shear can be sustainedby inclined
diagonal tensionaway from the observedcrack, terminated the load carrying compressionin a beam, as illustrated in Fig.7.l0. Arch action requires a
capacity. When such failures were suppressedand the crack width was
maintainedconstant,it has beenpossibleto obtain aggregateinterlock shear
stresses in excessof 1000psi (69 N/mm2)7'rt (seeFig.7.28).Measurements on
test beamsT' 7'r 3 without web reinforcementindicated that 50 to 70], of the
bond force,acting on the concretecantilevershown in Fig. 7.7,was resistedby
the aggregateinterlock mechanism.FenwickT'6demonstrated this convinc-
ingly by comparisonwith a beam in which the aggregateinterlock mechanism
*T
d
acrosssmooth preformed cracks was eliminated.

r1, The maximum capacitiesof the three mechanismsof beam action (dowel
action, aggregateinterlock, and the flexural strength of the fixed end of the
cantilever) are not necessarily additive when failure is imminent. The
-*I
lli advanceof inclined cracks toward the compressionzone reducesthe "fixed
ti end" of the cantileverconsiderably.This resultsin large rotations,particularly
at the "lree end" of the cantilevers,which means that the dowel capacity
llli can be exhausted.The formation of dowel cracks and secondarydiagonal

lrr cracksnear the reinforcement,visible particularly in beam 8/l of Fig. 7.8,

affectsthe aggiegate interlock action, which at this stage carries the bulk
il, of the load. A sudden reduction of the aggregate interlock force, such as
Eu,, in Fig.7.7, on one side of the cantilevercausesimbalanceunlessa
ili Fig. 7.10. Slip associatedwith arch action in an idealized beam.

rlt
i.l
 286 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear
substantialhorizontal reactionat the support, which in simply supported
beamsis provided by the flexural reinlorcement.This imposesheavydemands
on the anchorages,and indeed it accounts for the most common type of
!
arch failure. In the idealized beam of Fig. 7.10,full anchorage is assumed,
thus a constant tensile force can develop in the bottom reinforcementover
the full length as required. The shaded area indicates the extent of the
compressedconcrete outside which cracks can form. By considering the
requirementsof strain compatibility, and by assuminglinear strain distribu-
tion acrossthe full concretesection,a unique position of the line of thrust
may be determined. The total extension of the reinforcement between
anchoragesmust equal the total elongation of the concrete fiber situated
I
at the samelevel.where the concreteis cracked,the elongationcan be derived
lr from linear extrapolationof the strains in the compressionzone. Having
satisfiedthesecriteria, the translation displacementof the steelrelative to its
surroundingconcrete(i.e.,the slip),can be determined.A typical slip distribu-
li tion along the shearspan is shown in Fig. 7.10.
Three points worth noting emerged from the study of such an idealized
beam : 76
ii,
l. Arch action can only occur at the expenseof slip (i.e.,of completeloss
of bond transfer).
2. The translational displacements required lor complete arch action
increasetoward the load point and attain a value approximatelyequal to
the total extensionof the steelin the shearspan.
3. In the vicinity of the load point the line of thrust, hencethe neutral
jjii
axis, riseswell above the position predicted by standard flexural theory.
In real beams,particularly when deformed bars are used,no appreciable
rl
slip can take placebetweensteeland concrete.The translational displacement
occurs mainly as a result of the flexural deformation or the failure of the
concretecantileverslormed betweendiagonal cracks and the bending of the
compressionzone above the top of these cracks. Also in a real beam, the
transition from beam action to arch action is gradual, and this can be deter-
mined if the developmentof the tension lorce along the reinforcement,hence
the variation of the internal lever arm in test beams, is observed.The full
strengthof arch and beam actions cannot be combined becauseof the gross
incompatibilityof the deformationsassociatedwith the two mechanisms.
The available strength from arch action is largely dependent on whether
the resulting diagonal compression stressescan be accommodated. For a
given steelforce and beam width, the intensity of the diagonal compression
stresses dependson the inclination of the line of thrust. The shearspan to
depth ratio (ald in Fig. 7.10)is a measureof this inclination. Ir can arso be
Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcreteBeamsWithout Web Reinforcernent 287
in terms of the moment and the shearas follows
expressed
aVuM
(7.l 3)
dVdVd
ExclLrdinglossof anchorage,arch failuresmay be placeh in three groups.
l. After the failure of the beam action, the propagation of an inclined
crack reducesthe compressionzone excessively.A slope is reachedwhen
the availablearea of concretein the vicinity of the load point becomestoo
small to resist the compressionforce and it crushes.This is known as a
" shearcompression " failure.Beams4, 5, and 6 of Fig. 7.8 are good examples
of such a failure.
2. The line of thrust may be so eccentricthat a flexural tension failure
occursin the "compressionzone."An exampleof such behavior is beam 7/l
in Fig. 7.8.The failure is very sudden.
3. When the line of thrust is steeper(i.e.,when a/d is lessthan 2),consider-
able reservestrengthmay be availableowing to more efficientarch action.
Failure may eventuallybe due to diagonalcompressioncrushingor splitting,
which can be likened to a transversesplitting test performedon a standard
concretecylinder(seebeam I in Fig. 7.8).Frequentlythe flexuralcapacityof a
beam is attained becausethe arch mechanism is sufficient to sustain the
requiredshearforce(seebeam 2 in Fig. 7.8). \''
It is important to note that arch action in beams without.web reinforce-
ment can occur only if loadsare appliedto the compressionzonqof the beam.
This was the casefor all the test beams in Fig. 7.8.The load situa)tionmay be
more seriouswhen a girder supports secondary beams near its boitorn edge.
It is evident that effectivearch action cannot develop in a beam whrr+hg
external shear force is transmitted to the tension zone. Precautionary
measuresfor such situations are discussed in Chapter 13. The foregoing
material has clearly indicatedthat arch action must be the dominant mode
of shearresistance in deep beamsloaded in the compressionzone.
7.3.4 Size Effects
For obvious reasonsmost shear tests have been carried out on relatively
small beams.Recently it has been found that the results of such laboratory
tests cannot be directly applied to full size beams.The shear strength of
beamswithout web reinforcementappears to decreaseas the effectivedepth
increases.Kani, in his experiments,hasdernonstratedthis very effectively.?'ra
If proper scaling of all properties is taken into account, the effect of the
absolutesizeof a beam on its shearstrength is not so large.T'rsDowel and
aggregate interlock actions in particular can be considerably reduced in
288 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear (]+)

large beamsif aggregateand reinforcingbar sizesare not correctly scaled.

Experimentsat the University of Stuttgart indicated, however, that the
relativelossof shearstrengthof large beamswas not significantwhen beams
with web reinforcementwerecomDared.?r6

7.3.5 Shear Failure Mechanisms

ls
Shear failure mechanismsof simply supported beams,loaded with point
loads of the types previouslydescribed,fall into three approximatebands 'F

o ald ratios.Thesecan be observedon the beamstestedby Leonhardtand 6

WaltherT'7(Fig. 7.8).The failure moments and the ultiinate shear forces a
for the l0 beamsof Fig. 7.8are plotted againstthe shearspan to depth ratio
( E q. 7.l3) in F i g .7 . l l . T h e b e a m sc o n ta i n edno sti rrupsand the materi al
propertiesof all specimenswere nearly identical.
Type I. Failureof the beammechanismat oislortly aiter the application
of the diagonal cracking load, when 3 < ald < 7. The subsequentarch
mephanismis not capableof sustainingthe crackingload. \
Type ll. Shearcompressionor flexuraltensionfailureof the compression
-o-.-- ( ci
x
j
o
zone above diagonalcracking load. This is usually a failure of arch action
when2< ald < 3 . 1u.111'rurfroyl
_- a
Type III. Failure by crushing or splitting of the concrete (i.e.,a failure
(s d l )
of arch action), when ald is smaller than 2.5. o

Figure 7.ll revealsthat when 1.5 < ald < 7, the flexural capacityo[the @
beamsis not attained.Hencesheargovernsthe design. o

By consideringthe beamaction ofshear resistance, as outlined previously,

it becomesclear that the magnitude of the bond force AT, transmitted EC d
0
betweentwo adjacent cracks, is limited by the strength of the cantilever 3E
:.
block (Fig. 7.7) formed between the cracks. By assuming that the strength :6'- E sl S E I
d
ilO
of eachcantileverin the shearspanof a prismaticbeam is the same,A?_.* : 6 S'; H st\ o.
o
.9 s)
4-"" Ax, the maximum moment that can be developedby beam action 3>
';'>

xNXI
becomes :d

= 6;
M : jdT^^, : jd L e^u* LX = Q^u*jdx (7.14\
p
!
f

o
\fr
^u* 0

where rJ."" is the maximum bond force per unit length of beam, Ax is the
--
ix
!

K S o!
=
-6
P
E

distance between cracks and x is the distance of the maximum momenr ,*< o

sectionfrom the support.When this moment is lessthan the flexuralstrength

of the section M,, shear strength,,associatedwith beam action, governs the
capacityof the beam.From Eq. 7.14 it is evidentthat the moment sustained
oc)o F
by the concretecantileversof the beam action in the shear span increases m NN
!
with the distance x from the support. Beam action also implies constant N 'a3lo' Jseqs

289
290 Shear Resistancein Reinforced concrete Beams without web Reinforcement 291
Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear

shear strength,limited by q^u*, which is independentof the shear span to
depth ratio a/r/.
The flexural and shear capacitiesof "beam action" are designatedby
dashed lines in Fig.7. ll. When compared with observedultimate values,
they demonstratethat beam action governs the behavior when ald is larger
than 3. When uld is larger than 7, the shear strengthexceededthe flexural
strengthof thesebeams;henceflexuregovernedtheir strength.The discrep-
ancy betweenthe theoreticalflexural capacity and the observedshearstrength
of thesebeamsis indicatedby the shadedarea in Fig. 7.1l.
The flexuralsteelcontentfor the beamsrepresentedin Fig.7.ll was2'/".
For higher steelcontent the "valley" at ald x 2.5 will be deeperand for a
smaller steel percentageit will be shallower. Kani has demonstratedthis
r7
changewith flexural steelcontent in testson a large number of beams'7
A high steel content in the shear span, however, will mean narrower
flexuralcracksat a given load, and this will enableaggregateinterlock and
dowel actionsto carry largerloaC.The increasedstrengthofthe beamaction,
resultingfrom larger flexural steelcontent, has been demonstratedalso by
?
testsTl (seeFig. 7. 12) .
7.3.6 The Design for Shear of Beams Without Web Reinforcement
The previouspageshave discussedthe nature of shear resistancein simply
supported beams without web reinforcement subject to concentrated
loadings.It was seenthat the shearfailure mechanism,particularly of beams
with 2.5 < ald < 7, dependsgreatly on the tensilestrength of the concrete.
Thus it is not surprising that there is a great scatter of test dat4 from appar-
ently similar members. For beams subjected to uniformly distributed load
along the compressionedges,slightly more favorable results are obtained.

t4
L$,"
In continuous beams,on the other hand, the ald ratio does not represent
the same situation encounteredin simply supported beams becausethe
sectionsdo not coincide with the supports at which reactionsare applied.
For this reasona relativelysimple semiempiricaldesignequation has been
bu
adopted by the ACI, based on the results of numerous tests. This conserv-
A r
ru
h.d
atively predicts the shear strength of beams in most siluations.? It also
takesinto accountthe major factorsinfluencingshearresistance, such as the
v,
Ultimate shear stress:
' b.d
tensile strength of the concrete,as measured by the parameter J .f ',, crack
control as expressedby p* : AJb*d, and the shear span to depth ratio
Mlvd, in this form
= 3800 psi (262 N/mm2
4
, = 6.0 i n (154mm) V,
^ 500
d = 1O.7i n (272mm) u,: b*d: 1.g,,/7, r.tfi,
* 25AOP*'ff (7.1s)

E c = 36.0i n (915 mm) "
= 4oo where all quantitiesare in pound and inch units and (VdlM,,) ( 1.0at any
o section.
P, = O.SOYo " Often the useof the secondterm of Eq. 7.15is not warranted(seethe shaded
0.80%
area of Fig. 1.12),andequally satisfactorydesign may be achievedby using
1.88%
the simpler and slightly more conservativeexpression
2.80%

u,:2.ol J',1psi) or , : o - 1 6 6 { f " ( N / m m ' z ) ( 7.I 6)

Figure 7.13comparesEqs.7.15 and 7.16with experimentalresults.
Acf formufa:,,1 o.8s l1.gJ' + 25oop, Wrl psi However small the nominal shear stressmay be, it is good practice to
q
provide a minimum amount of web reinforcementin all beams,as suggested
d
in Section1.4.3,ro ensurethat a possiblediagonal crack is not followed by
Fig.7.l2. S h e a rstr e ssa t fa ilu r ea s a fu n ctio n o fthe shearspan to depth rati o.7.r7 an immediate collapse.This is important becausein addition to Kani's
 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear Shear Resistancein Reinforced Concrete Beams lVith Web Reinforcement

following equation

5 .0 ,
u.:Eq. (1.17a)
"(+)
to accountfor arch action.T'22
_ 4.0

l"'
.t\ "
7.4 TTIE MECHANISM OF SHEAR RESISTANCEIN
| \- r.u
' REINFORCEDCONCRETEBEAMS WITH WEB
25ooD:..vd'
-;= 1.9+ ----- < 3.5 RETNFORCEMENT
l\ ,/l; MJ|

7.4.1 The Role of Web Reinforcement

1 .0
10 p.Vd
MJT
F i g . 7 .1 3 . Co m p a r iso no f Eq s. 7 .1 5 a n d 7 .1w i th experi mentalresul ts.?.1
tests(Fig. 7.l2), there is other evidence7 r 8 that Eq. 7.I 5 might not be conserv-
ative when the flexural steelcontent is small. Also, unforeseenaxial tension in
a membercould reduce0c.
Inevitably, a general expressionsuch as Eq.7.15, which attempts to
predict the strength of two mechanisms so different as beam action and
arch action, will have shortcomings. Thus far, however, it has not been
possibleto rationally allow for all factors affecting each of the components
of the shear resisting mechanisms and their interaction. one of the best
correlations between the shear strength of different experimental slender
beams(ald > 2.5)and the three most important parametersgoverning shear
(diagonal cracking) strength
The inclusion of web reinforcement such as stirrups does not change
fundamentally the previously described mechanism of shear resistance.The
concretecantilevers,which are the principal elementsof the beam mechanism,
will act as tied cantilevers.In addition to the bond force AT, resistedby the
combination of aggregateinterlock, dowel, and flexural action of the canti-
levers, another bond force AT' can be sustained by what is traditionally
termed "truss action." In this truss the cantileversact as diagonal compres-
sion members(seeFig. 7.14).
The presenceof stirrups is beneficial to beam action in a number of other
aspects,as well. Stirrups contribute to the strength of the shear mechanisms
by the following means:
l. Improving the contribution of the dowel action. A stirrup can effectively
support a longitudinal bar that is being crossed by a flexural shear crack
close to a stirrup.
2. Suppressingflexural tensile stressesin the cantilever blocks by means
of the diagonal compressionforce Cr, resulting from truss action.

,": ss(!:l!!)'t' (psi) (7.17)

was derived by ZsuttyT'te using dimensional and statistical regression

analyses.A semiempiricalapproach yielded very similar resultslor Regan?.20 LT

and PlacasT'2 t in their extensive

work at Imperial college. In beams iitn op
ratios lessthan 2.5, loaded at the top and bottom edge,Zsutty proposed the Fig.7.l4. Concrete cantileversacting as struts.
.'
11
ii
i Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear Shear Resistancein ReinforcedConcrete BeamsWith Web Reinforccment 295
3. Limiting the openingof diagonal crackswithin the elasticrange,thus
enhancingand preservingsheartransferby aggregateinterlock.
4. Providing confinement,when the stirrups are sufficiently closely
spaced,thus increasingthe compressionstrength ol localitiesparticularly
affectedby arch action.
co
-rffi
z )iv'
5. Preventingthe breakdown of bond when splitting cracks develop in /q \f
- 6\ - a-r. ::
anchoragezonesbecauseofdowel and anchorageforces.
E q u i l i b ri u m a i o i n . \ '
It may be said that suitablydetailedweb reinforcementwill preservethe
integrity,thereforethe strength,of the previouslydefinedbeam mechanism
li, allowingadditionalshearforces( to be resistedby the trussmechanism.
Fig. 7.15. l nternal forc esi n an anal ogoustrus s .
7"4.2 The Truss Mechanisrn
The analogy betweenthe shear resistanceof a parallel chord truss and a
web-reinforced concretebeam is an old conceptof concretestructures.The From E qs.7.l8 and 7. 19,t he st ir r up f or ceper unit lengt his
analogy.postulatedby Mrsch at the beginningof the century,t " implies .|
V, A, f.
that the web of the equivalenttruss consistsof stirrups acting as tension (1.20)
membersand concretestrutsrunning parallelto diagonalcracks,generallyat
.s l'aritt n rc.t "
+ cot nf .s
45' to the beam's axis. The ffexural concrete compressionzone and the where ,4,.is the area of the web reinforcementspaceclat a distances along
flexr.rralreinforcementform the top and bottom chords of this analogous the beam and f, is the stirrup stress.
pin-jointedtruss.The forcesin the truss can be determinedlrom considera- For designpurposesit is convenientto expressshear in terms of nominal
tionsof equilibriumonly.The behaviorof the trussis similar to the previously stresses,as in Eq.7. 15.The total shear /" is assumedto be resistedpartly
defined "perfect beam action" to the extent that it can sustain discrete by the truss mechanism(() and partly by the previouslydescribedbeam or
bond forces LT' at the hypotheticalpin joints along the flexural reinforce- arch mechanisms((). In terms of stresses, this is expressedas
ment, thus resistingvariableexternalmomentson a constantinternal lever
t)u:D c + us (1.2t)
arm.
The deformationsassociatedwith beam or arch action and the truss where
mechartismwithin the beam are not compatible.This strain incompatibility,

",: -Loro*
traditionally ignored. becomesprogressivelyless significant as ultimate (1.221
( i. e. plas
. t ic c) o n d i ti o n sa re a p p ro a c h e d . #
The analogoustrussappearingin Fig. 7.15depictsthe generalcaseof web
B y cornbi ningEqs. 7. 20and1. 22,t he r equir edar ea of web r einf or cem ent
at
reinforcernent inclinedat an angleB to the horizontal.It will serveo illustrate
ideal strength,when f,: f, becomes
the rclation betweenthe externalshearforce (, to be resistedby the truss,
and t he v a ri o u si n te rn a lfo rc e s T . h e d i a g onalcompressi onstruts.resi sti ng us 's*
^- (1.23\
a f or c eCr , a re i n c l i n e da t a n a n g l ea to th e hori zontal .From the equi l i bri um sin f tcot d. + cot []l Jl
f or c epoly g o nd ra w n fo r j o i n t X i n F i g . 7 . 15i t i s evi dentthat
The diagonalcompressionforceC, is assumedto generateuniorm stresses
V":Cosina:Isinf (7.r8) in the strutsof the truss.The struts have an effectivedepth of s' : .ssin a :
where { is the resultant of all stirrup forces across the diagonal crack. j dsi na (cot a * cot f ) . Thus t he diagonal com pr essionst r esses
due t o t he
The web steelforce per unit lengthof beam is f/s, where from the geometry truss mechanismcan be approximatedby
of the analogoustruss,the spacingbetweenstirrups is
t Co V lr.
5 :j d (c o td + c o t p) (7.te) rr.:--
cd (1.24)
b , , s' b * 1 d si n a (cot a + cot f) srn a (cot a + cot /i)
 Shear Resistancein Reinforcedconcrete BeamsWith web Reinforcement 29'7
296 Slrength and Deformation of Members with Shear

For the common casesof web steel arrangements,Eqs. 7.23 and 7.24 and lower concretestrength,the load on the concretewill be relievedat the
2o
s im plif yas fo l l o w s : expenseof larger stirrup participation.7 The slopesof the diagonalcracks
in the vicinity of point loads and a point of contraflexure are displayed
L F :
vEnrtcll srtRRUPS, 90'
i n Fi g. 7.16.
diagonalsat a : 45"
Conrpression Flat diagonalcompressionstruts and steepstirrups imply larger concrete
sA compressionstresses(cf. Eqs. 1.24d and 7.24b).This indicatesthat the web
A",,: u-." ] (1.23a) steelcontentcannotbe increasedindefinitely.Figure 7.16 showsa continuous,
J),
thin-webbedflanged bearn with heavy web reinforcement.In such beams,
'f'a
: 2u' (7.24a) shear failure may be brought about by web crushing causedby diagonal
compression(Eq. 1.2a).when assessingthe compression strength of the
diagonalsat a : 30"
Conrpression
web of beams,it is necessaryto considerthe following additional factors:
sb*'
l " : 0 ' 5 8u' (7.23b)
.f, | . The diagonalstrutsare alsosubjectedto bendingmomentsif they are to
2 ' 3 l u' (7.24b1 participatein beam action (seeFig. 1 .7).Secondarymoments are introduced
f" a :
becauseof the absenceof true "pin joints" in the truss.
2. sLoprNGwEB RETNFoRCEMENT,
P < 90" 2. Stirrups passingthrough transmit tension to thesestruts by meansof
Compressiondiagonalsqt u : 45" bond, so that generallya biaxial state of strains prevails.The compression
capacityof concreteis known to be drastically reducedwhen simultaneous
4,,:
t)
-s 9,.' (7.23c) transversetensilestrainsare imposed(seeFig' 2.8).
(sinB + cos/i) f,,
3. The compressionforcesare introducedat the " joints " of the analogous
9n truss,and theseforcesare far from being evenly distributed acrossthe web.
, (7.24c1
rc tt-- - a -
1 + c o tl Eccentricities and transversetensilestressesmay be present.
4. Somediagonalsmay be inclined at an angle considerablysmaller than
ond s'rutsat 45"
Weh reinfttr<'enrcnt 45'' to the horizontal,and this will result in significantincreasein diagonal
sb compressionstresses (seeEq. 7.24 and Fig- 7.16).
A..: O.7lu. ) (7.23d)
f
Jj' Theseobservationspoint to the needto limit diagonalconcretestresses to a
t - ,, (7.24d1 value well below the crushingstrengthof the concrete. For this reason the
JA --t

ACI limits the contribution of the truss mechanism to shear strength o

The slopeof the compressiondiagonalshas beentraditionally assumedto ( psi) .Thus f r om Eqs. 7'15 and 1'21
value of , . : 8. '/ 7,
a very con ser vat ive
be 45" tothe beam axis.It has beenobserved,however,that the slopeofthe
the absolute maximum nominal shear stress in a beam (in psi units) is
diagonal cracks at the boundaries of the struts vary along the beam.
rc./ry, ( u,,-o" < ll.5J7,' depending on the value of r', However'
StudiesT-24 basedon strain energy considerationsshow that the optimum
angleof the struts is about 38'. From Eq.7.23it is evidentthat the web steel f uptei and Baumannr.2aun6 others have shown that with closely spaced
sti rrups,as used in t he double- f langed pr ecastconcr et ebeam in Fig. 7. l6,
demand is reducedas the angle of the compressiondiagonalsbecomesless
nominal shear stressesof the order of 20J.f ', (psi) could be reachedeven
than 45', becausemore stirrupsare encounteredacrossa flat crack.This is
often the case,and designequationsbasedon compressionstruts at 45" are after50 applicationsof load to one-half that intensity. As a rule,shearstresses
conservative.On the other hand,the strutsare steeperin the vicinity of point of this magnitude could not be attained in beams of rectangular cross
loads.However,in theseareaslocal arch action boosts the capacityof the section.
other shearcarryingmechanisms. Generallyin a beam having high concrete Stirrups can develop their assignedstrength only if they are adequately
strengthand low web steelcontent,representinga lessrigid tensionsystem, anchored.A stirrup may be crossedby a diagonal crack at any point along
the compressionstruts are at an angle lessthan 45", hencethe stirrups are i ts l ength.Sincet he cr ack m ay be ver y closet o t he t ensionor com pr ession
more effectivethan in a 45'' truss.Converselywith large web steelcontent edgeof the member,a stirrup must be capableof developingits yield strength
 299
S hearR esi s tanc ei nR ei nforc edC onc reteB eams W i thW eb[l ei nforc ernenI
that stirrups be
over the full extent of its length. Therefore it is important
be extended beyond them by an
E
bent around larger longitudinal bars and
stipulate various forms of satisfactory
E E adequatedevelopment length. codes
E the stirrup has to dispose of its load at
2 un"orug.. For ffectivetruss action
z
: z or near itre "pin joint." Careful
The
detailing,
concentration
as outlined
ofload
in
transfer
Chapter
at the
13, must
corners of
.G
o
ensurethis load transfer.
local crushing of the concrete if a good fit to a longi-
,ii..up, may lead to
e

0'02 in (0'5 mm)

{ tudinl flexural bar is not assured.Stirrup slips as large as
these slips can
have been observed in some members. In shallow beams
increaseconsiderablythe width of diagonal cracks'
(\l ol
crack,
sometimes a set of stirrups, crossed by a continuous diagonal
and one of the
U
t yi"as; unrestricted widening of that crack then commences'
interlock action,
important components of shear resistance, aggregate
IJ
to the
J
L a becom"s ineffective.The shear resistanceso lost cannot be transferred
n they are already exhausted' hence
F { dowel and the truss mechanisms,because
deformation. To prevent such nonductile
o failure follows, with little further
o d.
L
ui
fo l fai l urei tisgoodpr act ice- indeed'inseism icdesignit ism andat or y- t o
the member
o
F
ol
I
ensurethat sirrupswill not yield beforethe flexural capacityof
ITJ : is fully exhausted.
o- l of
L
ol A iruss mechanism in beams can function only after the formation
I JI
6l
diagonal cracks (i.e., after the disappearanceo[ diagonal tension
in the
con-crete). The prime role of stirrups is to transfer the transverse(vertical)
reinforce-
shearacrossa potential diagonal failure crack.The use of a mesh
is capable of resisting
ment in the web is advocatedfrom time to time and this
more effective in resisting
both horizontal and vertical forces,but it is no
in the web of normal beams
shear.This is becausehorizontal reinforcement 2o apart
. cannot contribute to the resistance of transverse (vertical) forces?
; web
FI from aiding crack control and increasingdowel action. Horizontal
z. o the "contribution of the concrete" u" but will
trj reinforcementwill strengthen
E
of the truss mechanism u. (see Eq' 7'21)' In deep
J o not affectthe shearstrength
a can be
F
G
o beams,however lexamined in Chapter 13), the arch mechanism
)o - substantially boosted by the addition of horizontal bars well anchored in the
e support zone.
GI q
d
c,
o
E ! 7.4.3 The Design for Shear of Eearnswith Web Reinforcement
J g
o
gt J Ithasbeenshownt hat t heshear r esist ingm echanism of abeam wit hout web
x as long
tn
, d
reinforcement,partrcularlyaggregateinterlock action, will function
Hence in the presence of
II
U
U as the width of cracksdos not becomeexcessive.
.I
web reinforcement,beam action resistsshearing forces, provided the strains
l&
yield)'
F in the web reinfbrcementdo not becomelarge(i.e.,the stirrups do not
stirrups, therefore,it is possible to
U
Beforeor at the onset of yielding of the

298
 Strength and Deformation of Memberswith Shear
superimposethe strengthof the two actionsthus
u: uc + Ds
A conservativevalue for u., specifiedby the ACI, was given by Eq.7.l5
orEq.7.l6, this quantity being essentiallya function of the tensilestrength
of the concrete.Hence the remaining shear u, : , - u., is to be allocated
to
web reinforcementin accordancewith Eq. r.i: using vertical stirrups,
bent-up bars,or the combinationof both. The simple reationshipbetween
the total required shear strength u, and the required strength f vertical
stilrups u"is represented in Fig. i.li.lt must be rememberedthat in the ACI
specification compression struts are assumed to be inclined at a : 45".
An alternativeview is?'2athat the contribution of the concreteu. is negligible
and the inclination ofthe diagonalconcretestruts is lessthan 4i., threfore,
more stirrupscross_ the potentialcrack.(Seee.g.,Fig. 7.l6.) The broken lines
in Fig. 7.17 indicate the correspondingrelationships for various valuesof
a.
For most beamsthe shearstrengthpredictedby te two approachesis very
similar.
The ACI designapproachis compared in Fig. 7.lg with the behavrorof
beamstestedby Leonhardt and walther.t t It is seenthat the contribution
of the concrete at ultimate load, u., is underestimatedby the ACL The
theoreticalrelationship(Eq.7.23a)rewritten to expressthe stirrup stressas
o = 30" 35" 40"
TI
IT
q
o
Contr ibution of
uc concrete neglected
I Contriburionof stirrupsp,./!
F ig . 7 .1 7 . T h e co n tr ib u tio n o lstir r ups to shearstrength.
The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 301
: A,lsb*, is shown by dashedlines' Figure 7'l8a
7,: (u, - u,)lp,, where p,
comparesthe ACI approach with test results from four beams with identical
(7.2t)
web reinforcement. only the web width varied in these beams; the flange
width to web width ratio variedbetweenI and 6. Accordingly,the contribu-
bution of the concrete, Dc, may be expected to increase proportionally
as the web thicknessincreases(seeEq.7.l5). This supposition is borne out
by the tests.Moreover, it will be seenthat the shear prior to the significant
rise of stirrup stresses,previously referred to as shear causing diagonal
cracking, is maintained while the stirrup stressesrise to yield level (i.e., u.
remains almost constant).The same behavior is illustrated by four identical
T beams?.7in Fig. 7.I 8b, in which the theoretical share of the stirrups in the
total shear strength, 4 : u,fDu,varied between 21 and93/"'
Irrespective of the shear intensity, a minimum web reinforcement, cor-
responding with at least u" : 50 psi (0'35 N/mm2), should be provided in
every beam?'' (Eq. 7.23a\. Also, to ensure that every potential crack is
effectivelycrossedby stirrups, the spacing, s, should not exceeddl2. Where
plastic hinges may form, the stirrup spacing should not be more than d/4.
When the flexural steel yields, it is inevitable that diagonal cracks, being a
continuation of flexural crackS,will also increase.In theseareasthe contribu-
tion of the concrete toward shear resistanceucshould be ignored and web
reinforcementprovided for the whole of the shear (i.e.,u" : u,).
When moment reversalsare to be expected,as under seismic loading, the
closespacingof closed stirrups (ties) is particularly important. Such stirrups
will provide confinement to the compressed concrete and lateral support
to the compressionbars in regions where the flexural strength is developed.
Diagonal web reinforcement is effective only in one direction; therefore,
it should not be used when the loading may be reversedunlessit is provided
in both directions.
An example,given at the end of this chapter, illustrates the application of
these principles. Further aspects of shear, as they affect the detailing of
structural members,are discussedin Chapter 13.
7.5 THE INTERACTION OF FLEXURE AND SHEAR
Experiments with normal reinforced concrete beams with adequate web
reinforcementindicate that the shear force has no recognizableinfluence on
the development of flexural capacity. This enables the designer to ignore
interaction and to deal with flexure and shear separately. The previous
discussion shows, however, that an intimate relation does exist between
flexure, shear, bond, and anchorage in the shear span of a beam. This is
evident from an examination of the behavior of the flexural reinforcement
along the beam. When large shear forces are to be transmitted across a
 Shearstress,Pst
600 7oo
Load P, k i ps "r--
0 100 200 300 400 500

20 30 40 50 L o a d P , k rP s
T- 20 40 60 80 100
500
IP LI 70
.'<-" *, t*-,-t
\a,'
M* I_ I
Yield strength #
--- - -T--
llllllillllil
ffi d/
/) I F- ) I , /v
300
uu to lf psi
{iF
r tl I
t
I
I
l(), -.,
\rl 50

U,
t

,,r,#
/
-c/
t I
it /
E /
o-/ E 300 "vr
IlO _
,;
/ i',
E Y/ I z n
,/,;
E \., ,
I ,; r, i a
trtt .=
q Fct JU:
i o
f

.=
g
v/
.;
ry
c
.: -V ol // ;/
Ei I
P .!
,E .--,-" JUg
.s r 2oo l 6

il/,,,
g 27;
Eir g/ I q
6
t I s.-
/= i!t ,rp
o I
I zv

W,J
100 20 L

#A
tl
d ./

v
I l)

*=,% 100

W
' t0
dl o:
=
/#
4
I
I <-v"E f/

M: '47
,\
t
t
z 500
JO
600
100 200 300 400
\ "\-* V. LoadP, kN
n= 0.38
n=
{
-50 J0 23
120 180 240 300
Shearstress,N/mm2
Load P, k N

la)
{r)
F i g .7 .l 8 . Stir r up
str ess- load r elationship. ( a) Beam s w i r h c ons tanr w eb s teel
c ontent. ( )
B e a ms w i th var iable web steel content.?.?

302 303
 304 Strcngth and Drformation of Nfembcrswith Shear The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 305
s ec t iona t u l ti ma te mo me n t,th e d i s tributi onof the rexural
strai nsrn the It is convenientto introducethe factor
concreteand the steelcan be affected.Shearforcesin deep beams
can be so
dominant that they govern the strength of the member by inhibiting V
the n: -: {7.2e)
developmentof the full flexural capacity as derived from the principres ' t/ Du
presentedin earlierchapters.
which expresses the shareof the web reinlorcementin resistingthe total shear
force. Using this factor, the tension force becomes
7.5.1 The Effect of Shear on Flexural Steel Requirements
The tensioninduced in rhe flexural reinforcementby the forces T :Mu
- ujdd" *'t v (7.30)
associated
with the trussmechanismonly can be establishedwith reference
to Fig. 7.15.
Taking moment about the compressionresurtantc'at sectionl-1, gives where
the
iollowing relationship: ni :
- + c ot0)>-o (7.30a)
" ot" \r c " r d
M'r : V,x : M'z + \jd cota : T,jd + iisin p (7.2s)
| I It is evident from Eq. 7.30 that after the formation of diagonal cracks, the
where M', and M', are the bending moments generatedby the externar tension force I in the flexural steel becomesgreater than that required to
forces resistthe externalmoment at that section.The increaseis largelydependent
at sectionsI and 2, respectivery.
By substitutingfor I and.s from Eqs.7.rg
and 7.19.we obtain on the inclination of the cracks (i.e.,the angle, c, of the diagonal struts).
This finding is particularly relevant to the curtailment of the flexural
reinforcement. Figure 7.l9 illustratesa simplebeam and the bendingmoment
,:f + f r c o ta - co tB) (7.26) diagram M associatedwith the given loading. We assumethat it is practical
to curtail at a suitableposition one-third of the flexural reinforcement(say,
Similarly,by consideringbeam action of a beam without web reinforce-
two bars), which is required under the midspan load P, (six bars). At first
ment in which diagonal cracksdevelop at an angre,a, to the axis of
the beam, it seemsthat only two-thirds of the positive flexural reinforcement is required
the moment equilibrium at sections1 and 2 (Fig. 7.6)requiresthar
at its full capacity at section 2. However, becauseof diagonal cracking, the
M', : r"jd : M'i + v"jd cot u (7.21) required moment of resistancehas increasedby euV"thereand over the whole
of the left-handshear span.This is shown by the dashed line envelope.There-
Note that in this casethe shear Iz"is resistedby mechanisms
other than the fore, two-thirds of the flexural reinforcement will be required at full strength
web reinforcement(i.e.,4 : 0 in Fig. '1.15).lt is important to
note that from capacity (f,) at section 3, which is located at distance eo away from section 2,
E q. 1. 27
in the direction of decreasingmoments. If a further two bars of the positive
T' M' M',; flexural bars are to be terminated, thesemust extend by the full development
r : -.-; : -- + ..
V^COLq. (7.27a) length /, beyond section3. (Anchorageand development lengthsare examined
Jd jd
in Chapter 9.) The same (two) bars must also extend at least to section 4
which showsthat the tensionforceat section2,T",isgoverned by becausethe remaining one-third of the positive moment steel is insufficient
the bending
moment at section l. to supply the moment of resistancerequired at section 4 (i.e.,over the length
Let us combinethe two mechanismsin accordancewith 8q.7.21, of the small shaded triangle). The latter requirement does not apply at the
whereby
V " : 4 + V, other end of the bars in question, since their end is well past section 5. By
M": M ' z * M , and
T,: T' + T' ,
similar considerations the curtailed ends of the shortest bars in the span,
Then the total tension force in the flexural reinforcement at shown in Fig. 7.19 in elevation only, were also determined. The curtailment
section 2 is
obtainedthus of the negativereinforcement,over the right-hand support, was determined
on the assumption that eight smaller size bars can be cut off in pairs.
r" : + qcot + a - cot/) (7.28) The curtailment of the flexural reinforcement may be conveniently
# " +(cor determined from the envelope of the moment of resistanc Tjd, shown by
 The Interactionof Flexure and Shear 307

the dashedline in Fig. 7. l9. This is sim ply t he bending m om ent diagr am
displacedhorizontally by a distanceq., whose magnitude dependson the
web reinforcementfactor r and the inclination of the crackss.
f N
4
The value ol e,ld from Eq. 7.30a is given for different values o a, B, and q
I I
.\
lf r
in Table 7.1.lt may be noted that for moderateweb steelcontents,4 < 0.5,
t- j
t

\ Table 7.1 The valueof e,/d

/'
/t
Inclination Web ReinforcementFactor n
"
,t\
l/
tl -
ti
-l | -l- *i -
$N Cracks, e Web Steel,B 1. 00 0.50 0.00
N

45' 45" 0.00 0.45 0.90

@

N
@ 1 E
o
45"
38'
90"
90'
0.45
0. 58
0.8
0. 86
0.90
l. l5
N il 30' 90' 0. 78 | . 17 I . 56
l lEr6l+le
t lE l-ls
l-r
ll l.lEl-tq
l-lq \ /\
f i<l
E
I
=
lffi>l<> and a crack inclination a little lessthan 40', the value of e, is approximately
P equal to the effectivedepth d.
\\ t

\
\ To simplify the design procedure, the ACI codel 2 requires that flexural
= bars be extended beyond the point at which they no longer need to resist
-+ E flexure for a distanceequal to the effectivedepth of the member.This implies
E that e,, as shown in Fig.7. 19, is d. The development length /, has to be
provided beyond this point.
I Figure 7.19 demonstratesanother phenomenon, often overlooked. After
I the developmentof diagonal cracks, both the top and bottom reinforcement
N

o o
*i-7 G
will be in tension at the point of contraflexure.(i.e.,at the point of theoretical
zero moment). To equilibrate these tension forces, an equal and opposite
compression force will develop near the middepth of the section. These
; phenomenahave been verified in experiments.

1.5.2 Shear at Plastic Hinges

/ Figure 7.16 illustratesthat at the interior support of a beam the diagonal
e fl = /
c

cracks, instead of being parallel, tend to radiate from the compression zone
G
6 at the load point. When the flexural reinforcement has yielded, these cracks
:' / a
increasein width, and it is prudent to assume that yery little shear can be
F
trl
,I
/, transferred by either aggregate interlock or dowel action. Consequently,
N nearly the whole shearforcewill have to be transferredacrossthe compression
l--
zone of the vertical section adjacent to the support. An idealized situation
;-b at the junction of a beam and the face of a column appears in Fig. 1.20a.
 308 Strength and Deformetion of Members with Shear The Interaclionof l-lexure and Shear

beam is reduced when the shear force across the plastic hinge is large.
However, the confinementprovided by stirrup ties and the adjacent tied
column strengthensthe concreteand enablesthe compressionin the beam,
generatedby flexure M, and shear 2,, to be transmitted.Also in common

I
d
situations,under monotonic loading,the transferof flexural compressionis
assistedby the presenceof compression reinforcement in the beam, and
this adverseeffect of shear is not observed.
A free body bounded by one of the diagonal cracks is shown in Fig.7.2Ob.
The stirrups crossing this particular crack are assumed to resist a force
V'": V"xld, where Iz"is the total force resistedby the stirrups crossing a 45"
diagonal, section D-D, in accordance with the previously discussedtruss
analogy.This may or may not be the total shear force, dependingon the
value of 4 (i.e.,0 < 4 < l).From the equilibrium requirementfor the free
bodv shown.we have

M t : \ jd+ !v , (7.311
2'
rl ' 0
wherex < l.5d for the examplein Fig. l.2Oa.Hence Eq. 7.31gives
' 0.2
o
r.: -.:; ,) (7.32)
L\
o.4 ;(*,
o o.6 The corresponding variation of the tension force in the vicinity of the
0. 6
eo
0,8
column face,in terms of the maximum value, is displayed for various relative
web steelcapacities4 in Fig. 7.20c.ln this example it was arbitrarily assumed
(oo \' 1.0
lr
that Ml Vd: 2.
0. 4 -\ If only verticalflexuralcrackshad formed,the tensionforce at any section
c
o
With flexurdl (vetical)
/r\
(c)
- crocks only ---/ would havebeen
(
Tr :+ : - *vu) (7.33)
.lu ,*,
as indicatedby the dashedline in Fig. 7.20c.lt is thus evident that diagonal
cracking, caused by shear,can have a marked effect on the distribution of
steel stressesin the vicinity of a potential plastic hinge, particularly when
Fig.7.20. only a smallfractionof the shearis resistedby stirrups.This meansthat yield-
shear
ing of flexural reinforcement will spread over a considerable length of the
beam,thus increasingsignificantlythe plastic hinge length.This increaseof
Each of the radiating cracks,to a minimum slope of I : 1.5,may be assumed plastic rotational ability enablesthe occurrenceof larger redistribution of
to form the boundary of an inclined strut. Nearly all the diagonal compression moments(seeChapter 6) in continuousreinforcedconcretestructures.T'2s
forces in these struts pass through the compression zone of the eam at In T beams large shear forces cause the diagonal cracks to penetrate up
section 1;thus it isjustifiable to assumethat the total shearforce is transferred to the undersideof the compressionflanges.This implies that in suchcasesa
across the compression zone between the last stirrup and the face of the portion of the web that may be required to carry compressioncannot be
column. It is evident that the capacity of the flexural compressionzone of a utilizedfor this purpose.t2a
 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear l -hr l nteracti onof S hear.F l ex ure,and A x i al f orc es 3ll
310

7.5.3 [mteractionEffects in Deep Bearns

In simplysupportedor continuousdeepbeams.wherethe externalloadsand
reactionsare appliedto the top and bottom compressionfaceof the beam,the
mode of sheartransferafter the formation of diagonal cracksis mainly by
arch action.The behaviorand designof suchbeamsare discussedin Chapter
r3.
The redistributionof the forcesalong the flexuralreinforcement, examined
in the previoussection,can dominate the behavior of short and relatively
deep spandrelbeams.Such beamscommonly occur in coupledshear walls.
Because approximatelyequal but oppositebendingmomentsare introduced
at both ends,the point of zero moment occursat the midspanof suchbeams.
The distributionoithe internaltensionforceswill thereforebe similar to that
indicatedby the 1'ld envelopeat and in the immediatevicinity of the point
of contraflexureof the beamshown in Fig. 7.19.When the distancec',.is equal
t o or gr e a te rth a n th e h a l f-s p a nte , n si onw i l l occur i n the top and bottom
reinforcement over the entireclearspanof sucha spandrelbeam.Experimen-
tal evidenceto this effect,t26and its consequences with respectto behavior,
ar e m or e fu l l y e x a m i n e di n Se c ti o n1 2 .5.3.

1,6 THE INTERACTIONOF SHEAR.FI-EXIJRE,AND AXIAL

FORCES

The combinationof shear.flexure.and axial forceis seldomcritical when the

loadingon the structureoriginatesfrom gravity. Under seismicload condi-
tions, hollever,the columnsof a multistory structureare subjectedto large
shearforcesand flexurein addition to axial compression.In certaincolumns,
particularly at the corners of buildings, seismic disturbancesmay even
generatenet tension. Figure 7.21 presentsa typical example of a shear- Fi g.7.2l . Shc ar l ai l urc i n l arge c ol umn duri ng thc 1967 V c nez uc l ac arthquak e. (ourl c s y
A meri can Iro n and S teell ns ti tutc .
compressionfailure,which occurredin the 43 in ( 1092mm)diametercolumns
2'
n o te l d u ri n g the 1967C aracasearthquake.?
of t he Ma c u to -Sh e ra toH
Sinceshear is associatedwith the phenomenonof diagonal tension,it is stressconcept s,which conser vat ivelypr cdict s t he diagonal cr acking load
to be expectedthat axial compressionwill increase-or conversely,axial and i ncor por at est hc m ajor par am et er sof shear st r engt h,can be suit ably
tensionwill decrease-theshearcapacityof reinforcedconcretemembers. modi fi edT3 t o t ake int o accountt hc ef f ectof axial f or ccs.The axial f or ceN, , ,
acti ng w i th t hc appr opr ialeeccent r icit y.is consider edwhen der iving t he
7.6,1 Shear and Axial Cornpression tensi l estresses causingdiagonalcr ackingin t hc scct ion.The t r lqnlet r tM , , in
It was shown previouslythat in web reinforcedmembersa shear force Z. E q. 7.15 can be r cplacedby an equivalcntm om enl M , , , which pr odt r ces
approximatelyequal to the diagonal cracking load, can be carried together the sameef f ecton diagonalcr ackingr lst hc m om ent 44, ,act ingwit h t hc axial
with the shearresistedby the trussmechanismwith 45'diagonal struts.This is force/V ,,.rr This is appr oxim at e ly
alsothe basisfor the current ACI approachto the designof flexuralmembers Ah- dl
M,, '- M, (1.34a1
s ubjecte dto a x i a l fo rc e s .T h e s e mi e mpi ri cal8q.7.15, basedon pri nci pal
 3r 2 Strength and Deformation of Members with Shear
where lr is the overall depth of the member.Thus the nominal shearsrress
at diagonalcrackingbecomesfrom Eq. 7.l5
1 rei nforcem entsublect
u,: t.eJ|,.'*# (psi) (7.34b)
BecauseEq. 7.34bis frequenrlydifficult to apply in design,the ACI code7.2
allows the use of the following simplifiedequationsto compute the shear
carried by the concretein beamssubjectedto axial forces
/ r u\
u .: z(r + o .o o os' 4) Jn ( psi) (7.35a)
However,u. shall not exceed
u,:3.5Jf', | + 0.002r (osi) (7.35b)
rf A
whereAu is the grossconcretearea of the sectionand the quantitiesN!/,4e
and .f ', are expressedin psi. (l psi : 0.006g9N/mm2.)
one might expectthe foregoingequationsto be suitablepredictionsalso
for prestressedconcrete beams. However, this is not the case. Mattock
studied this questiont'28and found from a comparison of numerous test
resultsthat the product of the modular ratio and steel content, ,lp, was a
moresuitableparameterto predictshearstrengthbecauseit is a good measure
of the position of the neurralaxis, hencethe depth to which flexural cracks
penetrate. The greaterthe penetrationofthe flexuralcracksinto the web,the
greaterthe principalstressat the root of the cracksresponsiblefor diagonal
cracking at a given applied shear. Hence with small flexural steelcontent
(i.e.,small np value),a much smaller shear force increment is required to '
initiatediagonalcracking.This is oftenthe casein prestressed beams.
The adverseeffectof low flexuralsteelcontentand the unconservative "on.r.i.
nature
of E qs . 7 .l 5 o r 7 .3 4 bfo r s u c h a s i tu ati on has al so been poi nted out by
Rajagopalanand Ferguson.T'r8 It was also foundT'28that axial load affects
the magnitudeof shearat the onset of flexural cracking, but apparentlyit
does not affect the increment of shear between flexural cract ing and the
onsetof diagonaltensioncracking.
In the presenceof axial compression,the diagonalcrackstend to be flatter
ll than 45", therefore,the current design approach for web reinforcement.
basedon the trussanalogywith 45. struts,is conservative.
7.6.2 Shear and Axial Tension
I If the previousassumptionswith respectto diagonal cracking are correct,
I high moment regionsof the samecolumn, where the crackins will alwavs be
Eqs. 7.34b and 7.35 should also predict the shear cracking capacity of
lr
I
lri
'I'he Interactionof Shear,
Flexure. and Axial Forces 3 t3
membersin t he pr esence of axial t ension,t aking t he value of N, as negat ive
i n thi s cas e.I n t est sat t he Univer sit yof washingt on, T. 2e beas wit h web
. edt o shearand axial t cnsion,cover ingt he wide r ange
of shearstresses permitted by the ACr Code,72 and designein accordane
with Eqs.7.23aand 7.34b.carried loads hat were at least 30)1,in excessof
the theoreticalfailure load. It appearsthat axial tension does not aflect the
performanceof truss action but only reducesthe shear resistanceof the
other mechanisms(i.e.,r'. is rcduced).
From considerationsof principal stresses,one courd expect diagonal
cracks to form at an angle greater than 45' to the axis of the memher. In
this casethe number of stirrupsencounteredby a diagonal crack would be
smal l er than is assum edin t he t r uss analogy. However , t est sr . 2ehave
consi stent lydem onst r at edt hat t he angle of inclinat ion of t he diagonal
cracksis not noticeablyaffectedby axial tensionand that the shearresisting
mechanismof truss action remains operative. Figure 7.22 shows a beam
from a test seriesTloin which the axial tension force to shear force ratro
was varied betweenI and 3. The stirrups were deliberatelyspacedfar apart
(.s: 0.8r/)to determine whether a potential diagonal failure crack would
form betweentwo adjacentstirrups. It can be seenthat the crack pattern is
essentiallythe sameas that encounteredin beamswithout axial load, except
that inclinedcrackscrossedflexuralcracks that developedat lower loads.
The axial load and the bendingmoment may not be appliedsimultaneously
in real structures.It is possiblethat a large axiat tension (e.g.,shrinkage
strains)may causecracks to form over the full depth of a member,at right
anglesto its axis, before any shear lorce is applied. An example o[ such a
region is a point of inflectionat which momentswill not closetensioncracks
or, worse,the flexural steelmay be in tension near both facesof the beams.
as i n Fi g.7 . l9. lL is som et im est hought t hat such a f ully cr ackedbeam will
not be effe ct ive in r esis ingshearf or cesappliedsubsequent ly.
I n t his sit uat ion
aggregateinterlock action has proved to be effectivein transferringshear.
ln a seriesof tests,Sayani?30found that after the application of mom-entand
shear new diagonal cracks formeci and the previousry developedtension
crackshad no effecton the strengthof test beams.
A si mi l arsit uat ioncan ar isein t he colum nsof m ult ist or y buildingsdur ing
severeseismicdisturbances.At the point of contraflexure,large concurrent
axial tensionand shear forcesmay be generated.Since the column bars are
not normally curtailed,however,the axial stressesat theselocalitieswill be
Iow ; thus a widening of a t ensioncr ack is not possible.Hence aggr egat e
interlocksheartransfer,which is exan,inedin greaterrjetail in SectionT.g,will
remai nope r at ive,and t he shearcapacit yshould not be lesst han t hat in t he
more extensive.
 Strcngth and f,)eformationof Membersri th S hcar
Shear Deformations 315

.
t,t, w oi 500psi .Thus *'c have

,i ' ,. 'l
h,,
,,:2(r + o.oo2 ,or',
T').,4.
ns/
( 7. 36)
\

where N,, is negativefor tension.

7.7 SHEAR DEFORMATIONS

For short.deeprectangularbeamsand for continuousT beams,the deforma-

tionscausedby shearmay becomesignificant.Hencewhen serviceconditions
areexami ned. t he designeralsoneedst o be ablet o assess t he or derof expect ed
For m ost r clat ivelvslenderm cm ber s.subjectt o lon'shear .
sheardefe ct ir ) ns.
the efl cto[ shearon dellect ionis ncglieible.

7.7.1 UncrackedMernbers

Beforethe formation ol flexuralor diagonal cracks,the behavior of a beam

can be sat isf act or ilypr edict edbv using t he pr inciplesof elast icit y The
modul us of r igidit y ( m odulus of elast icit yin shear )f or concr et ecan bc
approxi mat edf r om t he well- knownr elat ionship
E
c: v1 (1.37\
11t 1

F i g . 7 . 2 2 . C r a ck p a tte r n in a b e a m with wid e ly spacedsti rrups w hcn the axi i l tensr()nto
s h e a rf o r c e r a tio wa s 3 .7 r o
li There is some evidencethat after reversedcyclic loading the potential
diagonalc ra c k ,i n d u c e db y s h e a ra n d a xi al tensi on,may form at an angl e
larger than 45'' to the axis of the member.This is becausediagonal cracks
propagatingfrom one face of a member may link up with flexural cracks
that formed during a previouscycle of reversedload at thc opposite face
where E, : 57.000J/i psi is Young's modulus for normal weight concrete
and,rr i s Poisson'sr at io. which is appr oxim at ely0.l6 t o 0. 30 f or nor m al
weight concrete.
The shearstiffnessKi is the magnitudeof the shearforcethat when applied
to a beamol unit lengt h.will causeunit sheardisplacem ent of one end of t he
beam relative to the other. The cross-sectionalarea of the beam normally
o be consideredwhen determiningthe shearstiffnessis the area of the web
only, b,,,ri.
W i th G :0. 4E, , t he shearst if f nessof an uncr ackedbeam of unit lengt h
w i l l be

u',:o ouf*o
of t hat m e m b e r.
In somebeamssubjectedto tensionthe diagonalcrackingload fell below
(7.38)
that predicted by the appropriare application of Eq. 7.34. Hence ACtr
Com m it t e e4 2 6 s u g g e s tead s i mp l ea n d conservati ve 3r
Ii neari nterpol ati onT The factor /' allows for the nonunifornr distribution of the shear stresses.
: For rectangularsectionsf : 1.2and for T and I sectionsit may be taken as
between,, 2"/Ti with no tension and u. : 0 for an axial tensilestress
uni ty.
3l Strengthand Deformation of Members with Shear Shear Deformations 3 t7
7.7.2 Shear Deformationsin Cracked Members Similarly from Eq. '7.24a the diagonal concrete compression stressis
In beamsthat are subjectto large shearforcesand are eb reinforcedaccord- obtained
ingly, diagonal cracks must be expectedduring service conditions. These
cracks can increasethe shear deformation of the beam considerably. The f . - ) ,--s - ) - 1
J co
b*d
greaterproportion of the load is likely to be carried by truss action, therefore,
the deformation characteristicso[ this mechanismare of interest. Hencethe shorteningof the diagonalstrut is
Shear distortions, occurring in the web of most conventionally reinforced
concretebeams,may be approximated by using the model of the analogous t,:
' *o ,/1a:?Jlv-
E, " Erbn
' (7.42)
truss presentedin Figure 7.15. For the sake of simplicity, vertical stirrups
and 45' diagonal concrete struts are assumed to form the web members Therefore the shear distortion per unit length of beam becomes
(Fig. 7.23a).For the purpose of determining the web distorrions only, the
o,:- 75:7:\r!(' 4 ',' c2.,[24\ (] a3a)
- . +)
u'
- v' "d \4l+
EE) :..b-5= I)
By making the appropriatesubstitutionfor web steelcontent p, : Aufsb*,

Id
and modular ratio n : E"lE,, it is found that

Td
t' :
#,0(;.' (7.43b)

_t _l_x The shear stiffnessof beam with 45" diagonal cracks, in accordancewith
truss action, is the value of Iz"when 0u : l, and is thus given by
(a) (c)
Ku.+s: E,bnd (7.44)
r*o*-Lo*
Fig.7.23. Shear distortions in the web of a reinforced concrete beam modeled on the web
membersofan analogous truss.
The similarity between Eqs. 7.38 and 7.M is apparent.
Similar expressionscan be derived for other inclinations of compression
struts d and stirrups B. Using the notation of Fig. 7.15 it may be easily shown
for the generalcasethat the stirrup stresswill be
chord membersare assumedto be infinitely rigid; that is, the areaof chord a is
infinity (Fig. 7.23b).The elongation of the stirrups is A" and the shortening f : "s
(7.4s)
Js
of the compression strut is A.. Applying Williot's principles, the shear p,(cot a + cot ) sin2 p
distortion can be found from Figs.7.23b and 7.23cas follows: wherethe stirrup lengthis dlsinfl.
The compression stressesfor the dlsina long strutsare givenby Eq. 7.24.
A,:4,+AR: L,+n/2L* (7.3e)
By combiningtheforegoingrelationships, theshearstiffnesscanbedefined
UsingEqs.7.22 and7.23a,the stirrupstresscan be expressed
as by thefollowingexpression:
V-s V-s y :2 sinaasina( cot c + cot ) 2
J ' : , a 4 = , (7.40) -, (7.46)
@LsD|9a
Hence the elongation of the stirrups becomes where p, : A,lGb* sin B) for the general case.
Dilger has further refined theseexprcssionsby computing the inclination
of the compressionstruts from strain energy considerationsof the analogous
^":r:# (7.41)
truss.T'32His experimentsshow that this approach underestimatessomewhat
318 Strength and Deformation of Memberswith Shear
the sheardistortion in beams.The analysisis basedon the greatly simplified
model of the analogous truss, and deformaticns at the anchoragesof the
stirrupshavenot beentaken into account.Slips at the endsof stirrups(see
Section 9.4.2) can considerably increase shear deformations, particularly
in shallowbeamswhere the anchorageslip representsa greaterfraction of
the total distortion.
Comparison of Eqs. 7.38 and 7.44 indicates that the shear stiflnessof a
diagonallycrackedmember is approximately l0 to 30/" of the shearstiffness
of the uncrackedmember,depending on the amount of web steel provided.
It is thus evidentthat cracking can have a much larger effecton shearstiffness
than on flexural stiffness.
Analytical and experimental studies have verified that the stiffness of
cracked deep beams (e.g.,as in Fig. 12.28),in which shear deformations
dominate, is only about l5/" ol the stiffnessin the uncracked state when
ll= wl=24OkN
c sequentl y.
E
n
shear span to depth ratio is very small (say, < 0.5) or when a particular
Fig.7.24. Observeddeflectionsunder the same load with varying web width.? 7
InterfaceS hear 3f9
shear and flexuredistortionsare considered.The truss mechanismin such
beams will consist of a seriesof radiating struts rather than parallel 45"
members,a nd t his needst o be t aken int o account in t he analysis. 26 t Loss
of stiffnessis significantwhen assessing serviceload distortions in structures
or thei r resp( ) nse
t o dynam icexcit at ion.
The deflect ionsolf our beam s, tt sim ilar t o t hose in Fig. 7. l8a, ar e com -
pared in Fig.7.24.All beamscarry the same uniformly distributed load and
contain the same flexural and web reinforcementbut have different web
widths. The flexural stiffnessof the thin-webbed T beam GT4 is only a
little lessthan that of beam GTI after flexuralcracking has occurred.The
differenceol deflectionsas shown in Fig. 7.24is largely becauseof the shear
distortions,which becomemore significantas the web area is reduced.
The contribution of sheardistortionsto the total deflectionof continuous
T beamsbecomesparticularlysignificantwhen a largeproportion of the shear
is resistedby web reinforcement(4 ry 1.0).
7.8 I NTERF'ACE
SHEAR
In all situationsexamined so far'the applied shear forces have produced
inclined cracking across a member- It is also possible that shear stresses
may causea sliding type of failure along a well-definedplane. Becauseof
external tension,shrinkage,or accidentalcauses,a crack may form along
such a plane even beloreshearoccurs.Thus the possibility of sheartransfer
by aggregateinterlock and dowel action, discussed previously, arises.
For example,shear may have to be transferredin this way in deep beams,
corbels (to be examined in Chapter l3), joints between precast concrete
elements,and shear walls. The term "interface shear transfer" is used to
designatethe mechanism,and its possiblecomponents are discussedsub-
Interfaceshear transfer in ftexural members can be critical only if the
section,along which shear displacement(hence tangential shear transfer)
can occur, is weakened(e.g.,by the formation of a tension crack). The
mechanismof interfaceshearis different in initially uncrackedand initially
crackedconcrete,eventhough the designapproachto both will be the same.
When required,reinforcementis provided,generallyat right anglesto the
shearplane,primarily to supply a clamg'ingforce betweenthe two potential
sliding faces.To ensurethe developmentof the yield stress,thesebars must
be adequatelyanchoredat both sidesof the potential shear plane.It is also
evident that to engagethe clamping action of the reinforcement,the faces