ENES 110 - Statics

Engineering Mechanics: Statics Tenth Edition
CHAPTER
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
College of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
1 by
Dr. Ibrahim A. Assakkaf
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Maryland Baltimore County
Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 1
Statics, Units, Calculations &

problem Solving
Students will be able to:
Use Law of Sines and Cosines
Solve system of simultaneous equations
Round the final answer appropriately
ENES110 Assakkaf_SP07
1
Mechanics
Mechanics can be defined as that branch

of the physical sciences concerned with
the state of rest or motion of bodies that
are subjected to the action of forces.
Mechanics
2
Mechanics
Mechanics
WHAT MAY HAPPEN IF STATICS IS NOT
APPLIED PROPERLY?
3
Rigid-Body Mechanics
Statics
Deals with the equilibrium of bodies, that is,
those that are either at rest or move with a
constant velocity.
Dynamics
Is concerned with the accelerated motion of
bodies.
Fundamental Concepts
Basic Quantities
Length (m, ft)
Time (h, s, min)
Mass (Kg, slug)
Force (N, lb)
4
Idealization
Particle
A particle has a mass but a size that can be
neglected.
Rigid Body
A rigid body can be considered as a combination
of a large umber of particles in which all the
particles remain at fixed distance from one another
both before and after applying a load.
Concentrated Force
Represents the effect of a loading which is
assumed to act at a point on a body.
Newtons Three Laws of Motion

First Law
A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight
line with constant velocity, will remain in this state.
Second Law
A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force F
experiences an acceleration a that has the same
direction as the force and a magnitude that is
directly proportional to the force.
F = ma (1-1)
5
Newtons Three Laws of Motion (contd)

Third Law
The mutual forces of action and reaction between
two particles are equal, opposite, and collinear.
Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction
m1m2
F =G (1-2)
r2
F = force of gravitation between the two particles

G = universal constant of gravitation (= 66.73 10-12 m3/kgs2)
m1 m2 = mass of each of the particles

r = distance between the two particles
6
Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction

Weight
The weight of a particle having a mass m1 = m (
assuming that the mass of the earth m2 = Me) can
be given as
mM e
W = F =G
r2
Or
W = mg
(1-3)
where
Me
g =G
r2
Units of Measurements
SI Units
The international System of Units,
abbreviated SI after French System
International dUnites.
The unit of force F or W is called newton (N).
It is derived from F = ma.
Thus
W = mg ( g = 9.81 m/s 2 ) (1-4)
7
U.S. Customary Units

In the U.S. Customary systems of units (FPS)
length is measured in feet (ft), force in pounds
(lb), and time in seconds (s).
The unit of mass is called slug.
It is derived from F = ma.
Therefore,
W
m= ( g = 32.2 ft/s 2 ) (1-5)
g
System of Units
8
Conversion of Units
In FPS system,
1 ft = 12 in. (inches)
5280 ft = 1 mi (mile)
1000 lb = 1 kip (kilo-pound)
2000 lb = 1 ton
Prefixes
9
International System of Units (SI)

No Plurals (e.g., m = 5 kg not kgs )
Separate Units with a (e.g., meter second = m s )
Most symbols are in lowercase.
Some exceptions are N, Pa, M and G.
Exponential powers apply to units, e.g., cm cm = cm2
Compound prefixes should not be used.
Other rules are given in your textbook
Numerical Calculations
Must have dimensional homogeneity.

Dimensions have to be the same on both
sides of the equal sign, (e.g. distance =
speed time.)
Use an appropriate number of significant
figures (3 for answer, at least 4 for
intermediate calculations). Why?
10
Be consistent when rounding off

greater than or equal to 5, round up (3528
3530).
smaller than 5, round down (0.03521
0.0352).
Example 1
11
Example 2
Example 3
12
Example 3 (contd)
Example 3 (contd)
13
Law of Sines and Cosines
Law of Sines
sin() = sin() = sin()

A B C

A C
Law of Cosines
B
C= A2 + B2 -2ABcos()
Properties of Right Triangles

Remember SOH-CAH-TOA
sin is opposite/hypotenuse, cosine is adjacent/hypotenuse,
and tangent is opposite/adjacent.
A2 + B2 = C2 (Pythagorean Theorem) Hypotenuse

A A
sin() = cos() =
C C C
A
B B
cos() = sin() =
C C

A B
tan() = tan() = B
B A
14
Simultaneous Equations
Most calculators can do this or can be
programmed to do this.
Many different methods available.
Beyond scope of class examples in text.
15
CHAPTER
FORCE VECTORS
2a by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
University of Maryland Baltimore County
Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 1
Chapter Objectives
To show how to add forces and resolve

them into components using the
Parallelogram Law.
To express force and position in Cartesian
vector form and explain how to determine
the vectors magnitude and direction.
To introduce the dot product in order to
determine the angle between two vectors or

the projection of one vector onto another.
1
Two-Dimensional Vectors
Objectives
a) Resolve a 2-D vector into components
b) Add 2-D vectors using Cartesian vector
notations.
Two-Dimensional Vectors
Application
There are four

concurrent cable forces
acting on the bracket.
How do you determine
the resultant force acting
on the bracket ?
2
Scalar and Vectors
Scalar
A quantity characterized by a positive or
negative number.
Vector
A quantity that has both a magnitude and
direction.
Scalar and Vectors
Notations for Vectors

For handwritten work, a vector is generally
represented by ar letter with an arrow written
over it, such as A
r
The magnitude is designated A or A.
In your textbook vectors are symbolized in
boldface type; for example, A is used to
designate the vector A. Its magnitude is

symbolized by |A|, or simply A.
3
Scalar and Vectors

Scalars Vectors
Examples: mass, volume force, velocity
Characteristics: It has a magnitude It has a magnitude
(positive or negative) and direction
Addition rule: Simple arithmetic Cartesian Components

Special Notation: None Bold font, a line, an
arrow or a carrot
Scalar and Vectors

Graphical Representation of a Vector
The arrow represents the vector graphically and used to define the vector
magnitude, direction, and sense.
The magnitude is the length of the arrow, and the direction is defined by the
angle between a reference axis and the arrows line of action.
The sense is indicated by the arrowhead.
4
Vectors Operations
Multiplication or Division of a Vector by a

Scalar
1
aA A
a
1 1
magnitude : aA = a A magnitude : A= A
a a
Vectors Operations
Vector Addition
Two vectors A and B such as force or
position, Fig. 24a, may be added to form a
"resultant" vector R = A+ B by using the
parallelogram law.
Fig. 24
5
Vectors Operations
Vector Subtraction
The resultant difference between two vectors
A and B of the same type may be expressed
as
Vectors Operations
Resolution of a Vector
A vector may be resolved into components
having known lines of action by using the
parallelogram law.
6
Vector Addition of Forces
Addition of Forces
Application: Chains

Addition of Forces (contd)
A force is vector quantity since it has a
specified magnitude and direction.
Two common problems in statics involve
either finding the resultant force given its
components or resolving a known force into
components.
The law of cosines is often used to find the
magnitude, while the law of sines is used to

find the direction.
7
Law of Sines and Cosines


Example 1
The screw eye in the figure is subjected to
two forces F1 and F2. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
8

Example 1 (contd)
Trigonometry
Parallelogram Law

Example 1 (contd)
FR = (100)2 + (150)2 2(100)(150) cos115 = 212.6 = 213 N

150 212.6 150 sin 115

= = sin 1 = 39.8
o
sin sin 115 o

212.6
= 39.8o + 15o = 54.8o
9
Addition of a System of Coplanar

Forces (2D)
In the plane, a force can be resolved into
two rectangular components.
There are two separate notations for doing
this:
Scalar Notation: we write the force F as
(Fx, Fy) where Fx and Fy are scalar components
of the force F in the directions of the positive
x- and y-axes, respectively. If Fx and Fy are

negative, it means that |Fx| and |Fy| are
directed along the negative x- and y-axes.

Forces (2D)
Cartesian Vector Notation: we write the force
F as
F = Fx i + Fy j
Where i and j represent the positive directions

of the x- and y-axes, respectively.
Fx = F cos
Fy = F sin

10

Forces (2D)
The resultant of several coplanar forces
can easily be determined if an x, y-
coordinate system is established and the
forces are resolved along the axis. For
example,
F1 = F1x i + F1 y j
F2 = F2 x i + F2 y j
F3 = F3 x i + F3 y j
M
Fn = Fnx i + Fny j

Forces (2D)
Then the resultant is given by
FR = F1 + F2 + F3 L + Fn
= (F1x + F2 x + F3 x + K Fnx )i + (F1 y + F2 y + F3 y + K Fny )j
= (FRx )i + (FRy )j
In general case, the x and y components

of the resultant of any number of coplanar
forces can be represented symbolically by

the algebraic sum of the x and y
components of all the forces, that is
11

Forces (2D)
FRx = Fx x and y components
FRy = Fy of Resultant
The magnitude and direction of the

resultant force are given by
FR = FR = FRx2 + FRy2
FRy Magnitude & Direction

= tan 1
FRx

Forces (2D)
The resultant force of the four cable forces
acting on the supporting bracket can be
determined by adding algebraically the
separate x and y components of each
cable force.
This resultant FR produces the same pulling

effect on the bracket as all four cables.
12

Forces (2D)
Example 2
The Three concurrent forces are acting on a
bracket. Find the magnitude and the angle of
the resultant force.

Forces (2D)
Example 2 (contd)
Plan:
a) Resolve the forces in their x-y components.
b) Add the respective components to get the resultant

vector.
c) Find magnitude and angle from the resultant

components.
13

Forces (2D)
Example 2 (contd)
F1 = { 15 sin 40 i + 15 cos 40 j } kN
= { 9.642 i + 11.49 j } kN
F2 = { -(12/13)26 i + (5/13)26 j } kN

= { -24 i + 10 j } kN
F3 = { 36 cos 30 i 36 sin 30 j } kN
Fx = F cos
= { 31.18 i 18 j } kN
Fy = F sin

Forces (2D)
Example 2 (contd)
Summing up all the i and j components
respectively, we get
FR = { (9.642 24 + 31.18) i + (11.49 + 10 18) j } kN
= { 16.82 i + 3.49 j } kN
FR = FR = FRx2 + FRy2 = (16.82)2 + (3.49)2 = 17.2 kN
y
3.49 FR
= tan 1 = 11.7 o
16.82

x
14

Forces (2D)
Example 3 To be discussed and solved in class
Determine the magnitude and
direction measured
counterclockwise from the
positive x axis of the resultant
force of the three forces acting
on the ring A.
Given:
F1= 500 N, F2 = 400 N, F3 = 600 N

= 20o, = 30o
c = 3, d = 4

Forces (2D)
To be discussed and solved in class
Example 4
Determine the magnitude and direction of FA
so that the resultant force is directed along
the positive x axis and has a magnitude 1250
N.
= 30o
= 800 N
15
CHAPTER
FORCE VECTORS
2b by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
University of Maryland, Baltimore County
Chapter 2b. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 1
Lectures Objectives
Students will be In-Class Activities:
able to : Reading quiz
a) Represent a 3-D Applications / Relevance
vector in a Cartesian A unit vector
coordinate system.
3-D vector terms
b) Find the magnitude
Adding vectors
and coordinate
angles of a 3-D Concept quiz
vector. Examples
Attention quiz
c) Add vectors (forces)

in 3-D space.
1
READING QUIZ
1. Vector algebra, as we are going to use it, is based on a
___________ coordinate system.
A) Euclidean B) left-handed
C) Greek D) right-handed E) Egyptian
2. The symbols , , and designate the __________ of a

3-D Cartesian vector.
A) unit vectors B) coordinate direction angles

C) Greek societies D) x, y and z components
APPLICATIONS
Many problems in real-life

involve 3-Dimensional Space.
How will you represent

each of the cable forces in
Cartesian vector form?
2
APPLICATIONS (contd)
Given the forces in the cables, how will you determine
the resultant force acting at D, the top of the tower?
Cartesian Vectors
A Cartesian coordinate system is often

used to solve problems in three
dimensions (3D).
The coordinate system is right-handed
which means that the thumb of the right
hand points in the direction of the positive
z-axis when the right hand fingers are
curled about this axis and directed from

the positive x toward the positive y-axis.
3
Cartesian Vectors
Right-Handed Coordinate System
Cartesian Vectors
Unit Vector
For a vector A with a magnitude of A, a unit
vector is defined as
A
uA = (2-3)
A
Characteristics of a unit vector:
a) Its magnitude is 1.
b) It is dimensionless.
c) It points in the same direction as the original

vector A.
4
Cartesian Vectors
Unit Vector (contd)

The unit vectors in the
Cartesian axis system
are i, j, and k. They
are unit vectors along
the positive x, y, and z
axes respectively.
Cartesian Vectors
3-D Cartesian Vector Terminology
Consider a box with sides AX,

AY, and AZ meters long.
The vector A can be defined as

A = (AX i + AY j + AZ k) m
5
Cartesian Vectors
The projection of the vector A in the x-y
plane is A. The magnitude of this
projection, A, is found by using the same
approach as a 2-D vector:
A = A = Ax2 + Ay2
The magnitude of the position vector A

can now be obtained as

A = A = A2 + Az2 = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2 (2-6)
Cartesian Vectors
3-D Cartesian Vector

Terminology (contd)
The direction or orientation
of vector A is defined by
the angles , , and .
Their range of values are
from 0 to 180.
Using trigonometry,
direction cosines are

found using the formulas
(2-7)
6
Cartesian Vectors
3-D Cartesian Vector Terminology (contd)
These angles are not independent. They must satisfy the following equation:.
cos + cos + cos = 1 (2-10)
This result can be derived from the definition of a coordinate direction angles
and the unit vector. Recall, the formula for finding the unit vector of any
position vector: (2-8)
or written another way, uA = cos i + cos j + cos k .
Addition/Subtraction of Vectors
Once individual vectors are written in Cartesian form, it is easy
to add or subtract them. The process is essentially the same as
when 2-D vectors are added.
For example, if
A = AX i + AY j + AZ k and
B = BX i + BY j + BZ k , then
A + B = (AX + BX) i + (AY + BY) j + (AZ + BZ) k

or
A B = (AX - BX) i + (AY - BY) j + (AZ - BZ) k .
7
Addition/Subtraction of Vectors
Important Notes
Sometimes 3-D vector information is given as:
a) Magnitude and the coordinate direction angles, or
b) Magnitude and projection angles.
You should be able to use both of these types

of information to change the representation of

the vector into the Cartesian form, i.e.,
F = {10 i 20 j + 30 k} N .
CONCEPT QUESTIONS
1. If you know just uA, you can determine the ________ of A
uniquely.
A) magnitude B) angles (, and )
C) components (AX, AY, & AZ) D) All of the above.
2. For an arbitrary force vector, the following parameters are

randomly generated. Magnitude is 0.9 N, = 30, = 70, =
100. What is wrong with this 3-D vector ?
A) Magnitude is too small.
B) Angles are too large.

C) All three angles are arbitrarily picked.
D) All three angles are between 0 to 180.
8
Example 1
Given:Two forces F and G are applied
to a hook. Force F is shown in
G = 80 lb the figure and it makes 60
angle with the x-y plane. Force
G is pointing up and has a
magnitude of 80 lb with =
111 and = 69.3.
Find: The resultant force in the
Cartesian vector form.
Plan:
1) Using geometry and trigonometry, write F and G in the
2) Then add the two forces.
Example 1 (contd)
Solution : First, resolve force F.
Fz = 100 sin 60 = 86.60 lb

F' = 100 cos 60 = 50.00 lb
Fx = 50 cos 45 = 35.36 lb
Fy = 50 sin 45 = 35.36 lb
F = 100 lb
Now, you can write:

Fz = 86.6 lb
60 o
F = {35.36 i 35.36 j + 86.60 k} lb
F = 50 lb
9
Example 1 (contd)
Now resolve force G.
We are given only and . Hence, first we need to find the value
of .
Recall the formula cos () + cos () + cos () = 1.
Now substitute what we know. We have
cos (111) + cos (69.3) + cos () = 1.
G = 80 lb
Solving, we get = 30.22 or 120.2.

Since the vector is pointing up, = 30.22
Now using the coordinate direction angles, we can get uG, and
determine G = 80 uG lb.
G = {80 [ cos (111) i + cos (69.3) j + cos (30.22) k ]} lb

G = {- 28.67 i + 28.28 j + 69.13 k } lb
Now, R = F + G or
R = {6.69 i 7.08 j + 156 k} lb
Example 2
Given: The screw eye is subjected
to two forces.
Find: The magnitude and the
coordinate direction angles
of the resultant force.
Plan:
1) Using the geometry and trigonometry, write F1 and F2 in the

2) Add F1 and F2 to get FR .
3) Determine the magnitude and , , .
10
Example 2 (contd)
First resolve the force F1 .

F1z
F1z = 300 sin 60 = 259.8 N
F
F = 300 cos 60 = 150.0 N
F can be further resolved as,
F1x = -150 sin 45 = -106.1 N
F1y = 150 cos 45 = 106.1 N
Now we can write :

F1 = {-106.1 i + 106.1 j + 259.8 k } N
Example 2 (contd)
The force F2 can be represented in the
Cartesian vector form as:
F2 = 500{ cos 60 i + cos 45 j +
cos 120 k } N
= { 250 i + 353.6 j 250 k } N
FR = F1 + F2
= { 143.9 i + 459.6 j + 9.81 k } N
FR = 143.9 2 + 459.6 2 + 9.81 = 481.7 = 482 N
= cos-1 (FRx / FR) = cos-1 (143.9/481.7) = 72.6

= cos-1 (FRy / FR) = cos-1 (459.6/481.7) = 17.4
= cos-1 (FRz / FR) = cos-1 (9.81/481.7) = 88.8
11
ATTENTION QUIZ
1. What is not true about the unit vector, uA ?
A) It is dimensionless.
B) Its magnitude is one.
C) It always points in the direction of positive x- axis.
D) It always points in the direction of vector A.
2. If F = {10 i + 10 j + 10 k} N and
G = {20 i + 20 j + 20 k } N, then F + G = { ____ } N
A) 10 i + 10 j + 10 k
B) 30 i + 20 j + 30 k
C) -10 i - 10 j - 10 k
D) 30 i + 30 j + 30 k
12
Construction Contracts
By
Dr. Ibrahim Assakkaf
Construction Management, 3/E by Daniel W. Halpin

Copyright 2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Construction Contracts
By

1
Web-based Contracts
The Need
Supporting scheduling
Controlling
Regulating
Analyzing
Auditing the procurement & delivery of
materials and services
All of these are done in electronic format
Chapter-Opener (p. 61)

2
Web-based Contracts
By enabling online competitive bidding and
improving the record-keeping associated
with the purchasing process, buyers wil be
able to quickly and easily compare product
offering from different manufacturers, as
well as pricing and availability.
This will put buyers in a position to make
optimal price-and-time-of-delivery
decisions.

Web-based Contracts
The Technology
Matching Contractors according to attributes
such as Construction Specification Institute
(CSI) classification.
Eligible contractors are notified of pending
projects bids and then may respond
electronically.
Spreadsheets are normally used to show bid
summary for review and award.

3
Web-based Contracts
The Technology (contd)
These online services help construction
companies manage their complex supply
chains.
Also, they enable the project owner to make
trade-off decision about construction costs
versus lifetime operational costs.

Contract Environment
Construction can be a very complex
activity that has several dimensions.
Contractual Relationships
The business aspects of construction require
the establishment of legally biding
relationships with a wide range of parties.
Construction companies or firms as referred
to as contractors.
Construction managers usually supervise
contracts with subcontracts.
4
Contractual Relationships (contd)
Insurance and bonds as well as the
documents establishing the legal structure of
a company have the elements of contractual
requirements.
Major Contractual Forms
An agreement between two or more parties to
do something for a consideration establishes
the basis for a contract.
Major Contractual Forms (contd)
A contract is a promise or a set of promises
for the breach of which the law recognizes
duty.
This amounts to saying that a contract is a
legally enforceable promise

5
The courts are often called upon to
determine:
1. Who are the parties to contract?
2. What are their promise?
3. Other aspects of the contractual agreement.
Construction industry has been
normalized over the years and many
variety of standard contract forms have
been developed.
Process of Purchasing
Construction
We have to distinguish between a
construction contract and regular
purchasing systems in daily life such as
buying a set of living room furniture, cars,
mobile phones, eating at a restaurant,
etc.
Two major aspect of this type of process:
1. We have the finished product available for
our inspection, and we can decide whether it
meets our requirements.
6
Construction
2. Since the final product is available, we
can purchase it from a single store or
individual.

Construction
Construction is Different
The facility is purchased before it is
manufactured based on a set of
Drawings
Work descriptors
Also, the end item requires the purchaser to
coordinate many entities to include:
Designer (s)
Contractor (s)
Subcontractors and vendors.
7
Construction
Ideal Situation in Contracting Business
To go to a single source and buy the
construction project as a finished unit.
This is of course seldom possible.
Traditional contract formats address this
problem by focusing on the purchase of the
design from a single entity (e.g., the design
professional) and the construction of the
facility by a general contractor.

Construction
As has been noted, even this three-party
purchasing relationship (e.g., owner,
designer, and constructor) can lead to an
adversarial or bad relationship between
the parties.
Owners would, in general, like to work with
a single source and be able to purchase
the facility as-built; fully constructed and
ready for occupancy.

8
Major Construction Contract Types
1. The competitively bid contract
For a number of reasons, almost all
contracts that involve public funds are
awarded using competitively bid contracts.
This type of bid contract is used since it
yields a low and competitive price that
ensures taxpayers that their monies are
being equitably and cost-effectively
disbursed.
Lump, or stipulated, sum contract
The unit-price contract

2. Negotiated Contract
This form of contract is also referred to as as
a cost-plus contract although this refers to
the method of payment rather than the
nature of the selection process.
The contractor is reimbursed for the cost of
doing the work plus a fee that is agreed
upon.
In this type of contract, risk can be reduced
greatly.
9
2. Negotiated Contract (contd)
The owner has the flexibility to select the
contractor based on considerations other
than lowest price quotation.
The major issue in type of contract is to
identify the qualified contractors who are
invited to prepare proposals based on the
project documentation available.
The proposal is often presented in a
semiformal interview framework in which the
contractor meets with the client and his/her
representatives.
Competitively Bid Contract

Owner invite a quote for the work to be
performed based on complete plans and
specifications.
The award of the contract is generally
made to the lowest responsible bidder,
The word responsible is very important
since the contractor submitting the lowest
bid may not, in fact, be competent to carry
out the work.
10
Once bids have been opened and read
publicly, an apparent low bidder is
announced.
The owner then immediately reviews the
qualifications of the bidders in ascending
order from lowest to highest.
If the lowest bidder can be considered
responsible based on his or her capability
for carrying out the work, then further
review is unnecessary.

The factors that affect whether a
contractor can be considered responsible
are the same as those used considering
a contractor for prequalification:
1. Technical competence and experience
2. Current financial position based on the firms
balance sheet and income statement.
3. Bonding Capacity

11
4. Current amount of work under way
5. Past history of claims litigation
6. Default on previous contract

Table on page 66
12
Figure 4.1 (p. 67)
Project/expense income curves.
Figure 4.2 (p. 68)

Unbalanced bid income profile.
13
Figure 4.3 (p. 68)
Income profile with mobilization payment.
Figure 4.4 (p. 71)

Traditional versus phased construction.
14
Figure 4.5 (p. 75)
Construction management relationships to other principle parties on the project.

Table 4.1 (p. 76)

Project Delivery Method (PDM)
15
Legal Structure
By

Joint Venturing -The Need

Larger and complex projects
A team of contractors will combine their
resources to bid and execute the work
An example of this is the Hoover Dam,
which was built in 1930s by six largest
contractors in the U.S.

1

Joint Venturing -The Need

There are many reasons why firms and
companies will decide to legally combine
for a specific period of time to pursue a
given project.
A given project may be so large that
financial resources of a number of
companies are required to bond the
project.

2
Joint Venturing -The Approach
A joint venture is a business relationship
undertaken by two or more companies to
form a legal entity for the purpose of
performing a specific work item, or a
project.
A team of firms or companies may be
involved in the design and construction of
a project or only the construction phase of
the project.


The joint venture must be legally
established in a rigorous fashion so that
the contract required is biding.
The difference between joint ventures,
proprietorships, partnerships, and
corporation:
The exist for a fixed period of time defined by
the duration of the project being undertaken.

3
The partners in a joint venture must each
bring important contributions or capabilities to
the undertaken.
Each firm in the consortium brings special
abilities which may include technical
expertise, financial resources, or special
knowledge.

Types of Organization
When organizing a company, two
organizational questions are of interest:
One relates to the legal organization of the
company.
The second focuses on the management
organization.
Legal aspects establishes how the firm will be
taxed, the distribution of liability in the event
the firm fails, the state, city, and government.
4
Types of Organization
Management structure establishes areas and
levels of responsibility in accomplishing the
goals of the company and is the road map
that determines how members of the firm
communicate with one another on questions
of common interest.

Legal Structure
When someone decides to establish a company,
one of the first questions to be resolved is which
type of legal structure will be used.
The nature of business usually points to a logical
or obvious legal structure.
In situation where a single person owns and
operates a business activity, the company is
referred to as a proprietorship.
There is no limit on the number of employees
working in this type of a company.

5
Legal Structure
On the other hand, if a young engineer
with management experience and a job
superintendent with field experience
decide to start his own company, this firm
is referred to as partnership.
This partnership is not limited to 2 persons
and may consist of any number of
partners.

Legal Structure
The division of the ownership is decided
by the initial contribution to the formation
of the company on the part of each
partner.
Usually, the division of ownership is based
on the monetary or capital assets
contributed by each partner.

6
Legal Structure
In some business activity the risk of failure
or exposure to damage claims may be
such that a corporate structure is deemed
better.
This form of ownership recognizes the
company itself as a legal entity and makes
only those assets that belong to the firm
attachable for settlement of claims in the
event of bankruptcy or damage claims.

Legal Structure
This in turn allows principals or
stockholders in a corporation to protect
their personal and private assets from
being called in to settle debts or claims
arising out of the firms operation or
insolvency.
Two types of corporation are encounterd:
Corporation in which a small number of
persons hold all of the stock in the firm are
referred to a closely held corporation
7
Legal Structure
This type offers risk protection and also allows
a small group of principals to control company
policies and function.
A public corporation allows its stock to be
bought and sold freely.
The actual ownership of the stock varies daily
ass the stock is traded by brokers, in the case
of large corporations, on the stock market.

Legal Structure
The figure in the next slid gives a graphical
indication of the forms of legal ownership
utilized by a set of building construction
companies located throughout the
southeastern U.S.
In this example, the companies have been
grouped according to the volume of work
done using fixed-priced contracts versus that
using negotiated contracts.

8
Figure 5.1 (p. 80)
Forms of legal ownership in the construction industry (study by T. Gibb,
Georgia Institute of Technology, 1975).
Legal Structure
The groups were defined as follows:
Group A. Contractors doing 25% or less of
their volume in negotiated contract format.
Group B. Contractors doing between 25%
and 50% negotiated work.
Group C. Contractors doing between 50%
and 75% negotiated work.
Group D. Contractors doing more than 75%
of their work in negotiated contract format
9
Figure 5.2 (p. 86)
Typical stock certificate.
Figure 5.1 (p. 87)

Considerations in Choosing Legal Structure
10
Project Planning
By

Web-Based Project Planning

The Need
Considering that 1 to 2 % of project cost is simply
paperwork, multimillion dollar amounts are expended
to support communication and information transfer.
Geographically dispersed team members need to
share information, documents, drawings, and
strategies.
The likelihood of errors, or missed deadlines is
reduced through web-based project management
tools

1
Web-Based Project Planning

The Technology
With the Internet acting as the ultimate
communications medium, web-based project
management applications provide an instant,
on-demand, secure online solution for all
team members to communicate, share data
and documents, and collaborate

2
Page 90
Centralization of data on server
Introduction
The planning of a project:
Concept of an objective or facility
Scope of work.
Bid package consisting of the plans and
specifications establishes the scope of
work.
Work should broken into components,
which defines work elements or building
blocks.
3
Introduction
Assumption is that the project is the
summation of its sub-elements.
Sub-element is defined as work packages.
The summation of the work packages can
be shown in a hierarchical format called a
work breakdown structure or WBS.
The figure on the next slide is a n example
of a WBS for a small business.
Figure 6.1 (p. 91)

Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) example.
4
Introduction
Development of A WBS requires a through
understanding of the project scope of
work.
Mentally, building a WBS structures the
work which must be physically
accomplished to realize the project and its
end objective.

Introduction
Planning can be thought of as the
definition and sequencing of the work
packages within a given project:
PLANNING = WORK BREAKDOWN + WORK SEQUENCING

5
Introduction
Planning leads to a refinement of the
Scope of Work as established in the
contract documents.
A good plan reduces uncertainty and
improves efficiency.
Planning allows us to develop a framework
for project
Execution
Monitoring, and
control
Introduction
Planning is, however, an ongoing task and
continues throughout the life of the project.
The success of a project is tied to
managers ability in identifying deviations
from the plan and solving the challenges
precipitated by these deviations.
The next figure reflects this cycle of
planning in terms of a simple flow chart.
6
Figure 6.2 (p. 92)
The Planning/Management
Cycle.

Developing The Work Breakdown

Structure
1. Work packages must be clearly
distinguishable from other work
packages.
2. Each work package must have unique
starting and ending dates.
3. Each work package should have its own
unique budget.
4. Work packages should be small enough
that precise measurement of work
progress is possible.
7
A Work Breakdown Example
Consider a small gas station.
In construction, the various aspects of
the work that contribute to breakdown of
the project into packages relate to:
1. Methods used to place work
2. Skills needed for the work
3. Craft workers involved
4. Critical Resources (e.g., cranes, crew, etc.)

A Work Breakdown Example

The definition of work packages can be
facilitated by using four categories which
help in establishing a level of
uniqueness:
1. Location or Area within the Project (e.g.,
foundation pile cap)
2. Material Type (e.g., concrete, steel, etc)
3. Method of placement (e.g., excavation)
4. Organizational Resources Required
(e.g., labor and equipment needed
8
Work Packages for The Gas
Station
Packages and a WBS for gas station
construction.
First, locations which are work package
related will be determined.
The building foundation can be considered a
location.
Whether the scope of work includes parking
and service area surrounding the station.


Station
For the purpose of this example, it is
assumed that the project within the
scope of the work.
LOCATION work packages would be as
follows:
1. Parking and Service Area
2. Foundation
3. Building Walls/Structural Panels

9
Station
4. Building Roof
5. Interior Floors/Slabs (separate from the
Foundation)
6. Interior Finishes
7. Exterior Finishes
8. Electrical Systems
9. Mechanical Systems


Station
Adding the category of MATERIAL TYPE
expands the number of work packages as
shown in the Table of next slide.
If mechanical work is expanded to cover
location, material type, methods and
resources, the following partial list of work
packages would be added to the hierarchy
of the WBS:

10
Table 6.1 (p. 94)
Work Packages for the Gas Station Project

Station
1. Excavation of Waste Water System
2. Drainage Tile installation Waste Water
3. Septic Tank Installation
4. Fresh Water Lines (piping)
5. Sinks, basins, toilets installation
6. Hot Water System installation
7. Air System installation

11
Determining Sequence of Work
Packages
The work is broken into work packages.
Activities which facilitate time
management and control can be defined
and logically placed in sequence.
The word ACTIVITY is generally used
when discussing time control or
scheduling to refer to the work elements
which appear in the schedule in their
expected sequence or logical order.

Packages
In arranging the work package sequence
for time control, the criteria for:
1. Location
2. Material
3. Method, and
4. Required resources
must be reconsidered from the
perspective of how these criteria impact
the order or sequence of work activities.
12
Packages
For instance, location can determine
sequence.
It is normal to complete the structure of the
1st floor of the building before beginning
work on the structural frame for the 2nd
floor. This can be considered a physical
constraint.
Such physical constraints or physical logic
are common in construction operations.

Packages
Example:
The floor must be complete before installing
the floor covering.
Location aspects of a work package may,
therefore, determine its sequence in the
overall project

13
Packages
Again, consider the small gas station
project.
A preliminary sequencing of the work
packages is shown in the figure of the next
slide:

Figure 6.3 (p. 96)

WBS for Gas Station Project.
14
Packages
As a more detailed time plan (i.e.;
schedule) is developed, consideration
must be given to other time consuming
activities which are not necessarily
identified using location, material,
method, and resource criteria:
1. Administrative actions such as inspections,
permit, issuance, noise constraints, etc.
must be considered in developing the time
schedule logic.

Packages
2. Deliveries of materials and similar logistically
issues must also be factored into the
schedule.
3. Finally, certain special activities tied to the
physical properties of the materials or
procedures required (e.g., curing of
concrete, moisture content measures for soil
compaction, etc.) must be included in the
time schedule.
A well defined WBS facilitates the development
of both preliminary and detailed schedules.
15
Figure 6.4 (p. 97)
Preliminary project breakdown.
Figure 6.5 (p. 98)

Cost Control Cycle.

16
Table 6.2 (p. 99)
Cost Code Structure (Example)
Figure 6.6 (p. 99)

Work Package Control Account Sheet.
17
Problem 6.2 (p. 100)
18
Project Scheduling
By

4D Modeling
The need
Traditional design and construction planning
tools, such as 2D drawings and network
diagrams, do not support the timely and
integrated decision making necessary to
move projects forward quickly.
They do not provide the information modeling,
visualization, and analysis environment
necessary to support the rapid and integrated
design and construction of facilities.

1
Example of a 4D model.
(Courtesy of M. Fischer, Common Point Technologies, Inc. and DPR Construction, Inc.)
4D Modeling
Synthesis of construction schedules from design
descriptions and integrated evaluation of deign
and schedule alternatives are still mainly manual
tasks.
Furthermore, the underlying representations of a
design and a construction schedule are too
abstract to allow the multiple stakeholders to
visualize and understand the cross-disciplinary
of design and construction decisions.

2
4D Modeling
4D modeling technologies are now being
used by
Planners
Designers, and
Engineers
to analyze and visualize many aspects of a
construction project, from 3D design of the
project to the sequence of construction to the
relationships among schedule, cost, and
resource availability data.
4D Modeling
These intelligent 4D models support
computer-based analysis of schedules
with respect to cost, interference, safety,
etc., and improve communication of
design and schedule information.

3
The Technology
Extending the traditional planning tools, visual
4D models combine 3D CAD models with
construction activities to display the progression
of construction over time.
However, 4D models are time consuming to
generate manually and cannot currently support
analysis program.
The difficulty and cost of creating and using such
models are currently blocking their widespread
adoption.

Introduction
As noted in the previous chapter, time planning
is among the most important aspects of
successful project management.
The concept of project scheduling addresses the
issues associated with time planning and
management.
Early scheduling methods used simple bar
charts or Gannt charts to achieve a very simple
and straightforward representation of time and
work activity sequencing.

4
Introduction
During the pat 40 years network based
scheduling methods have become the
norm, and many contracts require the use
of network based schedules to reflect
project progress to owner/client.
Simply barcharting concepts as well as
network scheduling concepts will be
introduced in this chapter.

Bar Charts
The basic modeling concept of the bar
chart is the representation of a project
work item or activity as a time scaled bar
whose length represents the planned
duration of the activity.
The following figure shows a bar
representation for a work item requiring
four project time units (e.g., weeks).

5
Figure 7.1ab (p. 102)
Bar chart model: (a) plan focus and (b) work focus.
Bar Charts
The bar is located on a time line to
indicate the schedule for planned start,
execution, and completion of the work
activity.
In practice the scaled length of the bar is
also used as a graphical base on which to
plot actual performance toward completion
of the project work item as seen in the
previous figure Part b.

6
Bar Charts
In this way the bar chart acts both as planning-
scheduling model and as a reporting-control
model.
In this use of the bar chart, the length of the
bar has two different meanings:
1. The physical length of the bar represents the
planned duration of the work item.
2. It also provides a proportionally scaled baseline on
which to plot at successive intervals of time, the
correct percentage complete.

Bar Charts
The same figure (part b) shows a bar for a
project work item that has been half
completed.
In a situation where the work rate is
constant and field conditions permit, this
would occur in half the planned duration.
The following figur (part a) shows a
schedule for a project consisting of three
activities.
7
Figure 7.2 (p. 103)
Bar chart project models:
(a) bar chart schedule
(plan focus) and (b) bar
chart updating (control
focus).

Bar Charts
Activity A is to be carried out in the first
four months.
Activity B in the last four month.
Activity C in the third month.
Actual progress in the project can be
plotted from time to time on these bars as
shown in the same figure (part b)

8
Bar Charts
In this manner, project status contours can
be superimposed on the bar chart as an
aid to manage control of the project.
By using different shading patterns, the
chart can indicate monthly progress
toward physical completion of the
activities.

Bar Charts
Disadvantages
One disadvantage of the traditional bar chart
is the lack of precision in establishing the
exact sequence between activities.
This problem can be addressed by using
directional links or arrows connecting the bars
to give a precise indication of logical order
between activities.
This connected diagram of bars is calledd a
bar-net.

9
Bar Charts
A bar-net showing the major activities defined in
the preliminary project breakdown diagram for
the small gas station of Chapter 6 is shown in
the following figure of the next slide.
The bar positioned in sequence against a time
line.
The sequence or logic between the bars is
formalized by connecting the end of the
preceding bar to the start of the following bar.

Figure 7.3 (p. 104)

Preliminary Bar-Net Schedule for the Small Gas Station.
10
Bar Charts
For instance, the end of bar 3.
Erect Building Structure is connected
using a directional link or arrow to the two
activities that follow it (Activities 5 and 4).
The use of directional arrows to connect
preceding and following activities leads to
the development of a preliminary
scheduling document called a bar-net.
Bar Charts
This is a schedule that combines the graphical
modeling features of the bar (e.g., length to
indicate duration, and scaling to a time line) with
the sequencing features or directional arrows.
Positioning the eight activities as bars in their
logical sequence using the arrow connectors
against a time line plotted in weeks allows us to
visually determine that the duration of the entire
project is roughly 20 weeks.

11
Bar Charts
This bar-net diagram also allows one to
determine the expected progress on the project
as of any given week.
For example, as of week 11, activities 1, 2, & 3
should be completed. Activities 4 and 5 should
be in progress.
If we assume a linear rate of production (i.e., half
of a two week activity is completed after one
week), we could assume that 1/3 of 4 and 5 will
be completed as of the end of week 11.

Bar Charts
A bar-net is somewhat more sophisticated
version of a bar chart which emphasize
the sequencing of activities by using arrow
connectors.
Use of this arrow connection approach to
show logical order will be a key element of
developing network schedules to be
discussed later.

12
Scheduling Logic
In developing schedule for a project, the
logical or scheduling logic which relates
the various activities to one another must
be developed.
In order to gain better understanding of the
role played by sequencing in developing a
schedule, consider, a simple pier made up
of two lines of piles with connecting
headers and simply supported deck slabs.

Scheduling Logic
A schematic view of a portion of the pier is
shwon in the following figure of next slide.
The various physical components of the
pier have been identified and labeled.
An exploded view of the pier is shown in
the figure in part b, which shows each
physical component individually separated
but in the same relative position.
13
Figure 7.4 (p. 105)
Simple schematic models.
(a) Schematic view of pier.
(b) Exploded view of pier.
(Antill and Woodhead, 1982).

Scheduling Logic
Notice that abbreviated labels have now
been introduced.
Clearly, these figures are schematic
models (i.e., not physical models), but they
have rather simple conceptual rules so
that physical relationship between
components of the structure is clear.

14
Scheduling Logic
Now suppose that each component or element
is represented by a labeled circle (or node). The
following figure in the next slide gives a plan
view of the pier components shown in the
previous figure.
Such an abstraction or model can be used as
the basis for portraying information about
physical makeup of the pier or about the order in
which the physical components will actually
appear on the site.
Figure 7.5 (p. 106)

Conceptual Model of Pier Components.
15
Scheduling Logic
For example, an indication of the adjacency of
physical components or relational contact of
physical components may be required.
A model to portray these properties requires a
modeling element (say a line) to indicate that
property exists.
Assuming the modeling rationale of the following
figure (a), the various nodes of the previous
figure can be joined by a series of lines to
develop a graph structure portraying the
physical component adjacency or contact nature
of the pier.
Figure 7.6 (p. 106)

Logical modeling rationales. (a) Adjacency of contact modeling. (b) Physical
structure order modeling. (c) Physical construction order modeling.
16
Scheduling Logic
If the idea of contact is expanded to
indicate the order in which elements
appear and physical contact is
established, a directed modeling rationale
may be used, as shown in the figure in
part b.
Using this conceptual modeling rule, The
following figure of the next slide can be
developed.

Figure 7.7 (p. 107)

Conceptual model of pier component relationships.
17
Scheduling Logic
This figure shows, for example, that header 1
(H1) can only appear (i.e., be built) after piles 1
and 2 (i.e., P1, P2) appear; in fact header 1 is
built around, on top of, and therefore in contact
with piles 1 and 2.
Finally, if the order of appearance of physical
elements is to be modeled for alll elements,
whether or not in contact, a directional arrow
such as that shown in the previous figure part c
may be necessary.
Figure 7.8 (p. 107)

Construction sequence and activity modeling. (a) Alternate row pile driving.
(b) Sequential row pile driving. (c) Field mishap alteration to pile driving sequence.
(d) Bar chart model of pile driving operation. (Antill and Woodhead, 1982).
18
Figure 7.9 (p. 108)
(a) node to represent an event. (b) node to represent an activity.
Figure 7.10 (p. 109)

(a) Activity Network in Precedence Network. (b) Activity Network in Arrow
Notation.
19
Figure 7.11 (p. 109)
Mistake in Logical Sequence.
Figure 7.12 (p. 110)

Elements of an arrow
network. (After Antill and
Woodhead, 1982).

20
Figure 7.13 (p. 111)
Elements of a precedence
network. (After Antill and
Woodhead, 1982).

Figure 7.14a (p. 112)

Preliminary network diagram.
(a) Initial sketch, arrow notation (Continued on next three slides.).
21
Figure 7.14b (cont.)
(b) First draft arrow notation.
Figure 7.14c (cont.)

(c) Initial sketch precedence notation.
22
Figure 7.14d (cont.)
d) First draft precedence notation. (After Antill and Woodhead, 1982).

Figure 7.15 (p. 113)

Precedence Notation Scheduling Network.
23
Figure 7.16 (p. 114)
Calculation of EST(J).
Table on Page 114

24
Figure 7.17 (p. 115)
Calculation of the EST/EFT Values.
Figure 7.18 (p. 115)

Calculation of LFT(I).
25
Figure 7.19 (p. 116)
EST, EFT, and LST, LFT values for small precedence notation network.
Table on Page 116

26
Table 7.1 (p. 118)
Four Types of Activity Float
Table 7.2 (p. 119)

Durations of Activities for
the Small Gas Station

27
Figure 7.20 (p. 120)
Expanded Bar-Net Schedule for the Small Gas Station.
Figure 7.21 (p. 121)

Expanded Network Schedule for the Small Gas Station Project.
28
Table 7.3 (p. 122)
Forward-Pass Calculations for the Small Gas Station Project
Table 7.4 (p. 123)

Backward-Pass Calculations for the Small Gas Station Project
29
Table 7.5 (p. 124)
Float Values for the Small Gas Station Project

30

31
Problem 7.4.1 (p. 126)
(Continued on next three slides.)
Problem 7.4.2 (cont.)

32

33
Problem 7.5a (p. 127)
(Continued on next slide).
Problem 7.5b (cont.)

34
Scheduling PERT Networks
and Linear Operations
By

VRML Applications in Construction

The Need
Traditionally, construction process information is
communicated with paper document and 2D CAD
drawings,
Recently, the industry has embraced many kinds of
web-based technologies, but construction still uses
document-based models.
It is believed that transition to model-based
information can be done through web-based 3D user
interfaces.

1
VRML Model of the NIST Fire Research Facility Emissions Control System

The Technology
The applicability of the Virtual Reality
Modeling Language (VRML) is being
investigated for visualizing the activities at a
construction site and creating an advanced
web-based 3D user interface for construction
process information.
The Computer-Integrated Construction Group
at the National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) in Gaithersburg, Maryland
is developing this concept
2
The Technology (contd)
In principle, VRML is an open standard that offers the
possibility of accessing many types of construction
project data readily available and well-accepted
graphical user interfaces.
These interfaces are based on web-based 3D
visualizations of a model.
In order to view the VRML world, the users should
have a VRML browser, which can be stand-alone
application, a helper application, and/or a plug-in.
Using this environment, models such as these
pictures on the next slide can be readily developed.
Introduction
Bar charts and critical path method )CPM)
network assume that all activity durations
are constant or deterministic.
An estimate is made of the duration of
each activity prior to the commencement
of a project, and the activity duration is
assumed to remain the same (e.g., a
nonvariable value) throughout the life of
the project.

3
Introduction
In fact, this assumption is not realistic.
As soon as work begins, due to actual
working conditions, the assumed durations
for each activity begin to vary.
The variability of project activities is
addressed in a method developed by the
U.S. Navy at approximately the same time
as CPM.
Introduction
This method was called the Program
Evaluation and Review Technique.
It is now widely known as the PERT
scheduling method.
PERT incorporates uncertainty into the
project by assuming that the activity
durations of some or all of the project
activities are variable.
4
Introduction
The variability is defined in terms of three
estimates of the duration of each Activity
as follows:
1. Most pessimistic duration
2. Most optimistic duration
3. Most likely duration

Introduction
Example:
Lets assume that a 20,000-sq ft slab on
grade is to be cast in place.
For scheduling purposes, the project
superintendent is asked for three duration
(i.e., most pessimistic, etc.) rather than for a
single constant duration.
The three estimates are used to calculate an
expected activity duration.

5
Introduction
Example (contd):
The calculations are loosely based on
concepts from mathematical probability.
The expected duration, te, is assumed to be
the average value of a probability distribution
defined by the three-estimate set.
The expected duration, te, of each activity with
variable characteristics is given by

Introduction
Example (contd):
te =
[ta + 4tm + tb ]
6
ta = the most optimistic duration estimate
tm = the most likely duration estimate
tb = the most pessimistic duration estimate

6
Introduction
Example (contd):
For instance, if for the
slab pour, the three
estimates from the
superintendent are:
ta = 5 days
tm = 8 days
tb = 12 days
The expected activity
duration is calculated as:
te =
[5 + 4(8) + t12] = 8.17days, say 9 workingdays days
6
Introduction
Once the te values for each variable duration
activity have been calculated, the longest path
and project duration are determined using the
same methods developed in CPM.
The probability of completing the project within a
predetermined time duration is calculated by
assuming that the probability distribution of the
total project duration is normally distributed with
the longest path of te values as a mean value of
the normal distribution.
7
Introduction
The normal distribution is defined by its
mean value x (i.e., in this case the value of
the longest path through the net work) and
the value, , which is so-called standard
deviation of the distribution.
The standard deviation of the distribution is
a measure of how widely about the mean
value the actual observed values are
spread or distributed.

Introduction
Another parameter called the variance is
the square of the standard deviation or 2.
It can be shown mathematically that
99.7% of the values of distributed
variables will lie in a range defined by
three standard deviations below the mean
and three standard deviations above the
mean (see the figure on the next slide)

8
Figure 8.1 (p. 130)
Selected areas under the normal distribution curve.
Introduction
In BERT, the standard
deviation 2 of the
normal distribution for
the total project duration
(t t )
is calculated using the 2
variance of each activity 2 = b a
on the critical path. 6
The variance for PERT
activity is defined as:

9
Introduction
If the variance of each activity on the longest
path is summed, that value is assumed to be the
variance of the normal distribution of the entire
project duration values.
The fact that the Normal Distribution is used to
present the probability distribution of the
possible total project durations is based on a
basic concept from probability theory called the
Central Limit Theorem.

Introduction
This is explained by Moder and Phillips as
follows:
Suppose m independent tasks are to be performed in
order; (one might think of these as the m tasks that lie
on the critical path of a network). Let t1*, t2*, tm* be
the times at which these tasks are actually completed.
Note that these are random variables with true means
t1, t2,.. tm, and true variance Vt1*, Vt2*, Vtm* , and
actual times are known until these specific tasks are
actually performed.

10
Introduction
Now define T* to be the sum
of
And note that T* is also a T * = ti* + t 2* + + t m*
random variable and thus
has a distribution. The
Central Limit Theorem
states that if m is large, say
four or more, the distribution
of T* is approximately
normal with mean T and
variance VT* given by

Table 8.1 (p. 131)

Three Estimate Values and Calculated Values for Each Activity
11
Figure 8.2 (p. 131)
Small PERT network.
Figure 8.3 (p. 132)

Normal distribution of total project durations for small PERT network.
12
Figure 8.4 (p. 133)
Merge event bias.
Figure 8.5 (p. 134)

Road project divided into 14 sections.
13
Figure 8.6 (p. 135)
Production curve.
Figure 8.7 (p. 135)

Velocity diagrams for a road construction project.
14
Figure 8.8 (p. 136)
Planned status of construction as of week 12.
Figure 8.9 (p. 137)

Unbalanced process production rates.
15
Figure 8.10 (p. 137)
Objective chart.
Figure 8.11 (p. 138)

Program chart with lead time in workdays.
16
Figure 8.12 (p. 139)
Progress Chart.
Figure 8.13 (p. 139)

Progress Chart with Line of Balance.
17
Figure 8.14 (p. 140)
Schematic of floor cycle work
tasks.

Figure 8.15 (p. 141)

Program chart and objective.
18
Figure 8.16 (p. 142)
Enlarged projection of
program chart onto
objective chart.

Figure 8.17 (p. 142)

Line of balance for week 5.
19
Problem 8.2a (p. 143)

20
Problem 8.2b (p. 144)

21

22
23
Project Cash Flow
By

Scenario Testing
The Need
Cash flows can be estimated by attempting
to assess flows from
1. Project in progress.
2. Projects under contract but not yet begun.
3. Potential projects which will start during the
coming financial accounting period.

1
Scenario Testing
The Need (contd)
These sources of income can be viewed as:
1. Birds in the hand.
2. Birds in the bush, and
3. Birds flying the sky.
In other words, cash flows can be projected
from projects in progress and projects which
may, with some probability, start in the
coming period for which forecasts are being
made.

Scenario Testing
The Need (contd0
The advent of spreadsheet analysis and high
speed computers has led to scenario testing
of future cash flow expectations.

2
The Technology
Spreadsheet (can do probabilistic cash
flow projections)
More advanced analysis can also factor in
historical evidence of payment trends and
potential impact of macroeconomic
factors.
These techniques can go beyond the
typical best-, expected-, and worst-case
scenario modeling.
The Technology
These techniques may also rely on monte
Carlo simulation, Markov modeling, or the
use of fuzzy data sets to build up
statistically valid outcomes.
This level of analysis used to be in the
economists realm, but is now
commonplace in the future in the finance
and business development groups of
corporations.

3
Cash Flow Projections
Life of a project can be used to develop the
projection of income and expense during this
project life.
Complexity of the project obviously has an affect
on the method used.
In many contracts (e.g., public contracts such as
those used by state agencies), the owner
requires the contractor to provide an S-curve of
estimated progress and costs across the life of
the project.


The contractor develops this by
constructing a simple bar chart of the
project, assigning costs to the bars, and
smoothly connecting the projected
amounts of expenditures over time.
Consider the highly simplified project of
the next slide in which four major activities
are scheduled across a four-month time
span.

4
Figure 9.1 (p. 148)
Development of the S-Curve.

Bars representing the activities are
positioned along a time scale indicating
start and finish times.
The direct costs asociated with each
activity are shown above each bar in the
figure.
Its assumed that the monthly cost of
indirect charges (i.e., site office costs,
telephone, heat, light, which cannot be
charged directly to an activity) is $5,000.
5
Assuming that the direct costs are evenly
distributed across the duration of the
activity, the monthly direct costs can be
readily calculated and shown below the
time line in the figure.
The direct charges in the second month,
for example, derive from activities A, B,
and C, all of which have a portion in the
period.


The direct charge is
simply calculated
1
based on portion of Activity A : 50,000 = $25,000
2
the activity scheduled
in the second month 1
Activity B : 40,000 = $20,000
2
as:
1
Activity C : 60,000 = $20,000
3
$65,000

6
The figure shows the total monthly and
cumulative monthly expenditures across
the life of the project.
The S-curve is nothing more than a
graphical presentation of the cumulative
expenditures over time.
A curve is plotted below the time-scaled
bars through the points of cumulative
expenditures.

As activities come on-line, the level of
expenditures increases and the curve has
a steeper middle section.
Toward the end of a project, activities are
winding down and expenditures flatten
again.

7
Cash Flow to the Contractor
The flow of money from the owner to the
contractor is in the form of progress payments.
As already noted, estimates of work cmpleted
are made by the contractor periodically (usually
monthly) and verified by the owners
representative.
Depending on the type of contract (e.g., lump
sum, unit price, etc.), the estimates are based on
evaluations of the percentage of total contract
completion or actual field measurements of
quantities placed.


This process is best demonstrated by further
consideration of the four-activity example just
described.
Assume that the, contractor originally included a
profit or markup in his bid of $50,000 (i.e., 25%)
so that the total bid price was $250,000.
The owner retains 10% of all validated progress
payment claims until one-half of the contract
value (i.e., $125,000) has been built and
approved as an incentive for the contractor to
complete the contract.
8
The retainage will be deducted from the
progress payments on the first $125,000
and eventually paid to the contractor on
satisfactory completion of the contract.
The progress payment will be billed at the
end of the month, and the owner will
transfer the billed amount minus any
retainage to the contractors acount 30
days later.


The amount of each
progress payment
can be calculated as:
Pay = 1.25 (indirect expense + direct expense)

= - 0.10 [1.25(indirect expense + direct expense))]

9
The minus term for retainage drops out of
the equation when 50% of the contract has
been completed.
Because of the delay in payment of billings
by the owner and retainage withheld, the
revenue profile lags behind the expense
S-curve as shown in the following figure of
the next slide.

Figure 9.2 (p. 149)

Expenses and income profiles.
10
The revenue profile has a stair-step appearance
since the progress payments are transferred in
discrete amounts based on the preceding
equation.
The shaded area of the previous figure between
the revenue and expense profiles indicates the
need on the part of the contractor to finance part
of the construction until such time as he is
reimbursed by the owner.

Figure 9.3 (p. 150)

Influence of front, or mobilization, payment on expense or income profiles.
11
Table 9.1 (p. 151)
Overdraft calcuations.
Figure 9.4 (p. 152)

Plot of maximum overdraft.
12
Figure 9.5 (p. 153)
Composite overdraft profiles.
Figure 9.6 (p. 153)

ROR for small bar chart problem.
13
Table 9.2 (p. 154)
ROR Calculations for Small Project.
Figure 9.7 (p. 154)

ROR for small bar chart problem with mobilization payment.
14
Table 9.3 (p. 155)
Overdraft Calculation with Mobilization Payment
Table 9.4 (p. 156)

ROR Calculations to Include Mobilization Payment
15

16

17
CHAPTER
FORCE SYSTEM
RESULTANTS
4c by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 4c. FORCE SYSTEM RESULTANTS Slide No. 1
MOMENT OF A COUPLE
Lectures Objectives:
Students will be able to
a) define a couple, and,
In-Class activities:
b) determine the moment of a couple.
Reading quiz
Applications
Moment of a Couple
Concept quiz
Group problem (Ex. 3 & 4)

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. In statics, a couple is defined as __________ separated by a
perpendicular distance.
A) two forces in the same direction.
B) two forces of equal magnitude.
C) two forces of equal magnitude acting in the same direction.
D) two forces of equal magnitude acting in opposite directions.
2. The moment of a couple is called a _________ vector.

A) free B) spin
C) romantic D) sliding
Applications
A torque or moment of 12 N m is required to rotate the wheel.

Which one of the two grips of the wheel above will require less
force to rotate the wheel?
2
Applications (contd)
The crossbar lug wrench is being used to loosen a lug net. What is
the effect of changing dimensions a, b, or c on the force that must
be applied?
Moment of a Couple
A couple is defined as two
parallel forces with the same
magnitude but opposite in
direction separated by a
perpendicular distance d.
The moment of a couple is defined as

MO = F d (using a scalar analysis) or as
MO = r F (using a vector analysis).

Here r is any position vector from the line of action of F
to the line of action of F.
3
Moment of a Couple (contd)

The net external effect of a couple is that
the net force equals zero and the magnitude
of the net moment equals F d
Since the moment of a couple depends
only on the distance between the forces,
the moment of a couple is a free vector.
It can be moved anywhere on the body
and have the same external effect on the
body.
Moments due to couples can be added using

the same rules as adding any vectors.
Example 1 - Scalar Approach
Given: Two couples act on the

beam and d equals 8 ft.
Find: The resultant couple
Plan:
1) Resolve the forces in x and y directions so they can

be treated as couples.
2) Determine the net moment due to the two couples.
4
Example 1 (contd)- Scalar Approach

The x and y components of the top
60 lb force are:
(4/5)(60 lb) = 48 lb vertically up
(3/5)(60 lb) = 36 lb to the left
Similarly for the top 40 lb force:
(40 lb) (sin 30) up
(40 lb) (cos 30) to the left
The net moment equals to
+ M = -(48 lb)(4 ft) + (40 lb) (cos 30)(8ft)

= -192.0 + 277.1 = 85.1 ftlb
Example 2 Vector Approach

Given: A force couple acting on the
rod.
A
Find: The couple moment acting
on the rod in Cartesian
vector notation.
B
Plan:
1) Use M = r F to find the couple moment.

2) Set r = rAB and F = {14 i 8 j 6 k} N .

3) Calculate the cross product to find M.
5
Example 2 (contd) Vector Approach
rAB = {0.8 i + 1.5 j 1 k} m

A
F = {14 i 8 j 6 k} N
M = rAB F
= i j k
the Trial Edition-1of S Nm

0.8 1.5
14 -8 -6
= {i (-9 (8)) j (- 4.8 (-14)) + k (-6.4 14(1.5))} Nm
= {-17 i 9.2 j 27.4 k} Nm
Concept Quiz
1. F1 and F2 form a couple. The moment F1
of the couple is given by ____ .
r1
A) r1 F1 B) r2 F1 r2
C) F2 r1 D) r2 F2 F2
2. If three couples act on a body, the overall result is that

A) the net force is not equal to 0.
B) the net force and net moment are equal to 0.
C) the net moment equals 0 but the net force is not

necessarily equal to 0.
D) the net force equals 0 but the net moment is not
necessarily equal to 0 .
6
Example 3 - Scalar
Given: Two couples act on the
beam. The resultant couple is
zero.
Find: The magnitudes of the forces
P and F and the distance d.
PLAN:
1) Use definition of a couple to find P and F.
2) Resolve the 300 N force in x and y directions.

3) Determine the net moment.
4) Equate the net moment to zero to find d.
Example 3 (contd) - Scalar

From the definition of a
couple
P = 500 N and
F = 300 N.
Resolve the 300 N force into vertical and horizontal

components. The vertical component is (300 cos 30) N and
the horizontal component is (300 sin 30) N.
It was given that the net moment equals zero. So
+ M = - (500)(2) + (300 cos 30)(d) - (300 sin 30)(0.2) = 0

Now solve this equation for d.
d = [1000 + 300 sin 30 (0.2) ]/ (300 cos 30) = 3.96 m
7
Example 4 - Vector
Given: F = {25 k} N and
- F = {- 25 k} N
Find: The couple moment acting

on the pipe assembly
using Cartesian vector
notation.
PLAN:
1) Use M = r F to find the couple moment.
2) Set r = rAB and F = {25 k} N .

3) Calculate the cross product to find M.
Example 4 (contd) - Vector

rAB = { - 350 i 200 j } mm
= { - 0.35 i 0.2 j } m
F = {25 k} N
M = rAB F
i j k
= -0.35 -0.2 0 Nm
0 0 25
= { i ( - 5 0 ) j (- 8.75 0) + k (0) } N m
= { -5 i + 8.75 j } N m
8
Attention Quiz
1. A couple is applied to the beam as shown. Its moment
equals _____ Nm.
50 N
A) 50 B) 60
1m 2m 5
3
C) 80 D) 100
4
2. You can determine the couple

moment as M = r F
If F = { -20 k} lb, then r is
A) rBC B) rAB
C) rCB D) rAC
9
CHAPTER
FORCE SYSTEM
RESULTANTS
4d by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 4d. FORCE SYSTEM RESULTANTS Slide No. 1
Equivalent Force-Couple Systems

1) Determine the effect of moving a
force. In-Class Activities:
2) Find an equivalent force-couple Reading Quiz
system for a system of forces and Applications
couples.
Equivalent Systems
System reduction
Concept quiz
Group problem solving

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. A general system of forces and couple moments acting on a
rigid body can be reduced to a ___ .
A) single force.
B) single moment.
C) single force and two moments.
D) single force and a single moment.
2. The original force and couple system and an equivalent

force-couple system have the same _____ effect on a body.

A) internal B) external
C) internal and external D) microscopic
Applications
What is the resultant effect on the persons hand

when the force is applied in four different ways ?
2
Several forces and a couple

moment are acting on this
vertical section of an I-beam.
| | ??
Can you replace them with just
one force and one couple
moment at point O that will

have the same external effect?
If yes, how will you do that?
An Equivalent System (Section 4.7)
When a number of forces and couple moments are acting

on a body, it is easier to understand their overall effect on the body
if they are combined into a single force and couple moment having
the same external effect
The two force and couple systems are called equivalent
systems since they have the same external effect on the body.
3
Moving a Force on its Line of Action
Moving a force from A to O, when both points are on the

vectors line of action, does not change the external effect.
Hence, a force vector is called a sliding vector. (But the
internal effect of the force on the body does depend on where
the force is applied).
Moving a Force Off of its Line of

Action
Moving a force from point A to O (as shown above) requires

creating an additional couple moment. Since this new couple
moment is a free vector, it can be applied at any point P on the
body.
4
Finding the Resultant of a Force

and Couple System (Section 4.8)
When several forces and couple
moments act on a body, you can move
each force and its associated couple
moment to a common point O.
Now you can add all the forces and
couple moments together and find one
resultant force-couple moment pair.
Resultant of a Force and Couple

System
If the force system lies in the x-y plane (the 2-D case), then the
reduced equivalent system can be obtained using the following
three scalar equations.
5
Reducing a Force-Moment to a
Single Force (Section 4.9)
= =
If FR and MRO are perpendicular to each other, then the system

can be further reduced to a single force, FR , by simply moving

FR from O to P.
In three special cases, concurrent, coplanar, and parallel systems
of forces, the system can always be reduced to a single force.
Example 1
Given: A 2-D force and couple
system as shown.
Find: The equivalent resultant force
and couple moment acting at
A and then the equivalent
single force location along
the beam AB.
Plan:
1) Sum all the x and y components of the forces to find FRA.

2) Find and sum all the moments resulting from moving each
force to A.
3) Shift the FRA to a distance d such that d = MRA/FRy
6
Example 1 (contd)
+ FRx = 25 + 35 sin 30 = 42.5 lb
+ FRy = 20 + 35 cos 30 = 50.31 lb
FR
+ MRA = 35 cos30 (2) + 20(6) 25(3)
= 105.6 lbft
FR = ( 42.52 + 50.312 )1/2 = 65.9 lb

= tan-1 ( 50.31/42.5) = 49.8
The equivalent single force FR can be located on the

beam AB at a distance d measured from A.
d = MRA/FRy = 105.6/50.31 = 2.10 ft.
Example 2
Given: The building slab has four
columns. F1 and F2 = 0.
o
Find: The equivalent resultant
force and couple moment
at the origin O. Also find
the location (x,y) of the
single equivalent resultant
force.
Plan:
1) Find FRO = Fi = FRzo k
2) Find MRO = (ri Fi) = MRxO i + MRyO j

3) The location of the single equivalent resultant force is given
as x = -MRyO/FRzO and y = MRxO/FRzO
7
Example 2 (contd)
FRO = {-50 k 20 k} = {-70 k} kN

o
MRO = (10 i) (-20 k) + (4 i + 3 j) (-50 k)
= {200 j + 200 j 150 i} kNm
= {-150 i + 400 j } kNm
The location of the single equivalent resultant force is given as,

x = -MRyo/FRzo = -400/(-70) = 5.71 m
y = MRxo/FRzo = (-150)/(-70) = 2.14 m
Concept Quiz
z
1. The forces on the pole can be reduced to S
a single force and a single moment at
R
point ____ .
Q
A) P B) Q C) R
P
D) S E) Any of these points. y
x
2. Consider two couples acting on a body. The simplest possible
equivalent system at any arbitrary point on the body will have
A) one force and one couple moment.

B) one force.
C) one couple moment.
D) two couple moments.
8
Example 3
Given: A 2-D force and couple
system as shown.
Find: The equivalent resultant
force and couple moment
acting at A.
Plan:
1) Sum all the x and y components of the forces to find FRA.

2) Find and sum all the moments resulting from moving each
force to A and add them to the 500 lb - ft free moment to find
the resultant MRA.
Example 3 (contd)
Summing the
force components:
+ Fx = (4/5) 150 lb + 50 lb sin 30 = 145 lb
+ Fy = (3/5) 150 lb + 50 lb cos 30 = 133.3 lb
Now find the magnitude and direction of the resultant.
FRA = ( 145 2 + 133.3 2 )1/2 = 197 lb and = tan-1 ( 133.3/145)

= 42.6
+ MRA = { (4/5)(150)(2) 50 cos30 (3) + 50 sin30 (6) + 500 }
= 760 lbft
9
Example 4
Given: Handle forces F1 and F2 are
applied to the electric drill.
Find: An equivalent resultant
force and couple moment at
point O.
Plan:
a) Find FRO = Fi
Where, b) Find MRO = MC + ( ri Fi )

Fi = individual forces in Cartesian vector notation (CVN).

MC = free couple moments in CVN (none in this example).
ri = position vectors from the point O to any point on the line
of action of Fi .
Example 4 (contd)
F1 = {6 i 3 j 10 k} N
F2 = {0 i + 2 j 4 k} N
FRO = {6 i 1 j 14 k} N
r1 = {0.15 i + 0.3 k} m
r2 = {-0.25 j + 0.3 k} m
MRO = r1 F1 + r2 F2
i j k i j k
MRO = { 0.15 0 0.3 + 0 - 0.25 0.3 } Nm
6 -3 -10 0 2 -4
= {0.9 i + 3.3 j 0.45 k + 0.4 i + 0 j + 0 k} Nm
= {1.3 i + 3.3 j 0.45 k} Nm
10
Attention Quiz
1. For this force system, the equivalent system at P is
___________ .
A) FRP = 40 lb (along + x-dir.) and MRP = +60 ft lb
B) FRP = 0 lb and MRP = +30 ft lb
C) FRP = 30 lb (along + y-dir.) and MRP = -30 ft lb
D) FRP = 40 lb (along + x-dir.) and MRP = +30 ft lb
y
30 lb
1' 1' x
40 lb
P 30 lb
Attention Quiz (contd)
2. Consider three couples acting on a body. Equivalent

systems will be _______ at different points on the body.
A) different when located
B) the same even when located
C) zero when located
D) None of the above.
11
CHAPTER
FORCE SYSTEM
RESULTANTS
4e by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 4e. FORCE SYSTEM RESULTANTS Slide No. 1
Reduction of Distributed Loading

Students will be able to determine an equivalent force for a
distributed load.
In-Class Activities:
Submit Homework #4
Reading quiz
Applications
Equivalent force
Concept quiz
Problem solving (Ex. 1)
Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
Distributed load curve
w
1. The resultant force (FR) due to a
distributed load is equivalent to
the _____ under the distributed
x
loading curve, w = w(x).
FR
A) centroid B) arc length
C) area D) volume
2. The line of action of the distributed loads equivalent force

passes through the ______ of the distributed load.

A) centroid B) mid-point
C) left edge D) right edge
Applications
A distributed load on the

beam exists due to the
weight of the lumber.
Is it possible to reduce this

force system to a single
force that will have the
same external effect?

If yes, how?
2
The sandbags on the beam create a distributed load.
How can we determine a single equivalent resultant

force and its location?
Distributed Loading
In many situations a surface area
of a body is subjected to a
distributed load. Such forces are
caused by winds, fluids, or the
weight of items on the bodys
surface.
We will analyze the most common
case of a distributed pressure
loading. This is a uniform load
along one axis of a flat rectangular
body.
In such cases, w is a function of x
and has units of force per length.
3
Magnitude of Resultant Force

Consider an element of length dx.
The force magnitude dF acting on it is
given as
dF = w(x) dx
The net force on the beam is given by

+ FR = L dF = L w(x) dx = A
Here A is the area under the loading

curve w(x).
Location of Resultant Force

The force dF will produce a moment of
(x)(dF) about point O.
The total moment about point O is

given as
+ MRO = L x dF = L x w(x) dx
Assuming that FR acts at x , it will

produce the moment about point O as
+ MRO = ( x ) (FR) = x L w(x) dx
4
Location of Resultant Force (contd)

Comparing the last two equations,
we get
You will learn later that FR acts

through a point C, which is

called the geometric center or
centroid of the area under the
loading curve w(x).
Examples
Until you learn more about centroids, we will consider only
rectangular and triangular loading diagrams whose centroids are
well defined and shown on the inside back cover of your textbook.
In a rectangular loading, FR = 400 10 = 4,000 lb and x = 5x ft.

In a triangular loading,
FR = (0.5) (6000) (6) = 1,800 N and x = 6 (1/3) 6 = 4 m.
Please note that the centroid in a right triangle is at a distance
one third the width of the triangle as measured from its base.
5
Concept Quiz
1. What is the location of FR, i.e., the
FR distance d?
A A) 2 m B) 3 m C) 4 m
BA B
3m 3m d D) 5 m E) 6 m
2. If F1 = 1 N, x1 = 1 m, F2 = 2 N
and x2 = 2 m, what is the location
x2 F1 x FR of FR, i.e., the distance x.
F2
A) 1 m B) 1.33 m C) 1.5 m
x1 D) 1.67 m E) 2 m
Example 1
Given: The loading on the beam as

shown.
Find: The equivalent force and its
location from point A.
Plan:
1) Consider the trapezoidal loading as two separate loads (one
rectangular and one triangular).

2) Find FR and x for each of these two distributed loads.
3) Determine the overall FR and x for the three point loadings.
6
Example 1 (contd)
For the rectangular loading of height
0.5 kN/m and width 3 m,
FR1 = 0.5 kN/m 3 m = 1.5 kN
x1 = 1.5 m from A
For the triangular loading of height 2 kN/m and width 3 m,
FR2 = (0.5) (2 kN/m) (3 m) = 3 kN
and its line of action is at x2 = 1 m from A
For the combined loading of the three forces,
FR = 1.5 kN + 3 kN + 1.5 kN = 6 kN
+ MRA = (1.5) (1.5) + 3 (1) + (1.5) 4 = 11.25 kN m
Now, FR x = 11.25 kN m
Hence, x = (11.25) / (6) = 1.88 m from A.
Attention Quiz
100 N/m FR
12 m x
1. FR = ____________ 2. x = __________.
A) 12 N B) 100 N A) 3 m B) 4 m
C) 600 N D) 1200 N C) 6 m D) 8 m
7
CHAPTER
EQUILIBRIUM OF A
RIGID BODY
5a by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 5a. EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY Slide No. 1
Equilibrium of a Rigid Body

a) Identify support reactions, and In-Class Activities:
b) Draw a free diagram. Reading Quiz
Applications
Support reactions
Free-body diagram
Concept quiz
Group problem solving (Ex. 1)

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. If a support prevents only translation of a body, then the support
exerts a ___________ on the body.
A) couple moment
B) force
C) Both A and B.
D) None of the above
2. Internal forces are _________ shown on the free body diagram of a

whole body.
A) always
B) often
C) rarely
D) never
Applications
A 200 kg platform is suspended off an oil rig. How do we

determine the force reactions at the joints and the forces in the
cables?
How are the idealized model and the free body diagram used to
do this? Which diagram above is the idealized model?
2
A steel beam is used to support

roof joists. How can we
determine the support reactions
at A & B?
Again, how can we make use of an idealized model and a free

body diagram to answer this question?
Conditions for Rigid-Body Equilibrium
In contrast to the forces on a particle, the

forces on a rigid-body are not usually
concurrent and may cause rotation of the
body (due to the moments created by the
Forces on a particle forces).
For a rigid body to be in equilibrium, the

net force as well as the net moment
about any arbitrary point O must be
equal to zero.
F = 0 and MO = 0
Forces on a rigid body
3
The Process of Solving Rigid Body

Equilibrium Problems
For analyzing an actual physical system, first we need to create

an idealized model.
Then we need to draw a free-body diagram showing all the
external (active and reactive) forces.
Finally, we need to apply the equations of equilibrium to solve
for any unknowns.
Procedure for Drawing a Free Body

Diagram (Section 5.2)
Idealized model Free body diagram

1. Draw an outlined shape. Imagine the body to be isolated
or cut free from its constraints and draw its outlined

shape.
2. Show all the external forces and couple moments. These
typically include: a) applied loads, b) support reactions,
and, c) the weight of the body.
4
Procedure for Drawing a Free Body

Diagram (Section 5.2) (contd)
Idealized model Free body diagram
3. Label loads and dimensions: All known forces and

couple moments should be labeled with their magnitudes

and directions. For the unknown forces and couple
moments, use letters like Ax, Ay, MA, etc.. Indicate any
necessary dimensions.
Support Reactions in 2-D
A few examples are shown above. Other support

reactions are given in your textbook (in Table 5-1).
As a general rule, if a support prevents translation of a body in a

given direction, then a force is developed on the body in the
opposite direction. Similarly, if rotation is prevented, a couple
moment is exerted on the body.
5
Example
Given: An operator applies 20 lb to the
foot pedal. A spring with
k = 20 lb/in is stretched 1.5 in.
Draw: A free body diagram of the foot
pedal.
The idealized model The free body diagram
Concept Quiz
1. The beam and the cable (with a frictionless pulley at D) support an

80 kg load at C. In a FBD of only the beam, there are how many
unknowns?
A) 2 forces and 1 couple moment

B) 3 forces and 1 couple moment
C) 3 forces
D) 4 forces
6
Concept Quiz (contd)
2. If the directions of the force and the couple moments are

reversed, then what will happen to the beam?
A) The beam will lift from A.

B) The beam will lift at B.
C) The beam will be restrained.
D) The beam will break.
Example 1
Problem 5-9
Draw a FBD of the bar, Draw a FBD of the 5000 lb

which has smooth points of dumpster (D). It is supported

contact at A, B, and C. by a pin at A and the hydraulic
cylinder BC (treat as a short
link).
7
Example 1 (contd)
Problem 5-9
Attention Quiz
1. Internal forces are not shown on a free body diagram because the
internal forces are_____. (Choose the most appropriate answer.)
A) equal to zero B) equal and opposite and they do not
affect the calculations
C) negligibly small D) not important
2. How many unknown support reactions

are there in this problem?
A) 2 forces and 2 couple moments
B) 1 force and 2 couple moments

C) 3 forces
D) 3 forces and 1 couple moment
8
CHAPTER
EQUILIBRIUM OF A
RIGID BODY
5b by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 5b. EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY Slide No. 1
Equations of Equilibrium in 2-D

a) Apply equations of equilibrium to In-Class Activities:
solve for unknowns, and,
Reading quiz
b) Recognize two-force members.
Applications
Equations of equilibrium
Two-force members
Concept quiz
Group problem (Ex. 2)

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. The three scalar equations FX = FY = MO = 0, are ____
equations of equilibrium in two dimensions.
A) incorrect B) the only correct
C) the most commonly used D) not sufficient
2. A rigid body is subjected to forces as

shown. This body can be considered
as a ______ member.
A) single-force B) two-force
C) three-force D) six-force
Applications
For a given load on the

platform, how can we
determine the forces at
the joint A and the force
in the link (cylinder) BC?
2
A steel beam is used to support

roof joists. How can we

determine the support reactions
at each end of the beam?
Equations of Equilibrium (Section 5.3)

A body is subjected to a system of forces y F3
that lie in the x-y plane. When in
equilibrium, the net force and net moment F4
acting on the body are zero (as discussed F1
earlier in Section 5.1). This 2-D condition
can be represented by the three scalar O x
equations:
Fx = 0 Fy = 0 MO = 0 F2
Where point O is any arbitrary point.
Please note that these equations are the ones most commonly
used for solving 2-D equilibrium problems. There are two
other sets of equilibrium equations that are rarely used. For
your reference, they are described in the textbook.
3
Two-Force Members (Section 5.4)

The solution to some equilibrium
problems can be simplified if we
recognize members that are
subjected to forces at only two
points (e.g., at points A and B).
If we apply the equations of equilibrium to such a member, we

can quickly determine that the resultant forces at A and B must
be equal in magnitude and act in the opposite directions along
the line joining points A and B.
Examples of Two-Force Members
In the cases above, members AB can be considered as two-force

members, provided that their weight is neglected.

This fact simplifies the equilibrium analysis of some rigid
bodies since the directions of the resultant forces at A and B are
thus known (along the line joining points A and B).
4
Steps for Solving 2-D Equilibrium

Problems
1. If not given, establish a suitable x - y coordinate system.
2. Draw a free body diagram (FBD) of the object under

analysis.
3. Apply the three equations of equilibrium (EofE) to

solve for the unknowns.
Important Notes
1. If we have more unknowns than the number of independent
equations, then we have a statically indeterminate situation.
We cannot solve these problems using just statics.
2. The order in which we apply equations may affect the

simplicity of the solution. For example, if we have two
unknown vertical forces and one unknown horizontal force,
then solving FX = 0 first allows us to find the horizontal
unknown quickly.
3. If the answer for an unknown comes out as negative number,

then the sense (direction) of the unknown force is opposite to
that assumed when starting the problem.
5
Example 1
Given: Weight of the boom = 125
lb, the center of mass is at G,
and the load = 600 lb.
Find: Support reactions at A and B.
Plan:
1. Put the x and y axes in the horizontal and vertical directions,

respectively.
2. Determine if there are any two-force members.

3. Draw a complete FBD of the boom.
4. Apply the EofE to solve for the unknowns.
Example 1 (contd)
AY FBD of the boom:
AX A
1 ft 3 ft 5 ft
1 ft
D
40 B G
FB 125 lb 600 lb
Note: Upon recognizing CB as a two-force member, the number of

unknowns at B are reduced from two to one. Now, using Eof E, we get,
+ MA = 125 4 + 600 9 FB sin 40 1 FB cos 40 1 = 0
FB = 4188 lb or 4190 lb
+ FX = AX + 4188 cos 40 = 0; AX = 3210 lb

+ FY = AY + 4188 sin 40 125 600 = 0; AY = 1970 lb
6
Concept Quiz
1. For this beam, how many support
reactions are there and is the F F F F
problem statically determinate?
A) (2, Yes) B) (2, No)
C) (3, Yes) D) (3, No)
2. For the given beam loading: a) how

Fixed
many support reactions are there, b) is F
support
this problem statically determinate, and,
c) is the structure stable?
A) (4, Yes, No) B) (4, No, Yes) Pin joints
C) (5, Yes, No) D) (5, No, Yes)
Problem 2
Given: The load on the bent rod is
supported by a smooth
inclined surface at B and a
collar at A. The collar is
free to slide over the fixed
inclined rod.
Find: Support reactions at A and B.
Plan:
a) Establish the x y axes.

b) Draw a complete FBD of the bent rod.
c) Apply the EofE to solve for the unknowns.
7
Problem 2 (contd)
100 lb
MA 200 lbft
5 2 ft
3 3 ft 3 ft
NA 4 5
FBD of the rod 13 12
+ FX = (4 / 5) NA (5 / 13) NB = 0 NB
+ FY = (3 / 5) NA (12 / 13) NB 100 = 0

Solving these two equations, we get
NB = 82.54 or 82.5 lb and NA = 39.68 or 39.7 lb
+ MA = MA 100 3 200 + (12 / 13) NB 6 (5 /13) NB 2 = 0

MA = 106 lb ft
Attention Quiz
1. Which equation of equilibrium allows
100 lb
you to determine FB right away?
AX A B
A) FX = 0 B) FY = 0
C) MA = 0 D) Any one of the above. AY FB
2. A beam is supported by a pin joint

and a roller. How many support
reactions are there and is the
structure stable for all types of
loadings?
A) (3, Yes) B) (3, No)
C) (4, Yes) D) (4, No)
8
CHAPTER
EQUILIBRIUM OF A
RIGID BODY
5c by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 5c. EQUILIBRIUM OF A RIGID BODY Slide No. 1
Rigid Body Equilibrium in 3-D (Sections 5.5 5.7)

Lectures Objective:
a) Identify support reactions in 3-D In-Class Activities:
and draw a free body diagram, and,
Collect homework
b) apply the equations of equilibrium.
Reading quiz
Applications
Support reactions in 3-D
Equations of equilibrium
Concept quiz
Group problem (Ex. 2)
Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. If a support prevents rotation of a body about an axis, then the

support exerts a ________ on the body about that axis.
A) couple moment B) force
C) Both A and B. D) None of the above.
2. When doing a 3-D problem analysis, you have ________

scalar equations of equilibrium.
A) 2 B) 3 C) 4
D) 5 E) 6
Applications
Ball-and-socket joints and journal bearings are often used in

mechanical systems.
How can we determine the support reactions at these joints for a
given loading?
2
The weights of the fuselage and
fuel act through A, B, and C. How
will we determine the reactions at
the wheels D, E and F ?
A 50 lb sign is kept in equilibrium

using two cables and a smooth
collar. How can we determine the

reactions at these supports?
Support Reactions in 3-D (Table 5-2)
A few examples are shown above. Other support

reactions are given in your text book (Table 5-2).
As a general rule, if a support prevents translation of a body in a

given direction, then a reaction force acting in the opposite
direction is developed on the body. Similarly, if rotation is
prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body by the support.
3
Important Note
A single bearing or hinge can prevent rotation by providing a

resistive couple moment. However, it is usually preferred to use

two or more properly aligned bearings or hinges. Thus, in these
cases, only force reactions are generated and there are no
moment reactions created.
Equilibrium Equations in 3-D (Section 5.6)

As stated earlier, when a body is in equilibrium, the net force and
the net moment equal zero, i.e., F = 0 and MO = 0 .
These two vector equations can be written as six scalar
equations of equilibrium (EofE). These are
FX = FY = FZ = 0
MX = MY = MZ = 0
The moment equations can be determined about any point.

Usually, choosing the point where the maximum number of
unknown forces are present simplifies the solution. Those

forces do not appear in the moment equation since they pass
through the point. Thus, they do not appear in the equation.
4
Constraints for a Rigid Body (Section 5.7)
Redundant Constraints: When a body has more supports than

necessary to hold it in equilibrium, it becomes statically
indeterminate.
A problem that is statically indeterminate has more unknowns

than equations of equilibrium.
Are statically indeterminate structures used in practice? Why
or why not?
Improper Constraints
Here, we have 6 unknowns but there is

nothing restricting rotation about the x axis.
In some cases, there may be as many unknown reactions as

there are equations of equilibrium. However, if the supports are
not properly constrained, the body may become unstable for
some loading cases.
5
Example 1
Given:The cable of the tower crane is
subjected to 840 N force. A
fixed base at A supports the
crane.
Find: Reactions at the fixed base A.
Plan:
a) Establish the x, y and z axes.
b) Draw a FBD of the crane.

c) Write the forces using Cartesian vector notation.
d) Apply the equations of equilibrium (vector version) to solve
for the unknown forces.
Example 1 (contd)
rBC = {12 i + 8 j 24 k} m
F = F [uBC ] N
= 840 [12 i + 8 j 24 k] / (122 + 82 + ( 242 ))

= {360 i + 24 j 720 k} N
FA = {AX i + AY j + AZ k } N
6
Example 1 (contd)
From EofE we get, F + FA = 0

{(360 + AX) i + (240 + AY) j + (-720 + AZ ) k} = 0

Solving each component equation yields AX = 360 N ,
AY = 240 N , and AZ = 720 N.
Example 1 (contd)
Sum the moments acting at point A.

M = MA + rAC F = 0 i j k
15 10 0 =0
= MAX i + MAY j + MAZ k +
360 240 -720
= MAX i + MAY j + MAZ k - 7200 i + 10800 j = 0

MAX = 7200 N m, MAY = -10800 N m, and MAZ = 0
Note: For simpler problems, one can directly use three scalar
moment equations, MX = MY = MZ = 0
7
Concept Quiz
1. The rod AB is supported using two
cables at B and a ball-and-socket
joint at A. How many unknown
support reactions exist in this
problem?
A) 5 force and 1 moment reaction
B) 5 force reactions
C) 3 force and 3 moment reactions
D) 4 force and 2 moment

reactions

2. If an additional couple moment in the
vertical direction is applied to rod AB
at point C, then what will happen to the
rod?
A) The rod remains in equilibrium as the
cables provide the necessary support
reactions.
B) The rod remains in equilibrium as the
ball-and-socket joint will provide the
necessary resistive reactions.
C) The rod becomes unstable as the cables

cannot support compressive forces.
D) The rod becomes unstable since a
moment about AB cannot be restricted.
8
Example 2
Given: A rod is supported
by a ball-and-socket joint at
A, a journal bearing at B and
a short link at C. Assume
the rod is properly aligned.
Find: The reactions at all
the supports for the loading
shown.
Plan:
a) Draw a FBD of the rod.

b) Apply scalar equations of equilibrium to solve for
the unknowns.
Example 2 (contd)
A FBD of the rod:
AZ z
BZ
Ay y
AX 1 kN
x
BX
2 kN FC
Applying scalar equations of equilibrium in appropriate order, we get

MY = 2 (0.2) FC ( 0.2) = 0 ;
FC = 2 k N
F Y = AY + 1 = 0 ; AY = 1 k N
M Z = 2 (1.4) - BX ( 0.8 ) = 0 ; BX = 3.5 kN
9
Example 2 (contd)
A FBD of the rod:
AZ z
BZ
Ay y
AX 1 kN
x
BX
2 kN FC
FX = AX 3.5 + 2 = 0 ; AX = 1.5 kN
MX = 2 ( 0.4 ) + BZ ( 0.8) + 1 (0.2) = 0 ; BZ = 0.75 kN

FZ = AZ + 0.75 2 = 0 ; AZ = 1.25 kN
Attention Quiz
1. A plate is supported by a ball-and-
socket joint at A, a roller joint at B,
and a cable at C. How many
unknown support reactions are there
in this problem?
A) 4 forces and 2 moments
B) 6 forces
C) 5 forces
D) 4 forces and 1 moment
10

2. What will be the easiest way to determine the force
reaction BZ ?
A) Scalar equation FZ = 0
B) Vector equation MA = 0
C) Scalar equation MZ = 0
D) Scalar equation MY = 0
11
CHAPTER
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
6a by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 6a. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Slide No. 1
Trusses Methods of Joints

a) Define a simple truss.
Reading quiz
b) Determine the forces in members
of a simple truss. Applications
c) Identify zero-force members. Simple truss
Methods of joints
Zero-force members
Concept quiz
Group problem solving
Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. One of the assumptions used when analyzing a simple truss is that
the members are joined together by __________.
A) welding B) bolting C) riveting
D) smooth pins E) super glue
2. In the method of joints, typically _________ equations of

equilibrium are applied at every joint.
A) two B) three
C) four D) six
Applications
Trusses are commonly used to support a

roof.
For a given truss geometry and load, how

can we determine the forces in the truss
members and select their sizes?
A more challenging question is that for a

given load, how can we design the
trusses geometry to minimize cost?
2
Trusses are also used in a variety of

structures like cranes and the frames
of aircraft or space stations.
How can we design a light weight

structure that will meet load, safety,
and cost specifications?
Defining a Simple Truss (Section 6.1)
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at

their end points.
If a truss, along with the imposed load, lies in a single plane
(as shown at the top right), then it is called a planar truss.
A simple truss is a planar truss which begins
with a a triangular element and can be expanded
by adding two members and a joint. For these

trusses, the number of members (M) and the
number of joints (J) are related by the equation
M = 2 J 3.
3
Analysis and Design Assumptions

When designing both the member and the joints of a truss, first it is
necessary to determine the forces in each truss member. This is called
the force analysis of a truss. When doing this, two assumptions are
made:
1. All loads are applied at the joints. The weight of the truss
members is often neglected as the weight is usually small as
compared to the forces supported by the members.
2. The members are joined together by smooth pins. This
assumption is satisfied in most practical cases where the joints
are formed by bolting or welding.
With these two assumptions, the members act as

two-force members. They are loaded in either
tension or compression. Often compressive
members are made thicker to prevent buckling.
The Method of Joints (Section 6.2)
In this method of solving for the forces in truss members, the

equilibrium of a joint (pin) is considered. All forces acting at the
joint are shown in a FBD. This includes all external forces

(including support reactions) as well as the forces acting in the
members. Equations of equilibrium ( Fx= 0 and Fy = 0) are
used to solve for the unknown forces acting at the joints.
4
Steps for Analysis

1. If the support reactions are not given, draw a FBD of the
entire truss and determine all the support reactions using the
equations of equilibrium.
2. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint with one or two
unknowns. Assume that all unknown member forces act in
tension (pulling the pin) unless you can determine by
inspection that the forces are compression loads.
3. Apply the scalar equations of equilibrium, Fx = 0 and
Fy = 0, to determine the unknown(s). If the answer is
positive, then the assumed direction (tension) is correct,

otherwise it is in the opposite direction (compression).
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 at each joint in succession until all the
required forces are determined.
Example 1
Given: P1 = 200 lb, P2 = 500 lb
Find: The forces in each member of
the truss.
Plan: First analyze pin B and then pin C
200 lb + Fx = 500 + FBC cos 45 (3 / 5) FBA = 0
B 500 lb + Fy = 200 FBC sin 45 (4 / 5) FBA = 0
5 4 45 FBA = 214 lb (T) and FBC = 525.3 lb (C)
FBA 3 FBC 525.3

FBD of pin B FCA45
+ Fx = FCA + 525.3 cos 45 = 0 C
CY
FCA = 371 (T)
FBD of pin C
5
Zero-Force Members (Section 6.3)

If a joint has only two non-collinear
members and there is no external
load or support reaction at that joint,
then those two members are zero-
force members. In this example
members DE, CD, AF, and AB are
zero force members.
You can easily prove these results by
applying the equations of
equilibrium to joints D and A.
Zero-force members can be

removed (as shown in the
figure) when analyzing the
truss.
Zero-Force Members (contd)

If three members form a truss joint for
which two of the members are collinear
and there is no external load or reaction at
that joint, then the third non-collinear
member is a zero force member.
Again, this can easily be proven. One can
also remove the zero-force member, as
shown, on the left, for analyzing the truss
further.
Please note that zero-force members
are used to increase stability and

rigidity of the truss, and to provide
support for various different loading
conditions.
6
Concept Quiz
1. Truss ABC is changed by decreasing its
P
height from h to 0.9 h. Width w and load P
are kept the same. Which one of the A
following statements is true for the revised
truss as compared to the original truss? h
B
C
A) Force in all its members have decreased.
w
B) Force in all its members have increased.
C) Force in all its members have remained
the same.
D) None of the above.

F F
F
2. For this truss, determine the number of zero-force

members.
A) 0 B) 1 C) 2
D) 3 E) 4
7
Example 2
Given: P1 = 240 lb and
P2 = 100 lb
Find: Determine the force in all the
truss members (do not forget
to mention whether they are
in T or C).
Plan:
a) Check if there are any zero-force members.
b) Draw FBDs of pins D and B, and then apply EofE at those pins to
solve for the unknowns.
Solution:
Members AB and AC are zero-force members.
Example 2 (contd)
FBD of pin D
Analyzing pin D: y
+ Fy = 100 (5 / 13) FDB = 0 FDC D 240 lb

FDB = 260 lb (C) 13 5
x
FDB 12
100 lb
+ Fx = 240 FDC (12 / 13) ( 260) = 0
FDC = 480 lb (T) FBC y 260 lb
13 5
Analyzing pin B:
12
x
+ Fy = FBC (5 / 13) 260 = 0 Bx B
FBC = 100 lb (T) FBD of pin B
8
Attention Quiz
1. Using this FBD, you find that FBC = 500 N. FBC
Member BC must be in __________.
A) tension B) compression B FBD
C) Can not be determined
By
2. For the same magnitude of force to be
carried, truss members in compression
are generally made _______ as compared
to members in tension.
A) thicker
B) thinner
C) the same size
9
CHAPTER
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
6b by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 6b. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Slide No. 1
Trusses The Method of Sections (Section 6.4)

Students will be able to determine
forces in truss members using the In-Class Activities:
method of sections.
Submit Homework #7
Reading quiz
Applications
Method of sections
Concept quiz
Problem solving (Ex. 2)

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. In the method of sections, generally a cut passes through no

more than _____ members in which the forces are unknown.
A) 1 B) 2
C) 3 D) 4
2. If a simple truss member carries a tensile force of T along its

length, then the internal force in the member is ______ .
A) tensile with magnitude of T/2

B) compressive with magnitude of T/2
C) compressive with magnitude of T
D) tensile with magnitude of T
Applications
Long trusses are often used to

construct bridges.
The method of joints requires that

many joints be analyzed before we
can determine the forces in the
middle part of the truss.
Is there another method to

determine these forces directly?
2
The Method of Sections
In the method of sections, a truss is divided into two parts by

taking an imaginary cut (shown here as a-a) through the truss.
Since truss members are subjected to only tensile or compressive

forces along their length, the internal forces at the cut member will
also be either tensile or compressive with the same magnitude.
This result is based on the equilibrium principle and Newtons
third law.
Steps for Analysis
1. Decide how you need to cut the truss. This is based on:
a) where you need to determine forces, and, b) where the total
number of unknowns does not exceed three (in general).
2. Decide which side of the cut truss will be easier to work

with (minimize the number of reactions you have to find).
3. If required, determine the necessary support reactions by
drawing the FBD of the entire truss and applying the EofE.
3
Steps for Analysis (contd)
4. Draw the FBD of the selected part of the cut truss. We need to
indicate the unknown forces at the cut members. Initially we
assume all the members are in tension, as we did when using
the method of joints. Upon solving, if the answer is positive,
the member is in tension as per our assumption. If the answer is

negative, the member must be in compression. (Please note that
you can also assume forces to be either tension or compression
by inspection as was done in the figures above.)
Steps for Analysis (contd)
5. Apply the equations of equilibrium (EofE) to the selected cut

section of the truss to solve for the unknown member forces.
Please note that in most cases it is possible to write one
equation to solve for one unknown directly.
4
Example 1
Given: Loads as shown on the
roof truss.
Find: The force in members
DE, DL, and ML.
Plan:
a) Take a cut through the members DE, DL, and ML.
b) Work with the left part of the cut section. Why?

c) Determine the support reaction at A. What are they?
d) Apply the EofE to find the forces in DE, DL, and ML.
Example 1 (contd)
Analyzing the entire truss, we get Fx = Ax = 0. By

symmetry, the vertical support reactions are
Ay = IY = 36 kN
+ MD = 36 (8) + 6 (8) + 12 (4) + FML (5) = 0

FML = 38.4 kN ( T )
5
Example 1 (contd)
+ ML = 36 (12) + 6 (12) + 12 (8) + 12 (4) FDE ( 4/17)(6) = 0

FDE = 37.11 kN or 37.1 kN (C)
+ Fx = 38.4 + (4/17) (37.11) + (4/41) FDL = 0
FDL = 3.84 kN or 3.84 kN (C)
Concept Quiz
1. Can you determine the force in

member ED by making the cut
at section a-a? Explain your
answer.
A) No, there are 4 unknowns.
B) Yes, using MD = 0 .
C) Yes, using ME = 0 .
D) Yes, using MB = 0 .
6
2. If you know FED, how will you

determine FEB ?
A) By taking section b-b and
using ME = 0
B) By taking section b-b, and
using Fx = 0 and Fy = 0
C) By taking section a-a and
using MB = 0
D) By taking section a-a and

using MD = 0
Example 2
Given: Loading on the truss as
shown.
Find: The force in members BC,
BE, and EF.
Plan:
a) Take a cut through the members BC, BE, and EF.
b) Analyze the top section (no support reactions!).

c) Draw the FBD of the top section.
d) Apply the equations of equilibrium such that every
equation yields answer to one unknown.
7
Example 2 (contd)
+ Fx = 5 + 10 FBE cos 45 = 0
FBE = 21.2 kN (T)
+ ME = 5(4) + FCB (4) = 0
FCB = 5 kN (T)
+ MB = 5 (8) 10 (4) 5 (4) FEF (4) = 0
FEF = 25 kN or 25 kN (C)
Attention Quiz
1. As shown, a cut is made
through members GH, BG
and BC to determine the
forces in them. Which section
will you choose for analysis
and why?
A) Right, fewer calculations.
B) Left, fewer calculations.
C) Either right or left, same

amount of work.
D) None of the above, too
many unknowns.
8
2. When determining the force in

member GH in the previous
question, which one equation of
equilibrium is best to use?
A) MH = 0
B) MG = 0
C) MB = 0
D) MC = 0
9
CHAPTER
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
6c by
SPRING 2007
ENES 110 Statics
Chapter 6c. STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS Slide No. 1
Frames and Machines (Section 6.6)

a) Draw the free body diagram of a
frame or machine and its members.
b) Determine the forces acting at the
Reading quiz
joints and supports of a frame or
machine. Applications
Analysis of a frame/machine
Concept quiz
Problem solving (Ex.2)

Attention quiz
1
Reading Quiz
1. Frames and machines are different as compared to trusses since they
have ___________.
A) only two-force members B) only multiforce members
C) at least one multiforce member D) at least one two-force
member
2. Forces common to any two contacting members act with _______

on the other member.
A) equal magnitudes but opposite sense
B) equal magnitudes and the same sense

C) different magnitudes but opposite sense
D) different magnitudes but the same sense
Applications
Frames are commonly used

to support various external
loads.
How is a frame different than a

truss? How can you determine
the forces at the joints and
supports of a frame?
2
Machines, like these above, are used in a variety of

applications. How are they different from trusses and frames?
How can you determine the loads at the joints and supports?
These forces and moments are required when designing the
machine members.
Frames and Machines: Definitions
Frames and machines are two common types of structures that

have at least one multi-force member. (Recall that trusses have
nothing but two-force members).
Frames are generally stationary and support external loads.
Machines contain moving parts and are designed to alter the

effect of forces.
3
Steps for Analyzing a Frame or Machine

1. Draw the FBD of the frame or machine and
its members, as necessary.
Hints:
a) Identify any two-force members, b) Forces
on contacting surfaces (usually between a pin
and a member) are equal and opposite, and,
c) For a joint with more than two members or an
external force, it is advisable to draw a FBD
of the pin.
FAB 2. Develop a strategy to apply the equations of

Pin B equilibrium to solve for the unknowns.

Problems are going to be challenging since
FAB there are usually several unknowns. A lot of
practice is needed to develop good strategies.
Example 1
Given: The wall crane supports an
external load of 700 lb.
Find: The force in the cable at the
winch motor W and the
horizontal and vertical
components of the pin
reactions at A, B, C, and D.
Plan:
a) Draw FBDs of the frames members and pulleys.

b) Apply the equations of equilibrium and solve for the
unknowns.
4
Example 1 (contd)
FBD of the Pulley E
T T
700 lb
Necessary Equations of Equilibrium:

+ Fy = 2 T 700 = 0
T = 350 lb
Example 1 (contd)
350 lb
Cy + Fx = Cx 350 = 0
C Cx = 350 lb
Cx
+ Fy = Cy 350 = 0
350 lb Cy = 350 lb
A FBD of pulley C
350 lb + Fx = Bx + 350 350 sin 30 = 0x

BX = 175 lb
By
Bx B + Fy = By 350 cos 30 = 0
30 By = 303.1 lb
350 lb
A FBD of pulley R
5
Example 1 (contd)
Please note that member BD is a two-
force member.
TBD
Ax A B 350 lb
45
175 lb
700 lb
Ay 303.11 lb
4 ft 4 ft
A FBD of member ABC
+ MA = TBD sin 45 (4) 303.1 (4) 700 (8) = 0
TBD = 2409 lb
+ Fy = Ay + 2409 sin 45 303.1 700 = 0

Ay = 700 lb
+ Fx = Ax 2409 cos 45 + 175 350 = 0
Ax = 1880 lb
Example 1 (contd)
A FBD of member BD
2409 lb
D
45 B
2409 lb
At D, the x and y component are

+ Dx = 2409 cos 45 = 1700 lb

+ Dy = 2409 sin 45 = 1700 lb
6
Concept Quiz
1. The figures show a frame and its FBDs. If

an additional couple moment is applied
at C, then how will you change the FBD of
member BC at B?
A) No change, still just one force (FAB) at B.

B) Will have two forces, Bx and By, at B.
C) Will have two forces and a moment at B.
D) Will add one moment at B.
2. The figures show a frame and its FBDs.

If an additional force is applied at D, then
how will you change the FBD of member BC at B?
A) No change, still just one force (FAB) at B.

B) Will have two forces, Bx and By, at B.
C) Will have two forces and a moment at B.
D) Will add one moment at B.
7
Example 2
Given: A frame and loads as shown.
Find: The reactions that the pins
exert on the frame at A, B
and C.
Plan:
a) Draw a FBD of members AB and BC.
b) Apply the equations of equilibrium to each FBD to solve for

the six unknowns. Think about a strategy to easily solve for
the unknowns.
Example 2 (contd)
FBDs of members AB and BC:
By By
Bx
Bx B
B
0.4m
1000N
500N
Ax A 45 C
0.2m 0.2m 0.4m Cx

0.2m
Cy
Ay
Equating moments at A and C to zero, we get:

+ MA = Bx (0.4) + By (0.4) 1000 (0.2) = 0

+ MC = Bx (0.4) + By (0.6) + 500 (0.4) = 0
By = 0and Bx = 500 N
8
Example 2 (contd)
FBDs of members AB and BC:
By By
Bx
Bx B
B
0.4m
1000N
500N
Ax A 45 C
0.2m 0.2m 0.2m 0.4m

Applying EofE to bar AB: Cy
Ay
+ Fx = Ax 500 = 0 ; Ax = 500 N
+ Fy = Ay 1000 + 0 = 0 ;
Ay = 1000 N
Consider member BC:
+ Fx = 500 Cx = 0 ; Cx = 500 N
+ Fy = Cy 500 = 0 ; Cy = 500 N
Attention Quiz
1. When determining the reactions
at joints A, B, and C, what is the
minimum number of unknowns
for solving this problem?
A) 3 B) 4
C) 5 D) 6
2. For the above problem, imagine that you have drawn a FBD
of member AB. What will be the easiest way to directly
solve for the first unknown?

A) MC = 0 B) MB = 0
C) MA = 0 D) Fx = 0
9
Probability, Statistics, and Reliability Second Edition
for Engineers and Scientists
CHAPTER
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
FOR CONTINUOUS RANDOM
VARIABLES
A. J. Clark School of Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
5b Probability and Statistics for Civil Engineers

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Maryland, College Park
CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 5b. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR CONTINUOUS RAND. VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Common Continuous Probability

Distributions
Q Example: Modulus of Elasticity
The randomness in the modulus of elasticity
(or Youngs modulus) E can be described by
a normal random variable. If the mean and
standard deviation were estimated to be
29,567 ksi and 1,507 ksi, respectively,
1. What is the probability of E having a value between
28,000 ksi and 29,500 ksi?
2. The commonly used Youngs modulus E for steel is
29,000 ksi. What is the probability of E being less
than the design value, that is E 29,000 ksi?
3. What is the probability that E is at least 29,000 ksi?
4. What is the value of E corresponding to 10-
percentile?
1

Distributions
Q Example (contd): Modulus of Elasticity
= 29,576 ksi and = 1,507 ksi
b a
1. P(28,000 < E 29,500) =

29,000 29,576 28,000 29,576
=
1,507 1,507
= ( 0.05) ( 1.05) = [1 (0.05)] [1 (1.05)]
= (1 - 0.51994) - (1 - 0.85314) = 0.33320
2.
29,000 29576
P(E 29,000 ) = = ( 0.38)
1,507
= 1 (0.38) = 1 0.64803 = 0.35197

Distributions
Q Sample Table of Standard Normal
z (z ) z (z ) z (z ) z (z )
0 0.5 0.2 0.57926 1 0.841345 1.2 0.88493
0.01 0.503989 0.21 0.583166 1.01 0.843752 1.21 0.88686
0.02 0.507978 0.22 0.587064 1.02 0.846136 1.22 0.888767
0.03 0.511967 0.23 0.590954 1.03 0.848495
=0 0.04 0.515953 0.24 0.594835 1.04 0.85083
1.23
1.24
0.890651
0.892512
=1 0.05 0.519939 0.25 0.598706 1.05 0.853141 1.25 0.89435
0.06 0.523922 0.26 0.602568 1.06 0.855428 1.26 0.896165
0.07 0.527903 0.27 0.60642 1.07 0.85769 1.27 0.897958
0.08 0.531881 0.28 0.610261 1.08 0.859929 1.28 0.899727
0.09 0.535856 0.29 0.614092 1.09 0.862143 1.29 0.901475
0.1 0.539828 0.3 0.617911 1.1 0.864334
0.11 0.543795 0.31 0.621719 1.11 0.8665 Z (z )
0.12 0.547758 0.32 0.625516 1.12 0.868643
0.13 0.551717 0.33 0.6293 1.13 0.870762
0.14 0.55567 0.34 0.633072 1.14 0.872857
0.15 0.559618 0.35 0.636831 1.15 0.874928
0.16 0.563559 0.36 0.640576 1.16 0.876976
0.17 0.567495 0.37 0.644309 1.17 0.878999 z
0.18 0.571424 0.38 0.648027 1.18 0.881
0.19 0.575345 0.39 0.651732 1.19 0.882977 0 z
P(Z ) ( ) h d d
2

Distributions
= 29,576 ksi and = 1,507 ksi
E
3. P(E 29,000) = 1 P(E 29,000) = 1

29,000 29,576
= 1
1,507
= 1 ( 0.38) = 1 [1 (0.38)]
= 1 - [1 - 0.64803] = 0.64803
E 29,576 E 29,576
4. = 0.10 or = -1 (0.10) = -1 (0.90) = 1.28
1,507 1,507
E = 29,576 1.28 1507 = 27,647 ksi

Distributions
Q Lognormal Distribution
Any random variable X is considered to have a
lognormal distribution if Y = ln(X) has a normal
probability distribution, where ln(x) is the
natural logarithm to the base e.
In many engineering problems, a random
variable cannot have negative values due to
the physical aspects of the problem.
In this situation, modeling the variable as
lognormal is more appropriate.
3

Distributions
The probability density function (PDF) for the
lognormal distribution of a random variable X is
given by 2
1 x Y
1
f X (x ) = e 2
for 0 < x < +
xY 2
It is common to use the notation X ~ LN Y , Y2 . ( )
The notation states that X is lognormally distributed
with a parameters Y and variance Y2 .

Distributions
Ref. Ang and Tang, 1975
4

Distributions
Q Properties of Lognormal Distribution
1. The values of the random variable X are
positive
2. fX(x) is not symmetric density function about
the mean value X.
3. The mean value X and 2X are not equal to
the parameters of the distribution y and Y2 .
4. They are related as shown in the next
viewgraph.
5. In many references, the notations X and X
are used in place of Y and Y2 , respectively.

Distributions
Relationships between X, Y, 2X , and Y2

2
1
= ln 1 + X
2
Y
and Y = ln ( X ) Y2
X 2
These two relations can be inverted as follows:
( )
1 2
Y + Y 2
X = e 2
and 2X = 2X e Y 1
Note: for small COV or X = X / X < 0.3, Y X
5

Distributions
Q Useful Properties of Lognormal
Distribution
1. The multiplication of n lognormally distributed
random variables X1, X2,, Xn is a lognormal
distribution with the following statistical
characteristics:
W = X 1 X 2 X 3 ... X n
The mean of W is
W = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + ... + Yn

Distributions
The variance or second moment of W is
W2 = Y21 + Y22 + Y23 + ... + Y2n
2. Central limit theorem: The multiplication of a

number of individual random variables
approaches a lognormal distribution as the
number of the random variables approaches
infinity. The result is valid regardless of the
underlying distribution types of the random
variables.
6

Distributions
Q Transformation to Standard Normal Distribution
1 ln x
2
+ Y
ln X Y 1 2 Y
P( X x ) =

x

Z= e
dx
Y 0 Y 2
Changing the variable,
ln x Y
Y 2
1 2
z
ln x Y
P( X x ) = e dz =
2 Y
It can be shown that
ln b Y ln a Y
P(a X b ) = FX (b ) FX (a ) =
Y Y

Distributions
Q Example: Concrete Strength
A structural engineer of the previous example
decided to use a lognormal distribution to
model the strength of concrete. The mean and
standard deviation are same as before, i.e.,
3500 psi and 288.7 psi, respectively. What is
the probability that the concrete strength is
larger than 3600 psi?
= 3500 psi and = 288.7 psi
7

Distributions
Q Example (contd): Concrete Strength
2 288.7 2
Y2 = ln 1 + X = ln 1 + = 0.00678
X 3500
1 1
Y = ln( X ) Y2 = ln (3500) (0.00678) = 8.15713
2 2
The probability that the strength > 3600 psi :
ln x Y
P( X > 3600) = 1 P( X 3600) = 1
Y
ln(3600) 8.15713
= 1 = 1 (0.3833)
0.00678
= 0.3507

Distributions
Q Example (contd): Concrete Strength
The answer in this case is slightly different from
the corresponding value (0.3645) of the
previous example for the normal distribution
case.
It should be noted that this positive property of
the random variable of a lognormal distribution
should not be used as the only basis for
justifying its use.
Statistical bases for selecting probability
distribution can be used as will be discussed
later in Chapter 5.
8

Distributions
Q Example: Modulus of Elasticity
The randomness in the modulus of elasticity
(or Youngs modulus) E can be described by
a normal random variable. If the mean and
standard deviation were estimated to be
29,567 ksi and 1,507 ksi, respectively,
1. What is the probability of E having a value between
28,000 ksi and 29,500 ksi?
2. The commonly used Youngs modulus E for steel is
29,000 ksi. What is the probability of E being less
than the design value, that is E 29,000 ksi?
3. What is the probability that E is at least 29,000 ksi?
4. What is the value of E corresponding to 10-
percentile?

Distributions
X = 29,576 ksi and X = 1,507 ksi
X 1,507
COV( X ) or X = = = 0.051 0.3
X 29,576
Therefore, Y X = 0.051
1
Y = ln ( X ) Y2 = ln (29,576)
(0.051) = 10.293
2
2 2
ln(29,500 ) 10.293 ln (28,000) 10.293

1. P( 28,000 E 29,500) =
0.051 0.051
= (0.017) ( 1.04) = (1 (0.017) ) (1 (1.04) )
= (1 - 0.50678) (1 0.85083) = 0.34405
9

Distributions
2. The probability of E being less than 29,000 ksi is
ln (29,000) 10.293
P(E 29,000 ) = = ( 0.35) = 1 (0.35)
0.051
= 1 0.63683 = 0.36317
3. The probability of E being at least 29,000 ksi is

P(E > 29,000) = 1 P(E 29,000)
= 1 ( 0.35) = 1 (1 (0.35))
= 1 1 + 0.63683 = 0.0.63683

Distributions
4. For 10 - percentile, the E value will computed as follows :
ln(E ) 10.293
= 0.10
0.051
or
ln(E ) 10.293
= (0.10) = (0.90) = 1.28
1 1

0.051
Thus,
ln E = 10.293 1.28(0.051)
or
E = 27,659 ksi
10

Distributions
Q Exponential Distribution
The importance of this distribution comes
from its relationship to the Poisson
distribution.
For a given Poisson process, the time T
between the consecutive occurrence of
events has an exponential distribution.
This distribution is commonly used to
model earthquakes.

Distributions
The probability density function (PDF) for the
exponential distribution of a random variable T
is given by
e t for t 0
fT (t ) =
0 otherwise
The cumulative distribution function is given by
FT (t ) = 1 e t
The mean value and the variance are given, respectively, by
1 1
T = and T2 =
2
11

Distributions
Probability Density Function of the Exponential Distribution
1.2
=1
1
0.8
Density Value
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t Value

Distributions
Cumulative Distribution Function of the Exponential
Distribution
1.2
1
Cumulative Value
0.8
=1
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
t Value
12

Distributions
Q Return Period
Based on the means of the exponential and
Poisson distributions, the mean recurrence
time (or return period) is defined as
1
Return Period =


Distributions
Q Example: Earthquake Occurrence
Historical records of earthquake in San
Francisco, California, show that during the
period 1836 1961, there were 16 earthquakes
of intensity VI or more. What is the probability
that an earthquake will occur within the next 2
years? What is the probability that no
earthquake will occur in the next 10 years?
What is the return period of an intensity VI
earthquake?
13

Distributions
Q Example (contd): Earthquake Occurrence
Number of Earthquakes 16
= = = 0.128 per year
Number of Years 1961 1816
The probability that an earthquake will occur within the next 2 years is
P(T 2 ) = 1 e t = 1 e (0.128 )(2 ) = 0.226
The probability that no earthquake will occur in the next 10 years is
( )
P(T > 10 ) = 1 FT (10 ) = 1 1 e 10 = e
10 ( 0.128 )
= 0.278
The return period is given by
1 1
return period = E (T ) = = = 7.8 years
0.128
14
CHAPTER
VARIABLES
5c Probability and Statistics for Civil Engineers

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 5c. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR CONTINUOUS RAND. VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Other Continuous Probability

Distributions
Q These distribution are classified as
Distribution used in statistical analyses
Student-t, or t Distribution
F Distribution
Chi-square (2) Distribution
Extreme Value Distribution
Type I
Type II
Type III
1

Distributions
Q Student-t, or t Distribution
The student-t or t distribution is a symmetric,
bell-shaped distribution with the following
density function
[(k + 1)k ]
fT (t ) = < t < +
(k )
0 .5
[
(k / 2) 1 + (t 2 / k ) ]
0.5 ( k +1)
where k is a parameter, and the gamma function (.) is

(n ) = x n 1e x dx for any value n
0
For k > 2, the mean and variance are given, respectively, by

k
T = 0 and T2 =
k 2

Distributions
The gamma function has the following
useful properties:
(n ) = (n 1)(n 1)
(n ) = (n 1)! for integer n
As k increases toward infinity, the variance

of the t distribution approaches unity, and
therefore it approaches the standard
normal distribution
2

Distributions
Q Properties of the t distribution
It is of interest in statistical analysis to
determine the percentage points t,k that
correspond to the following probability:
= P(T > t, k )

or = fT (t )dt
t ,t
The percentage points are provided in Table A-

2 of the Textbook. For the lower tail, the
following relationship can be used:
t1 ,k = t ,k

Distributions
Q Critical Values for t Distribution
Degrees of Level of Significance,
Freedom, K
0.25 0.1 0.05 0.025 0.005
fT (t )
1 1.000001 3.077685 6.313749 12.70615 63.6559
2 0.816497 1.885619 2.919987 4.302656 9.924988
3 0.764892 1.637745 2.353363 3.182449 5.840848
4 0.740697 1.533206 2.131846 2.776451 4.60408
5 0.726687 1.475885 2.015049 2.570578 4.032117
6 0.717558 1.439755 1.943181 2.446914 3.707428
7
8
0.711142
0.706386
1.414924
1.396816
1.894578
1.859548
2.364623
2.306006
3.499481
3.355381 t
9
10
0.702722
0.699812
1.383029
1.372184
1.833114
1.812462
2.262159
2.228139
3.249843
3.169262
0 t ,k
11 0.697445 1.36343 1.795884 2.200986 3.105815
12 0.695483 1.356218 1.782287 2.178813 3.054538
P(T > t ,k ) = area =

13 0.69383 1.350172 1.770932 2.160368 3.012283
14 0.692417 1.345031 1.761309 2.144789 2.976849
15 0.691197 1.340605 1.753051 2.131451 2.946726
16 0.690133 1.336757 1.745884 2.119905 2.920788
17 0.689195 1.333379 1.739606 2.109819 2.898232
18 0.688364 1.330391 1.734063 2.100924 2.878442
19 0.687621 1.327728 1.729131 2.093025 2.860943
20 0.686954 1.325341 1.724718 2.085962 2.845336
3

Distributions
Q Example: Student-t Distribution
1. Find P(-t0.025,10 < T < t0.05,10)
2. Find t1 such that P(t1 < T < -1.761) = 0.045, and k = 14
Since t0.05,10 leaves an area of 0.05 to the right and t0.025,10 leaves an area
Of 0.025 to the left, therefore,
P( t0.025,10 < T < t0.05,10 ) = 1 0.05 0.025 = 0.925
From the table, 1.761 corresponds to t0.05, 14 when k = 14
Therefore, -t0.05, 14 = -1.761. Since t1 in the original probability statement
Is to the left of t0.05, 14 = -1.761, let t1 = -t,14. Then from the following
figure we have
0.045=0.05 -

Distributions
Q Example: Student-t Distribution
Or = 0.005 fT (t )
area = 0.045
t
t1 t0.05 0 t ,k
From the table with k =14
t1 = t0.005 = 2.977
Thus,
P( 2.977 < T < 1.761) = 0.045
4

Distributions
Q The F Distribution
The F distribution has two shape parameters 1 =
k and 2 = u, and has the following PDF:
k
u + k k 2 k
( f )2
1

2 u
fF ( f ) = u+k
for f > 0
k u fk 2
+ 1
2 2 u
The mean and variance are given by
u 2u 2 (u + k 2 )
F = and 2F = for u > 4
u2 k (u 2 ) (u 4 )
2

Distributions
The distribution is positively skewed with a
shape that depends on k and u.
determine the percentage points f,k,u that

= P(F > f , k ,u ) = f (x )dx =
F
f ,k ,u
5

Distributions
The percentage points are provided in Table A-
4 of the Textbook.
The F distribution has a unique property that
allows tabulating values for the upper tail only.
For the lower tail, the following relation can be
used to find the percentage points:
1
f1 ,k ,u =
f , k ,u
Note : f ,u ,k f ,k ,u

Distributions
Upper values for 5% (First row) and 1% (second row) Significance Level
Second
degrees of First degrees of freedom, k
freedom, u
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 4.844338 3.982308 3.587431 3.356689 3.20388 3.094613
9.646101 7.205699 6.216737 5.668312 5.315997 5.069182
12 4.747221 3.88529 3.4903 3.25916 3.105875 2.996117
9.330279 6.926598 5.952529 5.411948 5.064351 4.820549
13 4.667186 3.805567 3.410534 3.179117 3.025434 2.915272
9.073801 6.70093 5.739366 5.205322 4.86159 4.620347
14 4.600111 3.73889 3.343885 3.112248 2.958245 2.847727
8.861662 6.514938 5.563891 5.035417 4.694982 4.455842
15 4.543068 3.682317 3.287383 3.055568 2.901295 2.790465
8.683173 6.358846 5.41695 4.893195 4.555602 4.318281
17 4.451323 3.591538 3.196774 2.964711 2.809998 2.698656
8.399752 6.112145 5.185029 4.668948 4.335959 4.10148
20 4.35125 3.492829 3.098393 2.866081 2.710891 2.598981
8.095981 5.84896 4.938215 4.430717 4.102674 3.871435
6

Distributions
Q Chi-square (2) Distribution
This distribution is frequently encountered
in statistical analysis, where we deal with
the sum of squares of k random variables
with standard normal distribution,
2 = C = Z12 + Z 22 + ... + Z k2
Where C = random variable with chi-

square, and Z1 to Zk are normally
distributed (standard normal)

Distributions
The probability density function (PDF) of the
chi-square distribution is
c
1
f C (c ) c e 0.5 k 1 2
for c > 0
k
2 0.5 k
2
The mean and variance are given, respectively, by
C = k and C2 = 2k
7

Distributions
This distribution is positively skewed with a
shape that depends on the parameter k.
determine the percentage points c,k that
= P(C > c ,k ) =

f C (c )dc
c , k
These percentage points are provided in Table

A-3 of the Textbook.

Distributions
Q Extreme Value Distributions
In many engineering applications, the extreme
values of random variables are of special
importance.
The largest or smallest values of random
variables may dictate a particular design.
Wind speeds, for example, are recorded
continuously at airports and weather stations.
The maximum wind speeds per hour, month,
day, year, or other period can be used for this
purpose
8

Distributions
Usually, the information on yearly maximum
wind speed is used in engineering profession.
If the design wind speed has a 50-year return
period, then the probability that the wind speed
will exceed the design value in a year is 1/50 =
0.02.
Design of earthquake loads, flood levels, and
so forth are also determined in this manner.

Distributions
In some cases, the minimum value of a random
variable is also of interest for design
applications.
For example, when a large number of identical
devices, such as calculators or cars, are
manufactured, their minimum service lives are
of great interest to consumers.
In constructing an extreme value distribution,
an underlying random variable with a particular
distribution is necessary.
9

Distributions
If different sets of samples are obtained
(through physical or numerical
experimentation), one can select the extreme
values from each sample set, either the
maximum or the minimum values, and then
construct a different distribution for the extreme
values.
Therefore, the underlying distribution of a
variable governs the form of the corresponding
extreme value distribution.

Distributions
Q Engineering Significance of Extreme
Values
In structural reliability and safety, the
maximum loads and low structural
resistance are the values most relevant to
assure safety or reliability of a structure.
The prediction of future conditions is often
required in engineering design, and may
involve the prediction of the largest or
smallest value.
10

Distributions
Q Engineering Significance of Extreme
Values
Therefore, extrapolation from previously
observed extreme value data is invariably
necessary.
The asymptotic theory provides a powerful
basis for developing the required
engineering information.

Distributions
Q Type I Extreme Value Distributions
Two forms of the Type I extreme value
distribution can be used:
The largest extreme value
The smallest extreme value
11

Distributions
Q The Type I Extreme Value Distribution
(Largest)
Type I for largest distribution is
[
f X n ( x ) = n e n ( x un ) exp e n ( x un ) ]
The CDF is given by
[
FX n (x ) = exp e n ( x un ) ]
2
X n = un + and 2X n = ( = 0.577216)
n 6 n2

Distributions
Q The Type I Extreme Value Distribution
(Smallest)
Type I for smallest distribution is
[
f X 1 (x ) = 1e 1 ( x u1 ) exp e 1 ( x u1 ) ]
The CDF is given by
[
FX 1 (x ) = 1 exp e 1 ( x u1 ) ]
2
X 1 = u1 and 2X 1 = ( = 0.577216)
1 612
12

Distributions
Q Applications of Type I Distribution
Strength of brittle materials (Johnson 1953)
can be described by Type I smallest value
Hydrological phenomena such as the
maximum daily flow in a year or the annual
peak flow hourly discharge during flood
(Chow 1952)
Wind maximum velocity in a year.

Distributions
Q Example: Type I Largest
The data on maximum wind velocity Vn at a site
have been compiled for n years, and its mean
and standard deviation are estimated to be
61.3 mph and 7.52 mph, respectively.
Assuming that Vn has a Type I extreme value
distribution, what is the probability that the
maximum wind velocity will exceed 100 mph in
any given year?
13

Distributions
Q Example (contd): Type I Largest
The parameters un and n can be calculated as
2 2 0.5772
n = = = 0.17055 and un = X n = 61.3 = 57.9157
6(7.52)
2 2
6 X n n 0.17055
The probability that the maximum wind velocity is

greater than 100 mph is
[
P( X n > 100) = 1 FX n (x ) = 1 exp e n ( x un ) ]
[
= 1 exp e 0.17055(10057.9157 ) ]
= 0.000763

Distributions
Q Example: Type I Largest
Suppose that in the previous example the design
wind speed with a return period of 100 years
needs to be estimated for a particular site.
With Vd denoted as the design wind speed to
be estimated, the probability that it will be
exceeded in a given year is 1/100 = 0.01. Thus,
P( X n > Vd ) = 1 FX n (Vd ) = 0.01
or
[ ]
1 - exp - e 0.17055(Vd 57.9157 ) = 0.01 Vd = 84.89 mph
14

Distributions
Q The Type II Extreme Value Distribution
Largest
Smallest
Q The Type III Extreme Value Distribution
Largest
Smallest

Distributions
Q Type II
Largest
k
v

FY ( y ) = e y
for y 0
and
k
k +1 v
kv
fY ( y ) = e y
v y
15

Distributions
Q Type II
Largest
1
Y = v1 for k > 1
k
2 1
Y2 = v2 1 2 1 for k > 2
k k
2
1
k
COV = 1
2 1
1
k

Distributions
Q Gamma Function Properties

(t ) = r t 1 exp( r )dr
0
(t ) = (t 1)(t 1)
For an integer n, the gamma function becomes the factorial :
(n ) = (n 1)!
Appendix B of the Textbook contains tabulated

values of the gamma function
16

Distributions
Q Extreme Value
Distribution
Coefficient of
Variation versus the
parameter k
Q (Benjamin and
Cornell, 1970)

Distributions
Q Example, Type II: Wind Velocity
In Boston, Massachusetts, the measured
data suggest that the mean and standard
deviation of the maximum annual wind
velocity are 55 mph and 12.8 mph,
respectively. What is the velocity y which
will be exceeded with a probability value of
0.02?
17

Distributions
Q Example, Type II (contd): Wind Velocity
12.8
COV = = 0.23
55
From Fig.1, k = 6.5
1 Y 55 55
Y = v1 v= = =
k 1 1 (0.846)
1 1
k 6.5
( x + 1)
(x + 1) = x(x ) (x ) =
x
0.94411
(1.846) = 0.94411 (0.846) = = 1.12
0.846

Distributions
Q Example, Type II (contd): Wind Velocity
1 Y 55 55
Y = v1 v= = = = 49.4 mph
k 1 1 1.12
1 1
k 6.5
1 - FY ( y ) = 0.02
49.4

y
1 e = 0.02
or
y = 91 mph
18

Distributions
Q Type II
Smallest
k
v

FZ ( z ) = 1 e z
for z 0
and
k
k +1 v
k v
f Z (z ) = e z
vz

Distributions
Q Type II
Smallest
1
Z = v1 for k > 1
k
2 1
Z2 = v 2 1 2 1 for k > 2
k k
2
1
k
COV = 1
1
1
2
19

Distributions
Q Type III
Largest
Smallest
Most useful applications of this model deal with
smallest values.

Distributions
Q Type III
Smallest
z k
FZ ( z ) = 1 exp for z
u
k z
k 1
z k
f Z (z ) = exp for z
u u u
20

Distributions
Q Type III
Smallest
1
Z = + (u )1 +
k
2 2 1
Z2 = (u ) 1 + 2 1 +
k k
21
CHAPTER
VARIABLES
5d Probability and Statistics for Civil Engineers

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 5d. PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR CONTINUOUS RAND. VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Simulation and Probability

Distribution
Q Need for Simulation
Estimating the probability of failure for both
explicit or implicit limit state functions
without knowing analytical techniques such
as the FORM method.
Simulation provides an unique opportunity
to understand several important elements
related to probability distributions and
probabilistic analysis.
1

Distribution
Q Need for Simulation (contd)
Simulation is used to verify the accuracy of
structural reliability methods with little
background in probability and statistics.
Measured data are often very limited, and
making decision with small sample sizes
increases the risk of incorrect decision.

Distribution
Q Monte Carlo Simulation
Monte Carlo simulation has six essential
elements:
1. Defining the problem in terms of all the
random variables,
2. Quantifying the probabilistic characteristics of
all the random variables (i.e., mean, COV,
distribution type),
3. Generating the values of these random
variables
2

Distribution
Q Monte Carlo Simulation (contd)
4. Evaluating the problem deterministically for
each set of all the random variables,
5. Extracting probabilistic information from n
observations.
6. Determining the accuracy and efficiency of
the simulation.

Distribution
Q Formulation of the Problem
Consider a simply supported beam as
shown
P
w
L/2
L
3

Distribution
Assume both w and P are random
variables.
Thus, the design bending moment M at the
midspan of the beam is also a random
variable.
The task now is to evaluate the
probabilistic characteristics of the design
bending moment using simulation.

Distribution
If the span of the beam is 30 feet, the
expression for the design moment can
written as
wL2 PL
M= +
8 4
= 112.5w + 7.5 P
W and P in this case are called basic
random variables.
4

Distribution
Q Generation of Random Variables
Computer software packages are available
(e.g., Excel, Quattro Pro, etc.)
The generated random numbers from
these packages are called pseudo random
numbers
These numbers are generated from a well-
defined and predictable process

Distribution
Q Midsquare Method
This method illustrates the problems associated
with deterministic procedures
The general procedure is as follows:
1. Select at random a four-digit number (seed)
2. Square the number and write the square as an eight-
digit number using preceding (lead) zeros if necessary
3. Use the four digits in the middle as the new random
number.
4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 to generate as many numbers as
necessary
5

Distribution
Q Example 1: Midsquare Method
Consider the seed number 2189. This value
would produce the following:
04791721
62678889
46076944
00591361
34963569
92833225
69422224

Distribution
Q Transformation of Uniform Random
Numbers
The Uniform Distribution
0 for x < 0
x a

FX ( x ) = for a x b
b a
1 for x > b
where a < b. The mean and variance are given by
X =
a+b
and 2X =
(b a )2
2 12
6

Distribution
Q Inverse Transformation Technique or
Inverse CDF Method
In the in inverse transformation technique
or inverse CDF method, the CDF of the
random variable is equated to the
generated random number ui, that is ,
FX(xi) = ui, and the equation can be solved
for xi as follows:
xi = FX1 (ui )
F U (u ) F X (x )
1 1
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2
0 0
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
U X
f X (x )
f U (u )
xi = FX1 (u i )
X
U
1 ui 0 xi
7

Distribution
Q Example: Normal Distribution
If X is normally distributed, that is X ~ N(,2),
then Z = (X- X)/X is a standard normal
variate, that is, Z ~ N(0,1). It can be shown that
x X
ui = FX ( xi ) = ( zi ) = i
X
or
x X
zi = i
X
Thus,
xi = X + X zi = X + X 1 (ui )

Distribution
Q Example: Lognormal Distribution
If X is lognormally distributed, that is
X ~ LN(,2), then Z = (lnX- Y)/Y is a
standard normal variate, that is, Z ~ N(0,1). It
can be shown that
ln xi Y
ui = FX ( xi ) = (zi ) =
Y
or
ln( xi ) = Y + Y 1 (ui )
Thus,
xi = e [Y + Y (u i )]
1
8

Distribution
Q Example: Simply Supported Beam
The simply supported beam is subjected to the
external loading w and P as shown in the
figure. The probabilistic characteristics of the
basic random variables are as follows:
Random Mean COV Standard Distribution
Variable Deviation Type
L 30 - - Deterministic
w 2 0.10 0.2 Normal
P 20 0.15 3.0 Lognormal

Distribution
Q Example (contd): Simply Supported Beam
P
w
L/2
L
wL2 PL
M= + = 112.5w + 7.5 P
8 4
9

Distribution
Q Example (contd): Simply Supported
Beam
1. Simulate the design moment M for 10 values.
2. Also, Find the mean, variance, standard deviation,
and coefficient of variation of M using the simulated
sample values.
wL2 PL
M= + = 112.5w + 7.5 P
8 4

Distribution
Mean (w ) = 2 Mean (P ) = 20
Stdev (w ) = 0.2 Stdev (P ) = 3
u1 u2 w P M
0.388248947 0.874573 1.94322 23.47394542 394.6671
0.082540402 0.840615 1.72236 22.95014085 365.8919
0.891083258 0.540006 2.24646 20.07731226 403.3068
0.607604281 0.492971 2.05462 19.72681305 379.0954
0.682506093 0.103666 2.09494 16.38747866 358.5872
0.316169559 0.312569 1.90431 18.38852828 352.1491
0.949955696 0.726221 2.32889 21.63514737 424.2632
0.430819593 0.290549 1.96514 18.21599244 357.6985
0.697860999 0.904197 2.10365 24.0322073 416.9024
0.331143892 0.375488 1.91265 18.8642452 356.6548
Mean (M ) = 380.9 kip-ft
2
M = 112.5w + 7.5 P Variance (M ) =

Stdev (M ) =
727.5
27.0
kip-ft
kip- ft
COV (M ) = 0.071
10

Distribution
Sample Calculations
Consider the second row in the table:
a) w: is normal w W
u1 = FW (w) = (z ) =
W
x W
or z=
W
Therefore,
w = W + W z = W + W 1 (u1 )
= 2 + 0.2 1 (0.08254 ) = 2 + 0.2 1 (1 0.08254 )
= 2 0.2 1 (0.91746 ) = 2 0.2(1.39) 1.722

Distribution
Sample Calculations
2
3 2
B) P: is lognormal Y = ln 1 + X = ln 1 + = 0.149
20
1 1 X
Y = ln ( X ) 2X = ln(20) (0.149) = 2.9846
2
2 2
ln P Y
u 2 = or ln P = Y + Y 1 (u2 )
Y
or
P = e [ Y + Y (u 2 )]
= e [2.9846+ 0.149 (0.84061)]
1 1
= e [2.9846+ 0.149 (0.84061)]

= e[2.9846+ 0.1491] = 22.957
1
11

Distribution
Q Example (contd): Simply Supported
Beam
Sample Calculations
Consider the the second row in the table
C) M:
M = 112.5w + 7.5P
= 112.5(1.722) + 7.5(22.957 )
= 365.90 kip - ft

Distribution
Mean (w ) = 2 Mean (P ) = 20
Stdev (w ) = 0.2 Stdev (P ) = 3
u1 u2 w P M
0.388248947 0.874573 1.94322 23.47394542 394.6671
0.082540402 0.840615 1.72236 22.95014085 365.8919
0.891083258 0.540006 2.24646 20.07731226 403.3068
0.607604281 0.492971 2.05462 19.72681305 379.0954
0.682506093 0.103666 2.09494 16.38747866 358.5872
0.316169559 0.312569 1.90431 18.38852828 352.1491
0.949955696 0.726221 2.32889 21.63514737 424.2632
0.430819593 0.290549 1.96514 18.21599244 357.6985
0.697860999 0.904197 2.10365 24.0322073 416.9024
0.331143892 0.375488 1.91265 18.8642452 356.6548
Mean (M ) = 380.9 kip-ft
2
M = 112.5w + 7.5 P Variance (M ) =

Stdev (M ) =
727.5
27.0
kip-ft
kip- ft
COV (M ) = 0.071
12
CHAPTER
MULTIPLE RANDOM
VARIABLES
6a Probability and Statistics for Civil Engineers

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 6a. MULTIPLE RANDOM VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Introduction
Q In engineering, it is common to deal with

two or more random variables
simultaneously in solving problems.
Q If the load applied to a structure is
considered to be a random variable,
then the structural response will also be
a random variable.
1
Introduction
Q The load and the response can be

modeled separately as random
variables; however, it is more prudent to
model the uncertainty jointly.
Q More information can be extracted from
the joint distributions.
Q Thus, it is necessary to extend the
discussion to multiple random variables.
Introduction
Q In general, multiple random variables

are encountered in the following two
forms:
1. Joint occurrences of multiple random
variables that can be correlated or
uncorrelated
2. Random variables that are known in
terms of their functional relationship with
other basic random variables
2
Joint Random Variables and

Their Probability Distributions
Q The outcomes, E1, E2,, En, that
constitute a sample space S are
mapped to an n-dimensional (n-D)
space of real numbers.
Q The functions that establish such a
transformation to the n-D space are
called multiple random variables (or
random vectors).
Joint Random Variables and

Their Probability Distributions
Q Multiple random variables are classified
into two types:
Discrete random variables
Continuous random variables
Q A distinction is made between these two
types because the computations of
probabilities depend on their type.
3
Probability for Discrete Random

Vectors
Q Joint Probability Mass Function (JPMF)
The joint probability mass function for a
discrete multiple random variable or random
vector X = (X1, X2,..,Xn) is given by
PX (x ) = P( X 1 = x1 , X 2 = x2 ,..., X n = xn )
Note that
0 P( X 1 = x1 , X 2 = x2 ,..., X n = xn ) 1

Vectors
Q Joint Cumulative Mass Function (JCMF)
The joint cumulative mass function for a discrete
random variable or random vector X = (X1,
X2,..,Xn) is given by
FX ( x ) = P( X 1 x1 , X 2 x2 ,..., X n xn )
= P (x , x) ,..., x )
X 1
all ( X 1 x1 , X 2 x2 ,..., X n xn
2 3
4

Vectors
Q Properties of JCMF
1. FX(all x ) = 0
2. FX(x1, x2,, xi - ,, xn) = 0, for any i =1, 2,, n
3. FX(x1, x2,, xi - ,, xk - ,,xn) = 0, for any values
of xi,, xk
4. FX(x1, x2,, xi + ,, xn) = FXj(xj: j = 1, 2, , n and j i),
called the marginal distribution of all the random variables
except Xi
5. FX(x1, x2,, xi + ,, xk + ,,xn) = FXj(xj: j =1, 2,,
n and j i to k), called the marginal distribution of all the
random variables except Xi to Xk
6. FX(all x + ) = 1
7. FX(x) is a nonnegative and nondecreasing function of x

Vectors
Q Properties of JCMF
The first, second, and third properties define
the limiting behavior of FX(x); as one or more of
the random variables approach -, FX(x)
approaches zero.
The fourth and fifth properties define the
possible marginal distributions as one or more
of the random variables approaches +.
The sixth property is based on the probability
axiom.
The seventh property is based on the
cumulative nature of FX(x).
5
Probability for Two Discrete

Random Variables
Q For simplicity, the presentation of the
materials in the remaining part of this
section is limited to two random
variables.
Q The presented concepts can be
generalized to n random variables

Random Variables
Q Conditional Probability Mass Function
The conditional probability mass function for
two random variables X1 and X2 is given by
PX1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 )
PX1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 ) =
PX 2 ( x2 )
where PX1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 ) results in the probability of X 1 = x1
given that X 2 = x2 .
PX 2 ( x2 ) = marginal mass function for X 2
6

Random Variables
Q Conditional Probability Mass Function
The conditional probability mass function for
two random variables X1 and X2 is given by
PX1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 )
PX 2 | X1 ( x2 | x1 ) =
PX1 ( x1 )
where PX 2 | X1 (x2 | x1 ) results in the probability of X 2 = x2
given that X 1 = x1.
PX1 ( x1 ) = marginal mass function for X 1

Random Variables
Q Marginal Distributions
The marginal mass function for X2 that is not
equal to zero is
PX 2 ( x2 ) = PX1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 )
all x1

equal to zero is
PX1 ( x1 ) = P (x , x )X1 X 2 1 2
all x2
7

Random Variables
Q Properties
If X1 and X2 are statistically independent
(uncorrelated) random variables, then
PX 1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 ) = PX 1 (x1 )
and
PX 2 | X 1 ( x2 | x1 ) = PX 2 ( x2 )
The important relationship can be obtained :
PX 1 , X 2 ( x1 , x2 ) = PX 1 ( x1 ) PX 2 ( x2 )

Random Variables
Q Example: Two Discrete RVs
The time to produce a typical engineering
drawing, represented by a random variable X1,
and its quality, represented by a random
variable X2, are under consideration. Suppose
X1 can be 70, 80, 90, or 100 hours. The quality
of a drawing can be considered to be
moderate, good, and excellent, and X2 can be
considered to be 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
Suppose that 100 such drawing are evaluated
and the information provided the next table is
obtained.
8

Random Variables
Q Example (contd): Two Discrete RVs
X1
70 80 90 100
X2
1 15 8 3 2
2 3 4 6 12
3 5 8 12 22

Random Variables
1. Find the joint PMF of X1 and X2.
2. Plot the marginal PMF of X1 and X2.
3. If only excellent quality drawings are
acceptable (i.e., X2 = 3), plot the
conditional PMF of X2.
9

Random Variables
1. The joint PMF PX1,X2(x1,x2) of X1 and X2.
X1
70 80 90 100
X2
1 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.02
2 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.12
3 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.22

Random Variables
2. The marginal PMF of X1 PX 1 (x1 ) = P (x , x )
X1 X 2 1 2
all x2
X1 PX 1 (70) = 0.15 + 0.03 + 0.05 = 0.23

70 80 90 100
X2
PX 1 (80 ) = 0.08 + 0.04 + 0.08 = 0.20
1 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.02
2 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.12 PX 1 (90 ) = 0.03 + 0.06 + 0.12 = 0.21
3 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.22 PX 1 (100) = 0.02 + 0.12 + 0.22 = 0.36
10

Random Variables
Marginal PMF of X1
P (x ) = P (x , x )X1 1 X1 X 2 1 2
all x2
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
PX 1(x 1)
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
70 80 90 100
X1

Random Variables
The marginal PMF of X2 PX 2 (x2 ) = PX1 X 2 (x1 , x2 )
all x1
PX 2 (1) = 0.15 + 0.08 + +0.03 + 0.02 = 0.28

X1
70 80 90 100
X2
1 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.02 PX 2 (2 ) = 0.03 + 0.04 + 0.06 + 0.12 = 0.25
2 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.12 PX 2 (3) = 0.05 + 0.08 + 0.12 + 0.22 = 0.47
3 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.22
11

Random Variables
Marginal PMF of X P (x ) = P (x , x )
2
X2 2 X1X 2 1 2
all x1
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
PX 2(x 2)
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3
X2

Random Variables
PX1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 )
(x1 | x2 ) =
3. Conditional Probability of X1 P X 1| X 2
PX 2 (x2 )
( )
PX1 | X 2 x1i | 3 =
(
PX 1 X 2 x1i ,3 )
PX 2 (3)
X1 0.05
70 80 90 100 PX1 | X 2 (70 | 3) = = 0.11
X2 0.47
0.08
1 0.15 0.08 0.03 0.02 PX1 | X 2 (80 | 3) = = 0.17
2 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.47
0.12
3 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.22 PX1 | X 2 (90 | 3) = = 0.25
0.47
0.22
PX1 | X 2 (100 | 3) = = 0.47
0.47
12

Random Variables
Conditional PMF of X |Y =3 P (x | 3) = P P ((x3),3) X 1| X 2 1i
X1 X 2 1i
X2
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
PX 1|X 2(x |3)
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
70 80 90 100
X1
Probability for Continuous

Random Vectors
Q Joint Probability Density Function (JPDF)
The joint probability density function for a
continuous multiple random variable or random
vector X = (X1, X2,..,Xn) is used to define
x1u x2u xnu
P(x X x ) =
l u
... f (x )dx dx ...dx
X 1 2 n
x1l x2l xnl
Note that
+ + +
P( < X < + ) = ... f (x )dx dx ...dx
X 1 2 n =1

13

Random Vectors
Q Joint Cumulative Distribution Function
(JCDF)
The joint cumulative distribution function of a
continuous random variable is defined by
x1 x2 xn
FX (x ) = P( X x ) = ... f X (x )dx1dx2 ...dxn


Random Vectors
Q Properties of JCDF
1. FX(all x ) = 0
2. FX(x1, x2,, xi - ,, xn) = 0, for any i =1, 2,, n
3. FX(x1, x2,, xi - ,, xk - ,,xn) = 0, for any values
of xi,, xk
4. FX(x1, x2,, xi + ,, xn) = FXj(xj: j = 1, 2, , n and j i),
called the marginal distribution of all the random variables
except Xi
5. FX(x1, x2,, xi + ,, xk + ,,xn) = FXj(xj: j =1, 2,,
n and j i to k), called the marginal distribution of all the
random variables except Xi to Xk
6. FX(all x + ) = 1
7. FX(x) is a nonnegative and nondecreasing function of x
14

Random Vectors
The joint density function can be obtained
from the a given joint cumulative
distribution function as follows:
n FX ( x )
f X (x ) =
X
That is
n FX1 X 2 ... X n ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )
f X 1 X 2 ... X n ( x1 , x2 ,..., x3 )
X 1X 2 ...X n
Probability for Two Continuous

Random Variables
variables.
Q The presented concepts can be
generalized to n random variables
15

Random Variables
Q Conditional Probability Density Function
The conditional probability density function for two
random variables X1 and X2 is given by
f x1 , x2 ( x1 , x2 )
f X 1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 ) =
f X 2 ( x2 )
where f x1 , x2 ( x1 , x2 ) = joint density function of X 1 and X 2 .
f X 2 ( x2 ) = marginal density function for X 2 that is not equal to zero.

Random Variables
Q Conditional Probability Density Function
The conditional probability density function for two
random variables X1 and X2 is given by
f x1 , x2 ( x1 , x2 )
f X 2 | X1 ( x2 | x1 ) =
f X1 ( x1 )
where f x1 , x2 ( x1 , x2 ) = joint density function of X 1 and X 2 .
f X 1 ( x1 ) = marginal density function for X 1 that is not equal to zero.
16

Random Variables
Q Marginal Distributions
The marginal density function for X2 that is not
equal to zero is
+
f X 2 ( x2 ) = f X1 X 2 (x1 , x2 )dx1


equal to zero is
+
f X 1 (x1 ) = f X1 X 2 (x1 , x2 )dx2


Random Variables
Q Properties
If X1 and X2 are statistically independent
(uncorrelated) random variables, then
f X 1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 ) = f X 1 ( x1 )
and
f X 2 | X 1 ( x2 | x1 ) = f X 2 ( x2 )
The important relationship can be obtained :
f X 1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 ) = f X 1 ( x1 ) f X 2 ( x2 )
17

Random Variables
Q Example: Two Continuous RVs
The joint density functions of two random variables X and Y
can be expressed as
(
c x 2 4 y 2 9
f X ,Y ( x, y ) =
)( ) for 0 x 2 and 0 y 3
0 elsewhere
(a) Determine the constant c.
(b) Determine the marginal density function for X.
(c) Determine the marginal density function for Y.
(d) Are X and Y statistically independent?
(e) Determine the probability of the following event:
FX, Y(1, 3)

Random Variables
Q Example (contd): Two Continuous RVs
3 2
(a) c(x
2
)( )
4 y 2 9 dxdy = 1
0 0
or
2
3
x3 3
(
2
) 16
(
0 c y 9 3 4 x dy = 0 3 c y 9 dy = 1.0
2
)
0
or
3
16 y 3
c 9 y = 1.0
3 3 0
or
1
c=
96
18

Random Variables
3 2
(a) c(x
2
)(
4 y 2 9 dxdy = 1 )
0 0
or
2
3
x3 3
(
2
) 16
0 c y 9 3 4 x dy = 0 3 c y 9 dy = 1.0
2
( )
0
or
3
16 y 3
c 9 y = 1.0
3 3 0
or
1
c=
96

Random Variables
(b)
3
f X (x ) =
1 2
96
( )(
x 4 y 2 9 dy =
3 2
16
x 4 ) ( )
0
2
(c) fY ( y ) =
1 2
96
( )(
x 4 y 2 9 dx =
1 2
18
y 9 ) ( )
0
(d)
3 2
f X (x ) fY ( y ) =
16
x 4 (
1 2
18
y 9

) ( )

=
1 2
96
( )(
x 4 y 9 = f X ( x ) fY ( y )
2
)
X and Y are statistically independent random variables.
19

Random Variables
(e)
1 3
FX ,Y (1,3) =
1

96 0
(x 2 4 ) dx ( y 2 9 )dy = 0.6875
0
20
CHAPTER
MULTIPLE RANDOM
VARIABLES

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 6b. MULTIPLE RANDOM VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Conditional Moments, Covariance,

and Correlation Coefficient
Q Computational Procedures for Moments
Discrete Random Variable:
The kth moment about the origin is given by
M k' = x1k x2k ...xnk PX 1 X 2 ... X n (x1 , x2 ,..., xn )

all x
Continuous Random Variable:

The kth moment about the origin is given by
+ + +
M ='
k ... x
k
1 x2k ...xnk f X 1 X 2 ... X n (x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) dx1dx2 ...dxn

1

Q The previous moments are considered
as a special case of mathematical
expectation.
Q The mathematical expectation of an
arbitrary function g(x), which is a
function of the random vector X, is
defined in the following viewgraph for
discrete and continuous cases.

Q Mathematical Expectation
Discrete Random Variable:
The mathematical expectation is given by
E [g ( X )] = g ( x )PX1 X 2 ... X n (x1 , x2 ,..., xn )

all x
Continuous Random Variable:

The mathematical expectation is given by
+ + +
E [g ( X )] = ... g ( x ) f X 1 X 2 ... X n (x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) dx1dx2 ...dxn

2

variables.
Q For the two-dimensional case, X1 and
X2, the conditional mean for X1 given
that X2 takes value x2 denoted X1|X2, is
defined in terms the conditional mass
and density functions for the discrete
and continuous random variables.

Q Conditional Mean
Discrete Random Variable
X1 | X 2 = E( X 1 | X 2 ) = x1 PX1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 )
all x1
Continuous Random Variable

+
X 1| X 2 = E( X 1 | X 2 ) = x f 1 X1| X 2 (x1 | x2 ) dx1

3

Q Conditional Mean
For statistically uncorrelated random variables
X1 and X2, the conditional mean is given by
X1| X 2 = E( X 1 | X 2 ) = E ( X 1 )
X 2 | X1 = E( X 2 | X 1 ) = E ( X 2 )
Also, it can be shown that
( )
E X 2 X 2 | X1 = E ( X 1 )

Q Conditional Variance
Discrete Random Variables
( )
Var ( X 1 | X 2 ) = x1 X 1| X 2 PX 1| X 2 ( x1 | x2 )
2
all x1
Continuous Random
+
Variables
Var( X 1 | X 2 ) = (x ) f X1| X 2 (x1 | x2 ) dx1
2
1 X 1| X 2

4

Q The variance of a random variable X1
can also be computed using conditional
variance as follows:
Var ( X 1 ) = E X 2 [Var ( X 1 | X 2 )] + VarX 2 [E( X 1 | X 2 )]

Q Covariance of Two Random Variables
The covariance (Cov) of two random variables
X1 and X2 is defined in terms of mathematical
expectation as
[( )(
Cov( X 1 , X 2 ) = E X 1 X 1 X 2 X 2 )]
It is common to use the following notations for
the covariance of X 1 and X 2 :
X 1 X 2 , 12 , or Cov( X 1 , X 2 )
5

It can be shown that the Cov can also be
determined using the following equation:
Cov( X 1 , X 2 ) = E( X 1 X 2 ) X 1 X 2
where
+ +
E( X 1 X 2 ) = x x 1 2 f X 1 X 2 ( x1 , x2 ) dx1dx2


If X1 and X2 are statistically uncorrelated
random variables, then
Cov( X 1 , X 2 ) = 0
and
E( X 1 X 2 ) = X1 X 2
6

Q Correlation Coefficient
The correlation coefficient of two random
variables X1 and X2 is defined as a normalized
covariance with respect to the standard
deviations of X1 and X2 and is given by
Cov( X 1 , X 2 )
X1 X 2 =
X1 X 2
The correlation coefficient ranges between - 1 and + 1,
1 X 1 X 2 +1

Q Correlation Coefficient
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then the two
random variables are said to be uncorrelated.
In order for X1X2 to be zero, the Cov(X1 X2) must
be zero.
Therefore X1 and X2 are statistically uncorrelated.
However, the converse of this finding is not true.
The correlation coefficient can be viewed as a
measure of the degree of linear association
between X1 and X2.
7

Q Example: Two Discrete RVs
Given the following joint density function of
random variables X and Y and assume n = 2:
n +1 1
for 0 x 1 and x n y x n
f XY (x, y ) = n 1
0 otherwise

(a) Find the marginal density functions of X and Y.
(b) Determine the mean or expected values of X
and Y.
(c) The covariance and correlation coefficient of X
and Y

a) Marginal density functions
1 1
n +1 n
xn xn 1
n +1
f X (x ) = n f XY (x, y ) dy =
n n 1 dy =
x x n
x x
n 1
2 +1 2 1
1

= x x 2 = 3 x 2 x 2 for 0 x 1

2 1

1 1
n +1
yn yn 1
n +1
fY ( y ) = f (x, y ) dx = n 1 dx = n 1 y
XY
n
y n
yn yn
2 +1 1
1
= y y 2 = 3 y 2 y 2
2
for 0 y 1

2 1

8

b) Expected values of X and Y
Since f X ( x ) = fY ( y ) E( X ) = E(Y )
n + 1 n
1 1 1
E( X ) = E(Y ) = xf X ( x ) dx = x x x dx
n
0 0 n 1
1
2 n +1
n + 1 n + 1 x n x n+ 2
1 n +1

= x x dx =
n +1 n

0
n 1 n 1 2n + 1 n + 2
n 0
n + 1 n 1
=
n 1 2n + 1 n + 2
For n = 2, E( X ) = E(Y ) = 0.45

c) Covariance and correlation of X and Y
Since f X ( x ) = fY ( y ) ( ) ( )
E X 2 = E Y 2 or 2X = Y2
n + 1 n
1 1 1
( ) ( )
E X 2 = E Y 2 = x 2 f X ( x ) dx = x 2 x x dx
n
0 0 n 1
1
1+3n
n + 1 n + 1 x n x n +3
1 1+ 2 n

= x n
x dx =
n+2

0
n 1 n 1 1 + 3n n + 3
n 0
n + 1 n 1
=
n 1 1 + 3n n + 3
If n = 2, then X = Y = 0.2571
2 2
9

c) Covariance and correlation (contd)
The variances of X and Y are computed as follows :
( )
Var( X ) = E X 2 [E( X )] = 0.2571 (0.45) = 0.0546
2 2
The expected value of the product XY is

1
1 xn
n+2
E( XY ) = n 1 xy dxdy = 0.25
0 x n
Therefore,
Cov( X , Y ) = E( XY ) E( X )E(Y ) = 0.25 0.45(0.45) = 0.0475
Cov( X , Y ) 0.0475
XY = = = 0.870
2
X Y 2
0.0546 0.0546
Functions of Random Variables
Q Many engineering problems deal with a

dependent variables that is a function of
one or more independent variables
P
w
L/2
L
wL2 PL
M= + = 112.5w + 7.5 P
8 4
10
Q Three cases to be considered:

Probability distributions for dependent
random variables,
Mathematical expectations, and
Approximate methods
Q A random variable X is defined as a

mapping from a sample space of an
engineering system or experiment to the
real line of numbers.
Q If Y is defined to be a dependent
variable in terms of a function
Y = g(X )
then Y is also a random variable
11
Q Examples
P
w
P
M, A, I, c
L/2
L
P Mc wL2 PL
= + M= + = 112.5w + 7.5 P
A I 8 4
Q Single Random Variable

The stress (Y) in a beam is a function of an
applied load (X). If the load is random, the
stress is also random
Y = g( X )
Linear Case
Y = g ( X ) = aX + b
where a and b are real numbers
E(Y ) = aE( X ) + b Var = a 2 Var( X )
12
Q Multiple Random Variables

The stress (Y) in a beam is a function of an
applied load, material properties, and
geometry:
Y = g ( X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n )
Linear Case
Y = g ( X ) = a0 + a1 X 1 + a2 X 2 + ... + an X n
where a and b are real numbers
E(Y ) = a0 + a1E( X 1 ) + a2 E( X 2 ) + ... + an E( X n )
Var (Y ) = ai a j Cov(X i , X j )
n n
i =1 j =1

It should be noted that
Cov( X i , X i ) = Var( X i ) = 2X
The variance of Y can be also obtained from
n n
Var(Y ) = ai a j X i X j X i X j
i =1 j =1
If the random variables of the vector X are

statistically uncorrelated, then
n
Var(Y ) = ai2 Var( X i )
i =1
13
Q Example: Mean and Variance of a

Linear Function
Assume X and Y are uncorrelated.
Z = 2 X + 5Y + 10
X = 3 and Y = 5
X = 1 and Y = 2
Therefore,
Z = 2 X + 5 Y + 10 = 2(3) + 5(5) + 10 = 41
2
2Z = ai2 Var ( X i ) = 2 2 (1) + 52 (2 ) = 104
2 2
i =1
and
10.2
Z = 104 = 10.2 COV(Z ) = = 0.25
41
Q Mathematical Expectation
Mathematical expectation for Y = g(X)
Discrete Case
n
E[g ( X )] = g (xi )PX ( xi )
i =1
Continuous Case
+
E[g ( X )] = g (x ) f (x ) dx
X

14
Q Variance
The variance for Y = g(X)
Discrete Case
n
Var(Y ) = Var[g ( X )] = (g ( xi ) E[g ( xi )]) PX ( xi )
2
i =1
Continuous Case
+
Var(Y ) = Var[g ( X )] = (g (x ) E[g (x )]) f X ( xi ) dx
2
i i

Q Special Case
If the function Y = g(X) = a X + b, then
E(Y ) = aE( X ) + b
Var(Y ) = a 2 Var ( X )
Where a and b are real numbers.
15

If the function Y = g(X) is given by
Y = g ( X ) = a0 + a1 X 1 + a2 X 2 + ... + an X n
Then
E(Y ) = a0 + a1E( X 1 ) + a2 E( X 2 ) + ... + an E( X n )
and
Var(Y ) = ai a j Cov(X i , X j ) = ai a j X i X j X i X j
n n n n
i =1 j =1 i =1 j =1
If the random variables of X are uncorrelated, then

n
Var (Y ) = ai2 Var ( X i )
i =1

If the function Y = g(X) is given by
Y = g ( X ) = X 1 X 2 X 3 ... X n
Then
E(Y ) = E( X 1 ) E( X 2 ) E( X 2 )...E( X n )
and
( ) ( ) ( )
Var (Y ) = E X 12 E X 22 ...E X n2 [E( X 1 ) E( X 1 )...E( X n )]
2
16
Q Example: Cost of Precast Concrete

The total cost C to manufacture a concrete
panel in a precast plant is
C = 1.5 X + 2Y
where X is the cost of materials, Y is the cost of
labor. If the costs X and Y are assumed to be
uncorrelated with means of $100/panel and
$250/panel, respectively, and with standard
deviations of $10/panel and $50/panel,
respectively, compute the mean,variance,
standard deviation, and COV of the total cost.
Q Example (contd): Cost of Precast

Concrete
C = 1.5 X + 2 Y
= 1.5(100) + 2(250)
= $650 / panel
C2 = 1.52 2X + 2 2 Y2
= 1.52 (10) + 2 2 (50) = 10,225($ / panel)
2 2 2
C = 10,225 = $101.12 / panel

101.12
COV = = 0.1556
650
17
CHAPTER
MULTIPLE RANDOM
VARIABLES
6c Probability and Statistics for Civil Engineers

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 6c. MULTIPLE RANDOM VARIABLES Slide No. 1
Q Approximate vs. Analytical Methods

Need for approximate methods
In general there are few closed-form
engineering solutions for the distribution types
of the dependent variable Y = g(X).
Mathematical expectation of this function
provides solutions for simple cases, i.e., linear
random variables.
For cases that involve a more complex g(X), or
a mixture of distribution types, exact solutions
can be a difficult task due to analytical
complexity, especially when g(X) is nonlinear.
1
Q Analytical Methods
A more general case, in which the functional
relationship between the dependent variable Y
and the basic random variable X is not linear, is
considered.
Y = g(X )
If Y is monotonically increasing function of X,
then
P(Y y ) = P( X x )
[ ]
Or
FY ( y ) = FX ( x ) = FX g 1 ( y )
If both sides are differentiated with respect to y,

the PDF of Y can be obtained as
dFX (x ) dg 1 ( y )
fY ( y ) =
dy
[
= f X g 1 ( y )] dy
2
If Y decreases with X, then dg-1(y)/dy can be
negative. Since the PDF of a random variable
cannot be negative, its absolute value is of
interest. Therefore, to account for this, the PDF
of Y is written as
[ ] dgdy( y )
1
fY ( y ) = f X g 1 ( y )
In many cases, the inverse function g-1(y) may
have n values xi, and if the fX(xi) are nonzero
positive numbers, the PDF of Y is expressed as
[ ] dgdy( y )
n 1
fY ( y ) = f X g i1 ( y ) i
i =1
3
Q Example: Analytical Method

Assume the following quadratic relationship
between Y and X:
Y = cX 2
where c = constant.
Also. Assume that X is a normal random variable
with mean X and standard deviation X.
The PDF of X is given by
2
1 x X

1
f X (x ) =
2 X
e
for < x < +
X 2
Q Example (contd): Analytical Method

Y = cX 2
if the above equation is inverted, the two
roots of X can be shown to be
y
x = g 1 ( y ) =
c
and
dx dg 1 ( y ) 1 1
= =
dy dy 2 cy
4
Q Example (contd): Analytical Method

For a normal distribution, the PDF of Y becomes
1 y y
fY ( y ) = f X + + fX
2 cy c
c
or
+
2 2
y y
u X u X
1 c

1
c

1 2 X

2

X

fY ( y ) = +e
( )

e
X 2 2 cy


Q Approximate Methods
Taylor Series Expansion
A Taylor series is commonly used in engineering analysis to
approximate functions that do not have closed form solution.
The Taylor series is given by
h 2 (2 ) h 3 (3 ) h n (n )
f ( x0 + h ) = f (x0 ) + hf (1) (x0 ) + f ( x0 ) + f (x0 ) + ... + f ( x0 ) + Rn +1
2! 3! n!
where
x0 = base value or starting value
x = the point at which the value of the function is needed
h = x x0 = distance between x0 and x (step size)
n! = factorial of n = n(n-1) (n 2)1
f(n) = indicates the nth derivative of the function f(x)
Rn+1 = the remainder of Taylor series expansion
5
Taylor Series Expansion
First-order approximation
f ( x0 + h ) = f ( x0 ) + hf (1) ( x0 )
Second-order approximation
h 2 (2 )
f ( x0 + h ) = f ( x0 ) + hf (1) ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )
2!
Third-order approximation
h 2 (2 ) h 3 (3 )
f ( x0 + h ) = f ( x0 ) + hf (1) ( x0 ) + f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )
2! 3!
The Taylor series expansion can be used
to approximate the mean and variance of
a function of random variables Y = g(X)
Two cases to be considered:
1. Single random variable X
2. Multiple random variables, a random vector X
6
Single Random Variable X
The Taylor series expansion of a function Y =
g(X) about the mean of X (E(X)) is given by
dg ( X ) 1 d 2 g(X ) 1 d k g(X )
Y = g ( X ) = g ( X + h ) = g ( X ) + h + h2 2
+ ... + h k
dX X 2! dX
k! dX k
X X
or
dg ( X ) 1 2 d g(X )
2
1 k d g(X )
k
Y = g ( X ) + [ X X ] + [X X ] + ... + [ X X ]
dX X 2 dX 2 k! dX k
X X
dg ( X ) 1 2 d g(X )
2
g ( X ) = g [E( X )] + [ X E( X )] + [X E( X )]
dX E ( X ) 2 dX 2 E ( X )
[X E( X )]k d g (kX )
k
1
+ ... +
k! dX E( X )
If the series is truncated at the second term, then

dg ( X )
g ( X ) = g [E( X )] + [ X E( X )]
dX E ( X )
7
dg ( X )
g ( X ) = g [E( X )] + [ X E( X )]
dX E ( X )
Taking the expectation of both sides, and noting that
E[ X E ( X )] = E ( X ) E[E ( X )] = E( X ) E ( X ) = 0
Hence,
E (Y ) = E[g ( X )] g [E ( X )] g ( X )
dg ( X )
g ( X ) = g [E ( X )] + [X E( X )]
dX E( X )
Taking the variances of both sides, and noting that

Var[g [E ( X )]] = Var[g ( X )] = 0
Hence,
2
dg ( X ) dg ( X )
E(Y ) = Var [ X E( X )] = Var ( X )
dX E ( X ) dX E ( X )
8
Q Approximate Methods (single RV)

First-order (approximate ) Mean
E(Y ) = Y = g [E( X )]
First-order (approximate) Variance
2
dg ( X )
Var (Y ) = Y2 = Var ( X )
dX
E( X )

Q Example: Pressure of Ocean Waves
The maximum impact pressure of ocean waves
on coastal structures may be determined by
KV 2
max = 2.7
D
Where = density of water, K = length of
hypothetical piston, D = thickness of air
cushion, V = horizontal velocity of advancing
wave. Suppose that the mean crest velocity V
is 4.5 ft/sec with COV of 0.2. , K, and D are
constants. If = 1.96 slugs/cu ft, and the ratio
K/D = 35, determine the mean and standard
deviation of the peak impact pressure.
9
Q Example (contd): Pressure of Ocean

Waves
E( max ) = max g [E(V )] = 2.7(1.96)(35)(4.5) = 3750.7 psf
2
and
d max d KV 2 KV
= 2.7 = 2(2.7 ) = 2(2.7 )(1.96)(35)(4.5) = 1,666.98
dV V = 4.5 dV D D
2
d
Var( max ) max Var(V ) = (1,666.98)2 (0.2 4.5)2 = 2,250,846.1 psf 2
dV V = 4.5
max = 2,250,846.1 = 1,500.3 psf
Q Approximate Methods (Random Vector)

First-order (approximate ) Mean
E(Y ) = Y = g [E( X 1 ), E( X 2 ),..., E( X n )]

g ( X ) g ( X )
Cov(X i , X j )
n n
Var (Y ) = = 2
Y
i =1 j =1 X i E( X )
X j
i E( X i )
10
Q Approximate Methods (Random Vector)

If the Xis are uncorrelated (statistically
independent), then
2
g ( X )
n
Var (Y ) = Y2 Var ( X )
X i E ( X )
i
i =1
i
Q Example 1:
Assume that the random variable Y can be
represented by the following relationship:
Y = X 1 X 22 X 31/ 3
where X1, X2, and X3 are statistically
independent random variables with mean
values of 1.0, 1.5, and 0.8, respectively, and
corresponding standard deviations of 0.1, 0.2,
and 0.15, respectively. Find the first-order
mean and standard deviation of Y.
11
Q Example 1 (contd):
Y = X 1 X 22 X 31/ 3
E(Y ) = Y = g [E( X 1 ), E( X 2 ), E( X 3 )]
= (1.0 )(1.5) (0.8)
2 1/ 3
= 2.0887
Y
=
(
X 1 X 22 X 31/ 3 ) (
= X 22 X 31/ 3 ) = 2X 2 1X/ 33
X 1 X
X 1 X
i
i X
i
Y
=
(
X1 X X 2
2
1/ 3
3 ) (
= 2 X 1 X 2 X 31/ 3 ) = 2 X 1 X 2 1X/ 33
X 2 X
X 2 X
i
i X
i
Y
=
(
X1 X X 2
2
1/ 3
3 ) 1 X 1 X 22
= =
X1 22
2/3
X 3 X
X 2 3 X3 X 3 2X/33
i X
i i
2

Y
X

(
= X 2 X 3
2 1/ 3
) = [(1.5) (0.8) ]
2 2 1/ 3 2
= 4.3627
1 X
i
2

Y
X

(
= 2 X 1 X 2 X 3
1/ 3
) = [2(1)(1.5)(0.8) ]
2 1/ 3 2
= 7.7560
2 X
i
2
2 2
Y X1 2 (1)(1.5)
2 2
X = 3 2 / 3 = 3(0.8)2 / 3 = 0.7574
3 X
i
X3
12
Var( X 1 ) = 2X1 = (0.1) = 0.01
2
Var( X 2 ) = 2X 2 = (0.2) = 0.04

2
Var( X 3 ) = 2X 3 = (0.15) = 0.0225

2
2
3
g ( X )
Var (Y ) = Y2 Var ( X )
X i i
i =1
E( X i )
2 2 2
g (Y )
Var ( X ) + g (Y ) Var ( X ) + g (Y ) Var ( X )
X 1 1
X 2 2
X 3 3
E( X i ) E( Xi ) E( X i )
(4.3627 )(0.01) + 7.7560(0.04 ) + 0.7574(0.0225) = 0.3709

Y = 0.3709 = 0.609
Q Example 2:
The stress F in a beam subjected to an external
bending moment M is
My
F=
I
where y is the distance from the neutral axis of
the cross section of the beam to the point
where the stress is calculated, and I = is the
centriodal moment of inertia of the cross
section. Assume that M and I are random
variables with means M and I, respectively,
and variances M and I, respectively.
13

Q Example 2(contd):
Determine the mean and variance of F based
on first-order approximation.
M y
F =
I
My

F I y y
= = =
M Xi M I Xi I
Xi
My

F My y
=
I
= 2 = M2
I Xi I I Xi I
Xi

Q Example 2(contd):
2
g ( X )
2
Var (F ) =
2 Var ( X )
F
X i i
i =1
E( X i )
2 2
g (F )
Var (M ) + g (F )

Var (I )
M E ( X ) I E ( X )
i i
2 2
y 2 M y 2
M + 2 I
I I
14
Multivariable Simulation
Simulation can be used to study the

probabilistic characteristics of a function of
random variables.
It can provides information about the
distributions of random variables that is
beyond the ability of theory.
Theoretical relationships are often based
on restrictive assumptions, such as normal
distributions, that may not be valid for a
given problem.
Q Stress at Extreme Fibers of a Beam

The stress at the extreme fibers of steel
beam is given by
Mc
=
I
To estimate the mean and standard
deviation of , we can use the first-order
approximation as discussed previously,
regardless of the distribution types of the
basic random variables c and I.
15
Simulation can also be used to study
the probabilistic characteristics of ,
such as the mean and standard
deviation.
However, the distribution types of the
basic random variables c and I are
required.
Random Standard Distribution

Mean
Variable Deviation Type
c 10 0.5 Normal
M 3000 900 Lognormal
I 1000 80 Normal
16
First-order Approximate mean and standard deviation of M
Mc 3000(10)
= = = 30
I 1000
2
c 10
= = = 0.01, = 0.0001
M I 1000 M
Xi Xi Xi
2
M 3000
= = = 3, =9
c I 1000 c
Xi Xi Xi
2
Mc 3000(10 )

= 0.0009
= = = 0.03,
I Xi I2 Xi (1000)2 M

Xi
Var ( ) = (0.0001)(900) + 9(0.5) + 0.0009(80) = 89.01

2 2 2
Standard Deviation ( ) = 89.01 = 9.43
Simulation result for the mean and standard deviation of M
For 1000 simulation cycles,

Mean of = 30.15
Standard Deviation of = 9.67
# Cycles u1 u2 u3 M c I
1 0.902062 0.735778 0.290168 4200.533 10.31519 955.7684 45.33453
2 0.94779 0.350819 0.607922 4628.371 9.808445 1021.913 44.42368
3 0.458328 0.615189 0.984024 2786.548 10.14643 1171.601 24.13239
4 0.450338 0.312857 0.78368 2770.104 9.756117 1062.775 25.42915
5 0.978812 0.734305 0.822165 5214.236 10.31294 1073.892 50.07405
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
1000 0.708552 0.253279 0.665872 3376.147 9.667897 1034.283 31.55831
17

Comparison Between Approximate Method
and Simulation
Mc
= Approximation Simulation
I
Mean of 30.00 30.15
Standard Deviation of 9.43 9.67
18
CHAPTER
SIMULATION

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 7a. SIMULATION Slide No. 1
Introduction
Started in the early 1940s for the
purpose of developing inexpensive
techniques for testing engineering
systems by imitating their real
behavior.
These methods are commonly called

Monte Carlo simulation techniques.
1
Introduction (contd)
The principle behind the methods is
to develop an analytical model, which
is computer based, that predicts the
behavior of a system. Then, the
model is evaluated, and therefore the
behavior is predicted, several times.
Each evaluation (or called simulation
cycle) is based on some randomly
selected conditions for the input
parameters of the system.
Introduction (contd))
Certain analytical tools are used to
assure the random selection of the
input parameters according to their
respective probability distributions for
each evaluation. As a result, several
predictions of the behavior are
obtained. Then, statistical methods
are used to evaluate the moments
and distribution type for the systems
behavior.
2
General Procedure
Q The analytical and computational
steps that are needed for performing
Monte Carlo simulation are:
1. Definition of the system
2. Generation of random numbers
3. Generation of random variables
4. Evaluation of the model N times
5. Statistical analysis of the resulting
behavior
6. Study of efficiency and convergence
System Definition
Q The definition of the system should
includes its boundaries, input
parameters, output (or behavior)
measures, architecture, and models that
relate the input parameters and
architecture to the output parameters.
Model for the System

Input (without variability in the Output
Parameters architecture of the system) Parameters
(random) model uncertainty (random system
behavior)
3
Generation of Random Numbers

Q Random numbers are real values, if
normalized using the largest possible
value, result in real values in the range
[0,1].
Q Random numbers have a uniform
distribution on the range [0,1].
Q A set of random numbers should also
satisfy the condition of non-correlation
for the purpose of simulation use.
Generation of Random Numbers
Q Significance
Their transformation into real values that
follow any distribution of interest. They
constitute the basis for random variable
generation
Q Types
Mechanical
Tabulated
Computer based (recursive functions)
using a seed
4
Table of Random Numbers in the

Range [0,1]
0.538246 0.181648 0.172614 0.450166 0.293027 0.030195 0.757836 0.915061
0.663357 0.368934 0.516388 0.656254 0.284258 0.906335 0.329788 0.054487
0.035771 0.053784 0.424573 0.942479 0.293872 0.326815 0.862351 0.358055
0.51356 0.165508 0.667312 0.878444 0.414203 0.100839 0.555287 0.685601
0.880006 0.069305 0.85441 0.371911 0.751341 0.128446 0.678679 0.514995
0.880006 0.069305 0.85441 0.371911 0.751341 0.128446 0.678679 0.514995
0.748794 0.902497 0.629615 0.662531 0.932879 0.018376 0.683876 0.55481
0.115441 0.207278 0.887853 0.812124 0.082143 0.939258 0.666874 0.582525
0.953369 0.543997 0.806486 0.707493 0.503949 0.489926 0.774467 0.248617
0.2436 0.537111 0.181388 0.619277 0.131852 0.131876 0.361814 0.582682
0.610186 0.41158 0.339972 0.080869 0.429448 0.82277 0.63269 0.863227
0.848375 0.043973 0.071429 0.713405 0.56201 0.71605 0.53662 0.357681
0.102922 0.201752 0.61727 0.416471 0.371492 0.633301 0.857578 0.483474
0.009326 0.912932 0.11385 0.3316 0.852807 0.626191 0.035676 0.581386
0.801494 0.365068 0.54875 0.480788 0.032959 0.906331 0.291263 0.706212
0.682049 0.946008 0.960047 0.830463 0.186225 0.123762 0.674147 0.012839
Generation of Random Variables

Q Inverse Transformation Method
A random number u is first generated in
the range [0,1]
Then the value (x) of a generated
continuous random variable, X, is
determined as follows:
1
x = FX (u) = the inverse of the cumulative distribution
function of the random variable X evaluated at u.
Since the range of FX(x) is in the range [0,1],

a unique value for x is obtained all the time in
each simulation cycle.
5
Triangular Distribution
Q Triangular Density Function
Density Value, fX(x)
XL X Value XU
Uniform Density Function
1
Density Value, fU(u)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1
u Value
6
Cumulative Function
Density Value, fX(x)

1
0
XL XU
x Value
Illustration of inverse transformation
Normal Distribution
Q For mean m and standard deviation s,

the uniform variate is first transformed
to the standard normal deviate z, which
is then transformed to normal deviate x
by:
x = + z
7
Normal Distribution (contd)

Q Consider the case where the sample
consists of the following:
U = {0.82, 0.43, 0.71, 0.18, 0.66}
Q To find the corresponding z values, enter
the standard normal table for a probability
of 0.82, for example, and read the z value
(z = 0.915). Continuing for each ui value
yields:
Z = {0.915, -0.176, 0.556, -0.915, 0.413}
Q Then use x = + z to obtain the values
of X.
Other Methods for Generating

Random Variables:
Q Specialized
Q Efficient
Q Automated
8
Evaluation of Model
Substitute the generated input random
variables (Xi) into an analytical model, g(X)
to predict a response Y. The model can be
a simple education or a complex computer
code.
Y = g(X1, X2, X3, , Xn)
This process is repeated N times.
Noncorrelated random variables

Correlated random variables
Statistical Analysis of Results

QMean response:
n
1
Y = Yi
N
i =1
QVariance:
N N
1 1
Var (Y ) = [ Yi ( Yi ) 2 ]
2
N 1 N
i =1 i =1
QVariance of estimated mean:
N N
1 1 2
1 2
Var Y = [ Y ( Yi ) ]
( ) N N 1 i 1 N i 1
i
9
Study of Efficiency and

Convergence Study of
By increasing N, the variance of the estimated mean
(Var( Y)) decreases. Three issues of interest:
Bias
Convergence
Statistical accuracy
Methods to improve accuracy and efficiency.
Variance reduction techniques:
Importance sampling
Conditional expectation
Antithetic variates
Case Study
Q Example 7.3 Warehouse Construction
A warehouse is to be constructed from
precast elements with the following
construction tasks:
A: excavation of foundations
B: construction of foundations
C: construction of precast elements at factory
D: transportation of precast elements to construction site
E: assembly of elements at site
F: construction of roof
G: exterior and interior finishing
A 2 B
E F G
1. Start of project 4 5 6 7. End of project
C D
3
10
Case Study
Q Random Variables:
Mean Standard Distribution
(days) Deviation Type
Task Name (days)
A foundation excavation 3 1 Normal

B foundation construction 2 0.5 Normal
C precast-elements construction 4 1 Normal
D transportation of elements 0.5 0.5 Normal
E assembly of elements 4 1 Normal
F roofing 2 1 Normal
G finishing 3 1 Normal
Model:
The project completion time, T, is a random variable that is given by:
T = max{A+B , C+D} + E + F + G
Case Study
Q Random Numbers:
Task A Task B Task C Task D Task E Task F Task G
0.642707 0.758002 0.547225 0.510713 0.924981 0.44491 0.671304
0.240297 0.092418 0.84715 0.071252 0.98112 0.793358 0.780596
0.169051 0.446979 0.990008 0.079644 0.391058 0.793205 0.276989
0.457609 0.52127 0.606333 0.006137 0.47927 0.121284 0.34367
0.386325 0.395759 0.956544 0.432595 0.723067 0.448813 0.008538
0.313708 0.061922 0.343042 0.230356 0.538481 0.63629 0.211676
0.137571 0.078837 0.471558 0.383158 0.203166 0.500447 0.101354
0.296782 0.610994 0.785467 0.285467 0.282056 0.560465 0.539651
0.908314 0.124274 0.709123 0.508328 0.496352 0.886927 0.720611
0.763968 0.327695 0.506164 0.246872 0.743617 0.275227 0.218178
0.139498 0.935402 0.789508 0.966422 0.440431 0.682035 0.476614
0.220256 0.040641 0.347426 0.282962 0.178687 0.092735 0.96486
0.344963 0.100168 0.963482 0.569873 0.933351 0.64664 0.858627
0.095613 0.791418 0.726318 0.376506 0.872995 0.895403 0.962331
0.22554 0.262949 0.63276 0.550859 0.198235 0.077169 0.08673
0.239485 0.985236 0.212528 0.445724 0.66247 0.32561 0.025242
0.191603 0.108613 0.897544 0.990706 0.933851 0.557361 0.050711
0.94601 0.241317 0.187334 0.015071 0.228146 0.832563 0.816427
0.973859 0.343243 0.19794 0.177672 0.125638 0.099943 0.747989
0.484109 0.214928 0.020997 0.424466 0.893968 0.866459 0.706856
11
Case Study
Q Resulting duration: (allowing negative values!)
Completion
Task A Task B Task C Task D Task E Task F Task G Time
3.36526 2.3498042 4.1183849 0.5133909 5.4396627 1.8617675 3.443086 16.45958
2.2949296 1.3368915 5.0242746 -0.2334048 6.0778971 2.817944 3.7739874 17.4606982
2.0421427 1.933497 6.3270846 -0.2038625 3.7238635 2.8174073 2.4085497 15.0730432
2.8937885 2.0266006 4.2693511 -0.7523029 3.9481516 0.8313093 2.5979742 12.297824
2.7115217 1.8680395 5.7122992 0.4152843 4.5916169 1.8716354 0.6144956 13.205321
2.5150499 1.2304214 3.596267 0.1312882 4.0963777 2.3481148 2.1995787 12.389543
1.9086613 1.2934043 3.9288268 0.3516179 3.1698067 2.001117 1.7259547 11.177323
2.4667156 2.1407416 4.7905834 0.2118119 3.4240093 2.1518299 3.0993185 13.677553
4.3306524 1.4230146 4.5504403 0.5104081 3.9908831 3.2104754 3.5842925 16.539318
3.7188585 1.7770724 4.0154067 0.1579639 4.6542217 1.4032765 2.2218555 13.775285
1.9173874 2.7587914 4.8045186 1.4155181 3.8504386 2.472975 2.9415001 15.48495
2.2288943 1.1281585 3.6081638 0.2131524 3.079716 0.6756985 4.8105053 12.387236
2.6014871 1.3596149 5.793009 0.5878512 5.5015181 2.3758197 4.0742012 18.332399
1.6928452 2.4055804 4.601361 0.3428837 5.1407426 3.2559441 4.7787973 18.119729
2.2466222 1.6830249 4.3387303 0.5637742 3.1522166 0.5753632 1.6386032 10.268687
2.2923139 3.0884019 3.2025201 0.4319117 4.4187744 1.5483608 1.0437219 12.391573
2.128135 1.3829576 5.2678487 1.6770614 5.5053989 2.143973 1.3616434 15.955925
4.6076817 1.6491037 3.1123607 -0.5843253 3.2552784 2.9642836 3.9017196 16.378067
4.9412389 1.798406 3.1511551 0.0379101 2.8526594 0.7179441 3.6678706 13.978119
2.9602643 1.6053855 1.9659854 0.4049415 5.2480626 3.109864 3.5438339 16.46741
Case Study
Results:
Q Mean value = 14.59 days
Q Variance = 5.55 (days)2
Using different seeds (random numbers), the following can be

obtained:
12
Case Study
Q Resulting duration: (allowing negative values!)
Completion
Task A Task B Task C Task D Task E Task F Task G Time
3.2707799 1.34004 2.8529732 0.8156949 4.2147164 0.171328 3.5813727 12.578237
2.4095244 2.2375281 4.7058017 0.481743 3.4411537 2.5164544 1.7263661 12.871519
3.5991597 1.775744 2.6681462 0.7893469 4.9142851 3.3552784 4.3467318 17.991199
2.0844111 1.9638631 2.54382 0.2291748 4.1505155 1.8540637 3.6733168 13.72617
1.9739182 1.6473216 3.4610715 0.8680251 4.7929741 0.8324813 3.4212035 13.375756
2.0399005 1.0987845 4.0339016 1.0875602 4.6703954 0.8017872 4.6788003 15.272445
4.3768346 1.6527585 4.2793768 1.0147408 2.7347579 -0.3528514 3.8468091 12.258309
1.8453495 2.2365066 4.2789404 0.0851884 2.6055421 3.1097732 3.0369229 13.116367
2.593705 2.3210996 2.8829455 0.5873924 3.7176888 2.0464701 2.1752441 12.854208
5.1966454 2.1435484 5.366874 1.1363712 4.1090447 0.6695408 4.8949117 17.013691
2.5794094 2.1482732 3.7532931 0.1919199 5.3618234 0.7108243 3.113757 13.914087
3.2112634 1.96377 3.598772 0.2064942 2.8660028 1.6399625 2.5912269 12.272226
3.8344438 1.1952375 3.9198922 0.3809357 5.4304724 2.2215315 1.8570525 14.538738
3.4917621 1.0511701 1.9732268 -0.3812494 3.9582012 2.116783 2.3806975 12.998614
4.7463211 2.3356456 5.3719798 0.8047524 5.3859459 3.1270236 3.3903168 18.985253
2.5633476 2.1610288 4.5154829 0.8719888 3.7023022 2.5322679 1.4531975 13.075239
2.1647959 1.6361127 3.7908605 0.870752 2.1834205 2.5949514 2.7353984 12.175383
3.3407015 1.8485931 4.0957866 0.2755382 4.341604 1.0723773 2.6064022 13.209678
3.9968036 2.6271607 2.5352335 0.7837149 3.7496031 1.3063624 2.1972483 13.877178
3.0782144 1.9542634 5.674461 -0.2269675 3.6021733 2.1978306 2.2108603 13.45835
Case Study
Results (with new seed):
Compare with:

13
Problems
7-1. The change in the length of a rod due to the axial
force P is given by
PL
L =
AE
Where L = length of rod, P = applied axial force, A = cross sectional

area of rod, and E = modulus of elasticity. Using 20 simulation cycles,
determine the mean and variance of L assuming noncorrelated
random variables with the following probabilistic characteristics:
Random Mean Value Coefficient of Distribution

Variable Variation Type
P 100 kips 0.35 Lognormal
L 20 in 0.05 Normal
E 30,000 ksi 0.10 Lognormal
A 1 in2 0.05 Normal
References
1. Ayyub, B.M., and McCuen, R., Probability,
Statistics and Reliability for Engineers, CRC
Press, FL, 1997.
2. Ang, and Tang, Probability Concepts in
Engineering and Planning Design, Volume II,
John Wiley and Sons, NY, 1984.
3. Law, and Kelton, Simulation Modeling and
Analysis, McGraw Hill, NY, 1982.
14
CHAPTER
SIMULATION

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 7b. SIMULATION Slide No. 1
Simulation Methods
Q Simulation is the process conducting
experiments on a model.
Q A model is a representation for the real
system or the real component for the
purpose of studying the performance.
High cost.
Difficulty (impossibility).
1
Simulation Methods
Q Monte Carlo techniques are techniques

for testing engineering systems by
imitating their real behavior.
Q the accuracy of the simulation estimator

increases as the simulation cycles
increase.
Simulation Methods
Q The performance function is defined as
Z = R L = g ( X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,K, X n )
X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ,K, X n = n random variables
If Z >0 survival.
If Z <0 failure.
If Z =0 limit state.
2
Simulation Methods
Q The reliability of each component in
the system is the probability that the
strength of the component exceeds
the applied loadings on the same
component.
Q The probability of failure of the
component is the probability that the
strength of the component is less than
the applied loadings on the
component.
Simulation Methods
The Monte Carlo Simulation Methods:

Direct Monte Carlo simulation
Variance reduction techniques

Improve the simulation accuracy: reduce the
variance of the estimated probability of
failure,
Improve the simulation efficiency: reduce the
number of simulation cycles
3
Simulation Methods
Q Steps for simulations based variance reduction
techniques:
Compute
Select
Var(Pf)
g(x) N times COV(Pf)
Draw
Generate Evaluate Estimate
sample
(u) I[g(x)] Pf
(R.V.)
Simulation Methods
Q In the simulation techniques, compute:

The estimated probability of failure.
The variance of the estimated probability of
failure.
The coefficient of variation of the estimated
probability of failure.
The computational time (CPU). 2
T
The relative efficiency ratio = 12 1
2 T2
4
Simulation Methods
The VRTs are classified based on their
common characteristics:
1. The importance sampling category: More samples
are taken from the region of interest.
2. The correlated sampling category: Linear
correlation among the randomly generated variables.
3. The conditional expectation category: Conditioning
on one or more of the generated random variables.
4. The general techniques category: Individual
characteristics.
Simulation Table 1. Classification of Variance Reduction Techniques.

Importance sampling category:
Importance sampling technique.
Methods Adaptive sampling technique.
Stratified sampling technique.
Poststratified sampling technique.
Latin hypercube sampling technique.
Updated Latin hypercube sampling technique.
Spherical sampling technique.
Truncated sampling technique.
Correlated sampling category:
Antithetic Variate technique.
Common Random Numbers technique.
Control Variate technique.
Rotation Sampling technique.
Conditional expectation category:
Conditional expectation technique.
Generalized conditional expectation technique.
Adaptive hybrid conditional expectation
technique.
General techniques category:
Response surface technique.
Adaptive response surface technique.
Russian roulette technique.
Russian roulette and splitting technique.
Jackknife technique.
5
VRT: Direct Monte Carlo

Technique (DMC)
Q Draw samples of the basic random variables
based on their probabilistic characteristics and
feeding them in the performance function.
Z = g ( X ) = g ( X 1 , X 2 ,K, X n )
N f
P f =
N
Var P ( ) = (1 PN )P
f
f f
COV P ( )= f
Var P ( ) f
Pf
VRT: Direct Monte Carlo

Technique (DMC)
Simulation steps for DMC:
1. Select a performance function and identify its random variables and
their probabilistic characteristics.
2. Generate random numbers ( u ) and then the random variables values
by using the inverse transformation method.
3. Evaluate the performance function (limit state function), g ( X ) , add 1
to the failure counter,( I (.) ), if g < 0 and add 0 if g 0 .
4. Repeat steps 2 to 3 N times.
5. Determine the number of failures, N f, based on the counter (I ) value.
6. Compute P f =
N f and (1 P f )P f
( )=
Var P
N f
N
7. Compute COV (P ) =
f
Var P( ) f
P f
6
Example (DMC)
w
L
Q Moment failure mode of a steel beam subjected to uniformly
distribute loading.
Z = FyS M
Random Variable Mean Value COV Distribution Type
190 MPa 0.125 Normal
Yield stress ( Fy )
(S ) 8.19x10-4 m3 0.050 Normal
Where Section Modulus
Load moment, (M ) 1.13x105 N-m 0.200 Normal
Fy = material yield stress.

S = elastic section modulus.
M = moment effect due to applied loading.
Example (DMC)
DMC_5000 Cycles
0.100 0.35
0.090
0.30
0.080
Pf
0.25
0.070
Coefficient of Variation (Pf)
Probability of Failure
0.060
0.20
0.050
COV (Pf)
0.15
0.040
0.030
0.10
0.020
0.05
0.010
0.000 0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
7
VRT: Importance Sampling

Technique (IS)
Q The simulation samples are concentrated in
the failure region.
Q The random variables are generated
according to selected probability distributions
with mean values closer to the design point.
f X (X )
Pf = f
Df
X ( X ) dX = h
Df X (X )
h X ( X )dX
1 N f (X )
Pf =
N i =1
I[ g ( X ) 0] X
hX ( X )
( )
N
(P P f )2
Var ( P f ) = i =1
fi
( )
COV P f =
Var P f
Pf
N ( N 1)
VRT: Importance Sampling

Technique (IS)
Simulation steps for IS:
1. Select a performance function and identify its random variables and
their probabilistic characteristics.
2. Select the importance density function, h X ( x ), and define the original
density function, f X (x ) .
3. Generate random numbers ( u) and then the random variables values
by using the inverse transformation method.
4. Evaluate the performance function (limit state function), g ( X ) , add 1
to the failure counter,( I (.) ), if g < 0 and add 0 if g 0 .
5. Repeat steps 3 to 4 N times. N
2
6. Compute P f = 1 N I [ g ( X i ) 0] f X ( X i ) (Pf P f )
= 1
i
N
f
hX ( X i )
i
Var ( P ) =
i 1
N ( N 1)
7. Compute COV P ( )=
f
Var P ( ) f
P f
8
Example (IS)
w
Z = FyS M
IS_5000 Cycles
L
0.40
0.140
0.35
0.120
0.30
Pf
0.100
Coefficient of Variation (P f)
0.25
0.080
0.20
0.060
0.15
0.040
0.10
COV (Pf)
0.020 0.05
0.000 0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Conditional Expectation

Technique (CE)
Q Randomly generating all the basic random
variables except one variable.
Q Select the control variable X k with the highest
variability.
Pf i = FX k [g k ( X i : i = 1,2,K, n; i k )]
N
N
(P P f )2
P fi
Var ( P f ) = i =1
fi
P f = i=1
N ( N 1)
N
COV P ( )= f
Var P ( ) f
P f
9
Example (CE)
w
Z = FyS M
CE_5000 Cycles L
0.100 1.60E-01
0.090
1.40E-01
Pf
0.080
1.20E-01
0.070
1.00E-01
0.060
0.050 8.00E-02
0.040
6.00E-02
0.030
4.00E-02
0.020
2.00E-02
0.010
COV (Pf)
0.000 0.00E+00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Generalized Conditional

Expectation Technique (GCE)
Q The number of control variables are
considered more than one.
S
Fy i M
Pfi = 1 F
S i F y + M2
2 2

(P
N
P f )2
P fi
Var ( P f ) = i =1
fi
P f = i =1
N ( N 1)
N
COV P f = ( ) Var P f( )
Pf
10
Example (GCE)
w
Z = FyS M GCE_5000 Cycles
L
0.100 0.0005
0.090 0.0005
Pf
0.080 0.0004
0.070 0.0004

0.060 0.0003
0.050 0.0003
0.040 0.0002
0.030 0.0002
0.020 COV (Pf) 0.0001
0.010 0.0001
0.000 0.0000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Antithetic Variate

Technique (AV)
Q Negative correlation between different cycles
of simulation is induced in order to decrease
the variance of the estimated mean value.
Q u and 1-u are used.
(1 ) (2)
P fi + P fi
P fi =
2
( )=
Var P f
1
4N
[ ( ) ( )
Var P f(1 ) + Var P f( 2 ) + 2 Cov P f(1 ) , P f( 2 ) ( )]
COV P f = ( ) ( )
Var P f
Pf
11
Example (AV)
w
Z = FyS M
AV_5000 Cycles L
0.100 0.030
0.090
Pf
0.025
0.080
0.070
0.020

0.060
0.050 0.015
0.040
0.010
0.030
0.020
0.005
0.010
COV (Pf)
0.000 0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Stratified Sampling

Technique (SS)
Q The failure domain is divided into several
disjoint subdomains. More samples are then
taken from the most important subdomains.
5 Ni
1
Pf = Pi
i =1 Ni
I [g ( X ) < 0 ]
i =1
5
Pi 2 2
Var ( P f ) = i =1 Ni
i
( )
COV P f =
Var P f ( )
Pf
12
Example (SS)
w
Z = FyS M
SS_5000 Cycles L
0.200 0.400
0.180
0.350
0.160
0.300
0.140
0.250
0.120
0.100 0.200
0.080 Pf
0.150
0.060
0.100
0.040
0.050
0.020
COV (Pf)
0.000 0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Control Variate Technique

(CV)
Q Takes advantage of correlation between
certain variables.
Q Another random variable with known mean is
selected to adjust the Pf .
Q Generate an initial run to estimate the
(g ( X ), g ( X ))
adjustment constant, a = CovVar (g ( X )) o
o
N
1
Pf =
N
[I [g (x ) < 0 ] a (I (g (x ) < 0 ))] + a
i o i c
[ ]
i =1
Var P f = Var ( g ( X )) + a 2Var ( g o ( X )) 2aCov ( g ( X ), g o ( X ))
COV P f = ( ) Var P f( )
Pf
13
Example (CV)
w
Z = FyS M
CV_5000 Cycles L
0.013
0.140 0.012
0.011
0.120
0.010
Pf 0.009
0.100
0.008
0.080 0.007
0.006
0.060
0.005
0.004
0.040
COV (Pf) 0.003
0.002
0.020
0.001
0.000 0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Russian Roulette

Technique (RR)
Q Some simulation cycles are killed (ceased to
exist) by chance with a certain probability.
Q The survival probability is determined and the
1
the survival weight is then adjusted as w = N ( P survival )
Q J n is the Russian roulette counter for
survived simulation cycles. N
N (P fi P f )2
P f = I [ g ( X i ) 0].J n .w Var ( P f ) = i =1
i =1
N ( N 1)
COV (P ) =f
Var (P ) f
P f
14
Example (RR)
w
Z = FyS M
RR_5000 Cycles L
0.120 0.30
0.100 0.25
Pf
0.080 0.20

0.060 0.15
0.040 0.10
COV (Pf)
0.020 0.05
0.000 0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
VRT: Russian Roulette &

Splitting Technique (RR&S)
Q The killed samples in the Russian Roulette are
compensated in the splitting process in this
technique.
Q Pre-determine the number of splits, k .
Q Wight the samples as (1/ k) .
N
1
Pf =
N
I[g ( X
i =1
i ) 0 ]. J n
where J n = Russian roulette counter
(P )
N
(P fi P f )2
COV (P ) =
f
Var f
Var ( P f ) = i =1
P f
N ( N 1)
15
Example (RR&S)
w
Z = FyS M RR&S_5000 Cycles
L
0.120 0.30
0.100 0.25
Pf
0.080 0.20

0.060 0.15
0.040 0.10
COV (Pf)
0.020 0.05
0.000 0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
Simulation Cycles
Example (Results for All VRTs)
VRT 1000 3000 5000

Relative
Pf COV(Pf) Time Pf COV(Pf) Time Pf COV(Pf) S.D. VAR Time
Efficiency Ratio
DMC 0.0750 0.1111 22.7 0.0747 0.0643 61.0 0.0768 4.90E-02 3.77E-03 1.42E-05 98.0 1
CE 0.0798 0.0005 21.1 0.0832 0.0003 63.4 0.0834 2.09E-04 1.75E-05 3.05E-10 105.5 43160
GCE 0.0828 0.0001 12.8 0.0821 0.0001 38.8 0.0828 6.04E-05 5.00E-06 2.50E-11 66.7 832689
IS 0.1077 0.1001 32.0 0.0957 0.0625 94.0 0.0986 4.77E-02 4.70E-03 2.21E-05 155.9 0.4
CV 0.0941 0.0037 28.8 0.0962 0.0028 102.7 0.1010 2.12E-03 2.14E-04 4.60E-08 198.7 152
SS 0.0770 0.0133 15.9 0.0760 0.0074 48.0 0.0858 8.31E-03 7.13E-04 5.08E-07 80.1 34
AV 0.0922 0.0030 40.2 0.0831 0.0013 137.3 0.0824 8.42E-04 6.94E-05 4.82E-09 247.6 1165
RR 0.0936 0.0012 19.1 0.0944 0.0007 56.4 0.0968 5.25E-02 5.08E-03 2.58E-05 93.7 1
RR&S 0.0935 0.0011 23.2 0.0898 0.0007 69.3 0.0880 5.19E-02 4.57E-03 2.08E-05 114.7 1
ASM 0.0820 0.0820 0.0820
16

5000 Sim ulation Cycles
0.300
DMC
CE
G CE
0.250 IS
CV
Estimated probability of failure
SS
AV
RR
0.200
RR&S
ASM
0.150
0.100
ASM
(0 082)
0.050
0.000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Num ber of sim ulation cycles

5.00E-04
DMC
CE
4.50E-04
GCE
IS
4.00E-04
CV
SS
3.50E-04 AV
RR
Variance (Pf)
3.00E-04 RR&S
2.50E-04
2.00E-04
1.50E-04
1.00E-04
5.00E-05
0.00E+00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Num ber of Sim ulation Cycles
17

5.00E-01
DMC
CE
4.50E-01
GCE
IS
4.00E-01
CV
SS
3.50E-01 AV
RR
3.00E-01 RR&S
2.50E-01
2.00E-01
1.50E-01
1.00E-01
SS
5.00E-02 AV
CE
0.00E+00 CV
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Num ber of simulation cycles

5 0 0 0 S im u la tio n C yc le s
0 .1 2 0 0
D M C (5 0 0 '0 0 0 c y c le s ) = 0 .0 8 2 3
0 .1 0 0 0
Estimated probability of failure
0 .0 8 0 0
0 .0 6 0 0
0 .0 4 0 0
0 .0 2 0 0
0 .0 0 0 0
DMC CE GCE IS CV SS AV RR RR&S ASM
S e rie s 1 0 .0 7 6 8 0 .0 8 3 4 0 .0 8 2 8 0 .0 9 8 6 0 .1 0 1 0 0 .0 8 5 8 0 .0 8 2 4 0 .0 9 6 8 0 .0 8 8 0 0 .0 8 2 0
T e c h n iq u e s
18

5000 Simulation Cycles
0.0100
0.0090
0.0080
0.0070
0.0060
COV(Pf)
0.0050 DMC CE GCE IS CV SS AV RR RR&S
0.0040
0.0030
0.0020
0.0010
0.0000
DMC CE GCE IS CV SS AV RR RR&S
Series1 0.0490 0.0002 0.0001 0.0477 0.0021 0.0083 0.0008 0.0005 0.0005
Techiques

300
250
Time (seconds)
200
150
100
50
0
Series1 98.0 105.5 66.7 155.9 198.7 80.1 247.6 93.7 114.7
Techniques
19

10000
9000
8000
Relative Efficiency Ratio
7000
6000
5000
E
C
IS
&S
R
E
V
SS
AV
C
C
C
M
R
R
G
D
R
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Series1 1 43160 832689 0.4 152 34 1165 1 1
Techniques
20
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTALS OF
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 8a. FUNDAMENTALS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Slide No. 1
Introduction
Q Definition
Statistics: is the estimation of certain
parameters (i.e., mean,COV,
distribution type) needed to quantify
uncertainty and to describe the
probability functions.
1
Introduction
Q Estimation of Parameters of a
Distribution
Once the distribution type of a random
variable is assumed, it is necessary to
define it uniquely by evaluating its
parameters.
Some distributions have only one
parameter, while others have multiple.
Introduction
Q Examples: Distribution Parameters

Normal Distribution:
Two parameters, X and X
Lognormal
Two parameters, Y and Y (or and )
Poisson
One parameter,
Beta
Four parameters, a, b, q, and r
2
Introduction
Q Sampling
Values of random variables obtained from
sample measurements are used to
estimate the parameters of a distribution.
They are also used to in making important
engineering decision.
For example, in determining the maximum
wind speed for the design of a tall building,
past records of measured wind velocities
near the building site are important.
Introduction
Q Sampling
Samples of river water are collected to
estimate the average level of a pollutant in
the entire river at that location.
The average of sample measurements of the
compressive strength of concrete collected
during the pouring of a large concrete slab,
such as a deck of of a parking garage, is
used to help decide whether or not the deck
strength met the specifications.
3
Introduction
Q Sampling
The estimated mean for a random variable
is considered by itself to be a random
variable, because different samples about
the random variable can produce different
estimated mean values.
Hence, randomness in the estimated
mean.
Introduction
Q Sampling
When a sample of n measurements of a
random variable is collected, the n values
are not necessarily identical.
The sample is characterized by variation.
If two different samples of 5 measurements
of concrete strength are collected, their
mean values would not necessarily be
identical.
4
Introduction
Q Example: Strength of Concrete (psi) in a

Parking Garage Deck
Sample 1 Sample 2
3250 3650
3610 3360
3460 3328
3380 3420
3510 3260
Mean 3442 3404
StDev 135.9 149.3
Introduction

Parking Garage Deck
Assume that the building code requires a mean
compressive strength of 3500 psi.
Since the mean of 3442 psi of Sample1 is less
than 3500 psi
Should we conclude that the garage
deck dose not meet the
specifications?
5
Introduction

Parking Garage Deck
Unfortunately, decision making is not that simple.
If a third sample of 5 measurements had been
randomly collected from other locations on the
garage deck, the following values as just likely
to have been obtained:
3720, 3440, 3590, 3270, and 3610 psi.
This sample would have different mean and
different standard deviation as shown next.
Introduction

Parking Garage Deck
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
3250 3650 3720
3610 3360 3440
3460 3328 3590
3380 3420 3270
3510 3260 2610
Mean 3442 3404 3526
StDev 135.9 149.3 174.4
6
Introduction
Parking Garage Deck
The third sample (Sample 3) produces a mean of
3526 psi and standard deviation of 174.4 psi.
In this case, the mean value is greater than the
specified value. The question now arises:
Can we conclude that the concrete is
of an adequate strength?
Unfortunately, we cannot conclude with
certainty that the strength is adequate.
Introduction

Parking Garage Deck
The fact that different samples lead to
different means is an indication that we
cannot conclude that the design
specification is not met just because the
sample mean is less than the design
standard.
7
Introduction

Parking Garage Deck
A systematic decision process is needed to take
into account the variation that can be expected
from one sample to another.
The decision process must also capable to reflect
the risk of making incorrect decision.
This decision making can be made using
hypothesis testing.
Sample and Population
Q Sample Parameters Q Population Parameters

For normal distribution :
1 n
X = xi X
n i =1
S=
1 n
(xi X )2 X
n 1 i =1
8
The data that are collected represent

sample information but it is not complete
by itself.
Predictions are not made directly from the
sample.
The intermediate step between sampling
and prediction is the identification of the
underlying population.
The sample is used to identify the

population.
Then, the population is used to make
prediction or decision.
The sample-to-population-to-predictions
sequence is true for both univariate,
bivariate, and multivariate methods.
9
Q Population Models
A known model or function is often used to
represent the population.
The normal and logmormal distributions
are commonly used to model the
population for a univariate problem
For bivariate and multivariate prediction,
linear and power model are assumed.
Q Example: Population Models

Linear Model
Y = a + bX
Power Model
Y = aX b
10
When using a probability function to

represent the population, it is necessary to
estimate the parameters
Normal Distribution
Estimate : and
Lognormal
Estimate : and
Exponential
Estimate :
11
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTALS OF
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

CHAPMAN
HALL/CRC
CHAPTER 8b. FUNDAMENTALS OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Slide No. 1
Estimation of Parameters
Q Classification of Models
In terms of random variables
Univariate
Bivariate
Multivariate
In terms of parameters
One-parameter Model
Two-parameter Model
Three-parameter Model
1
Q Examples:
Univariate with two parameters
Normal Distribution
Univariate with one parameter
Exponential Distribution
Bivariate with two parameters
Bivariate power model
Y = aX b
Q Estimation of the Parameters

Samples are used to develop a model that
can represent the population and to
estimate the parameters of the population
model
The parameters can be estimated in the
form of
Point Estimates (single value)
Interval Estimates (range of values)
2
Q Classical estimation of parameters are

divided into:
Point Estimation
Point estimation is concerned with the calculation of
a single number from a set of observed data to
represent the parameter of underlying population.
Interval Estimation
Interval estimation goes further to establish a
statement of confidence in the estimated quantity,
resulting in the determination of an interval indicating
the range where the population parameter may be
located.
Role of Sampling in Statistical Inference

REAL WORLD POPULATION
(True Characteristics are Unknown)
Random
Variable X
Sampling

Theoretical Model
(experimental Observations)
Real Line : < x < +
Sample : {x1 , x2 ,...xn }
with distribution f X ( x )

Inference On f X ( x )

n
Mean X Statistical 1
X = n x
i
2
i =1
Variance S
2
Estimation
S = 1
2
n
2
n 1( )
x X i

i 1
3
Q Properties of Estimators
Bias
Precision
Accuracy
Consistency
Efficiency
Sufficiency
Q Bias
An estimate of a parameter made from
sample statistic is said to be an unbiased
estimate if the expected value of the
sample quantity is ; that is
E() =
The bias is defined as
[E() - ]
4
Q Bias
Definition:
Bias is a systematic deviation of
values from the true value
Q Bias
Consider four experiments where each
experiment is repeated six times.
The following table shows the results of the
four experiments:
True
Exp. A Exp. B Exp. C Exp D
(Population)
Mean 15 15 24 7 14
5
Q Bias
Experiment A is unbiased because its
expected value (mean) equals the true
mean.
Experiments B, C, and D show varying
degrees of bias.
Experiment B has a positive bias of 9,
whereas the bias of C and D are negative.
Experiment B tends to overestimate ,
while C and D tend to underestimate .
6
Q Precision
In addition to the systematic variation,
variation in an observation may be due to
random error.
Random error is measured by fluctuations
in the value of a variable that occur when
the same experiment is performed more
than once.
Q Precision
Random error can be a result of:
1. Errors in judgment.
2. Uncontrollable variation in environmental
conditions.
3. Differences due to deficiencies in defining the
quantity being measured, and
4. Intrinsically random process
7
Q Precision
Definition:
Precision is defined as the ability of
an estimator to give repeated
estimates that are very close to each
other.
Q Precision
Precision can be expressed in terms of the
variance of the estimator.
Precision
Var( ) Lack of precision
Var( ) High precision
Var( ) = 0 Absolute precision
8
Q Precision
four experiments:
Var 1.6 1.6 10.6 6.8
Note: Variance is about the sample mean for each experiment
9
Q Precision
Experiment A and B show considerably
more precision (i.e., they have lower
variances).
Experiment C has the largest variation,
therefore, it is the least precise.
Experiments A and B have the same level
of variation, however, A is unbiased,
whereas B is highly biased.
Q Accuracy
Definition:
Accuracy is defined as the closeness
or nearness of the measurements to
the true or actual value of the quantity
being measured.
10
Q Accuracy
Bias and Precision are considered
elements of Accuracy.
Bias + Precision Accuracy
Inaccuracy can result from either a bias or

a lack of precision.
Q Accuracy
four experiments:
Var 1.6 98.8 87.6 8.0
Note: Variance is about the true mean of the population (i.e., 15)
11
Q Bias, Precision, and Accuracy

Consider the four dartboards of the
following figure.
Assuming that these shooting at the
targets were aiming at the center, the
person shooting at target A was
successful.
12
Bias, Precision, and Accuracy
B A
Increasing Precision
D C
Increasing Accuracy

The holes in target B are similarly clustered
as in target B, but they show large
deviation from the center.
The holes in target C are very different in
character from the holes in either target A
or B.
They are not near the center, and they are
not near each other.
13
The holes in target A and B show a
measure of precision, therefore, the
shooters were precise.
The shooters of targets C and D were
imprecise since the holes show a lot of
scatter.
The holes in targets B and D are
consistently to the left, that is, there is a
systematic distortion of the hole with
respect to the center of the target.
Bias, Precision, and Accuracy
B A
Increasing Precision
D C
Increasing Accuracy
14

The holes in targets B and D show a
systematic deviation to the left.
Targets A and C are considered to
unbiased because there is no systematic
deviation.
In the figure, accuracy increases as
precision increases, therefore, the shooter
of target A is the most accurate.
Q Mean Square Error (MSE)
Accuracy reflects both
Systematic error
Random error
Both sources must be assessed when
selecting one estimator from others,
specially, a biasd estimator is preferable to
an unbiased estimator if the precision of
the biased estimator is significantly better
than that of the unbiased estimator.
15
Q Mean Square Error (MSE)

The MSE is defined as the expected value
of the square of the deviation of the
estimate from the true value.
It is equal to the variance of the estimate
plus the square of the bias.
The MSE is considered a measure of
accuracy.
Q Consistency, Sufficiency, and Efficiency
Consistency
An estimator is said to be consistent if the
probability that will deviate from more than
any fixed amount > 0, approaches zero as the
sample size (n) becomes larger and larger.
( )
P - 1 as n
16
Consistency
Consistency is a sample size property of the
estimator.
It can be shown that unbiased estimators are
consistent estimators.
However, a consistent estimator is not
necessarily unbiased.
For example, the sample variance is consistent
but must be corrected for its biasedness by
multiplying it by the factor n/(n-1)
Sufficiency
An estimator is said to be sufficient if it
exhausts all possible information on in a

sample of any size.
Sufficiency implies that no other estimator
computed from the same sample can provide
additional information about
17

Efficiency
Efficiency is an important criterion for
evaluating the quality of an estimator.
A consistent estimate is said to be more
1
efficient than another estimate if
2
( ) ( )
Var 1 < Var 2
An estimate is considered efficient if it has the
smallest variance of all available estimators.
18
LABOR AND
EQUIPMENT COSTS
Agenda
Factors affecting Labor productivity
Elements of labor cost
Calculating labor cost per unit of work
Ownership Cost:
Depreciation
Money Cost (Investment)
Insurance
Applicable Taxes
Operating Cost:
Operators Cost
FOG: Fuel, Oil & Lubricants (Grease)
Maintenance & Repair Costs
Tires Cost
Construction Productivity
Factors Which Affect Production

1. Weather
2. Site Conditions
3. Daylight
4. Training level/Skill
5. Equipment Utilization
Construction Productivity
(Contd)
Factors Which Effect Production (Contd)
6. Contractual Arrangements
7. Labor Morale
8. Labor Availability
9. Labor Culture
Labor Cost: Wages & Benefits
Labor force is imported.
Cost to owner is more than laborer salary
Benefits:
Travel Cost
Medical Checkup, Visa & Residency (Iqama)
cost
Housing Cost
Insurance:
Working Hours
Days/Yr. 365
Week-ends 52
Vacation 15
Holidays 13
Medical 10
Total: 275 day X 8 Hrs
2200 Hr./yr.
Crew Cost/Productivity
Work is normally done by a group of workers
(Crew or Gang)
The mix of Skilled/Common labor is contractor
dependent
Crew size is limited by space constraints
Each trade has a Foreman & General Foreman
Labor Cost = Crew Cost + Shared Foreman
Cost
Crew Cost ($/Time)
Unit Cost =
Crew Productivity (Unit/Time)
Quantity(Units)
ActivityDuration=
Crew Productivity
Example: Which Worker is cheaper?
Worker A Worker B
Basic Wage 1200 SAR/Mo. 1800 SAR/Mo.
Contract Period 1 Yr 2 yr.
3500
Transportation 2500 SAR/contract
SAR/contract
Vacation 15 day/contract 30 day/contract
Room & Board 200 SAR/Mo. 250 SAR/Mo.
Holidays 10 day/yr 14 day/yr
Working Hours 8 hr/day 10 hr/day
O.T. 150% 200%
Equipment Cost
The money a company spends for

equipment is an investment which
must be recovered as the
machine is utilized on projects
It consists of:
Ownership Cost, and
Operating Cost
Equipment Cost (Contd)

Ownership Cost:
Cost of EQP (less consumables) over life of
EQP
Money Cost (Investment)
Insurance
Applicable Taxes
Operating Cost:
Operators Cost
Tires Cost
Maintenance & Repair Costs
FOG: Fuel, Oil & Lubricants (Grease)
I. OWNERSHIP COST
Regardless of how much a machine is

used, the owner must pay owning cost
Depreciation (Purchase expense)

Investment
Insurance
Applicable Tax
Ownership Cost:
(1) Depreciation Costs
Straight-line method
Declining-balance method
Accelerated Cost Recovery System
(ACRS)
Straight-line depreciation
When the cost of depreciation is
determined by this method, it is assumed
that a unit of equipment will decrease in
value from its original total cost at a
uniform rate.
Example (For P=12,000; SV=2,000; and n=5 years)

Total depreciation, $12,000 - $2,000 = $10,000
Annual cost of depreciation, $10,000 5 = $2,000
Hourly cost of depreciation, $2,000 2,000 = $1.00
Declining-balance method:
Under this method of determining the cost of
depreciation, the estimated life of the
equipment in years will give the average
percent of depreciation per year.
This percent is doubled for the 200 percent
declining- balance method.
The value of the depreciation during any
given year is determined by multiplying the
resulting percent by the value of the
equipment at the beginning of that year (BV).
The depreciated value is not permitted to
drop below a reasonable salvage value.
Example (DDB)
Total cost, $10,000

Estimated salvage value, $1,000
Estimated life, 5 years
Average rate of depreciation, 20% per year
Double this rate of depreciation, 2 X 20 = 40%
Cost of depreciation, first year, 0.40 x $10,000 = $4,000.00
Book value at the start of the second year = 6,000.00
Cost of depreciation, second year, 0.40 X $6,000 = 2,400.00
See Table 11-2
Modified Accelerated Cost

Recovery System (MACRS)
See Table 11.4

Ownership Cost:
(2) Investment Costs
These costs, which are frequently classified as
investment costs, include interest on the money
invested, taxes of all types which are assessed
against the equipment, insurance, and storage.
The rates for these items will vary somewhat
among different owners, with location, and for
other reasons.
Even though the owner pays cash for the
equipment, he should charge interest on the
investment, as the money spent for the
equipment could be invested in some other
asset which would return interest to the owner.
Ownership Cost:
Investment Costs (Contd)
Some equipment owners charge a fixed rate of
interest against the full purchase cost of the
equipment each year it is owned. This method
gives an annual interest cost which is higher
than it should be.
The average annual cost of interest should be
based on the average value of the equipment
during its useful life. This value may be obtained
by establishing a schedule of values for the
beginning of each year that the equipment will
be used.
Ownership Cost:
Calculation of Average
Cost of Equipment per year
P(n + 1) + S(n 1)
AAI =
2n
Ownership Cost:
P = $440,000
S = $60,000
n = 5 years
AAI = $440,000(5 + 1) + $60,000(5 1)

25
Ownership Cost:
$440,000( 6) + $60,000( 4 )
AAI =
10
AAI = $288,000/yr
Investment Cost/hour
If Number of hours per year = 2,000
$288,000 / yr 10%
=
2,000 hr / yr
$14.40 / hour
Operating Cost
Consumables - fuel, oil, grease

Maintenance & Repair
Tires or tracks
Operator Cost
Operating Cost
Cost
Usage
Fuel Consumed
Gasoline engine Consumes
approximately 0.06 gal (0.23 liter)
of fuel per flywheel horsepower
hour.
Diesel engine Consumes
approximately 0.04 gal (0.15 liter)
of fuel per flywheel horsepower
hour
Lubrication Oil
hp x f x 0 .006 lb per hp-hr c
q= +
7 .4 lb per gal t
hp x f x 0 .0027 kg per hp-hr c
q= +
0 .89 kg per lit t
q = Quantity Consumed, gal per hr, or liter per hr.
hp = Rated horsepower of engine
c = Capacity of crankcase, gal, or liter
f = Operating factor
t = Number of hours between changes
Maintenance And Repairs
The cost of maintenance and repairs will vary
considerably with the type of equipment, the service
to which it is assigned, and the care which it
receives.
The annual cost of maintenance and repairs may be
expressed as a percent of the annual cost of
depreciation or it may be expressed independently
of depreciation.
In any event, it should be sufficient to cover the cost
of keeping the equipment operating.
The annual cost of maintenance and repairs for a
power shovel may vary from 80 to 120 percent of
the annual cost of deprecia-tion, with 100 percent a
fair average value.
Example
Objectives
To achieve knowledge LOL about

how to calculate labor cost.
Achieve Knowledge LOL for elements

of Equipment cost.
Demonstrate Knowledge LOL for

elements of Equipment cost.
Questions
Straight-line depreciation
Depreciable Value
StraightLine,SL=
n
* Depreciable Value = Purchase Price Tires Salvage Value
Declining-balance method:
2BV
DoubleDecliningBalance,DDB=
n
P = Purchase Price
T = Tires Cost
S = Salvage Value
BV1 = P-T (@ 1st yr. start - same
for all methods)
Ne
ed
Re
co
gn
iti
on
Pr
og
r am
m
ing
De
s ign
Ph
as
e
Bi
dd
ing
Ph
CE321 ConstructionManagement
as
e
Co
ns
tru
ProjectLifeCycle
cti
on
Ph
Ut as
ilit e
y P
ha
se
PROJECTLIFECYCLE
Di
sp
os
al
Need Recognition needs to be translated into definite
requirements.
Programming is the process of listing requirements that
willhelpthedesignertranslatewordsintographics
Some projects are complex, or specialized that a
consultant is used to delineate the programming
requirements
FeasibilityStudiesrespondtoanyorallofthefollowing
unknowns:
1. EconomicFeasibility(mostcommon)
2. TechnicalFeasibility
3. SocialFeasibility
4. EnvironmentalFeasibility
DesignPhase
Co
st
E
st
%
. E
D
rro
es
ign
ConceptualDesign:
SingleLineDrawings+Outline
Specifications+roughCostEstimates
PreliminaryDesign(10%):
IncorporatesOwnerschanges+refined
Time
Specs.&betterCostEstimate
PreFinalDesign(90%):Duetoproject
complexity orownerrequirements.
FinalDesign(100%):FinalDesign+
Specifications
EndResult:Drawings,Specifications&Cost
Estimate
DesignTimeline
PreliminaryDesign
Specs+Estimates
FinalDesign
ConceptualDesigns
PrefinalDesign
Specs+Estimates
OutlineSpecs+Estimates
Programming
Architect
Recognition
Selection
LastChanges
Changes
Drawings
Specifications
Need
Owner Programming
CostEstimate
Consultant
DesignTeamA/E
Architect(Spatialdesign,Teamleader)
CivilEngineer (Structural,Site,Survey)
MechanicalEngineer (HVAC,Plumbing)
ElectricalEngineer(Lighting,Communications..)
Specialty (Interiordesign,Landscape..)
BiddingPhase
Owner Contractor
RFP:RequestForProposal PreQualification
Forspecializedconstruction Availableresources
PublicBid WorkLoad
ion
id
B
t
ra
to
Contractor
pa
on
re
isi
dP
c
De
Bi
t
is
d
t
en
nin
ar
en
lys
nt
Aw
m
na
pe
f I
ce
ct
dA
d O
ro
n
ra
ou
Bi
tte
Bi
nt
n
Le
Co
Owner
An
P/
ct
NT
oje
Pr
BiddingDocuments
Drawings (Dimensions+Graphics)
Specifications (Method&Matl description)
GeneralConditions (CommontoALLcontracts)
Supplementary (SpecifictocurrentProject)
Conditions
ProposalForm (Tofacilitatebidanalysis)
Addenda (Addition,Deletion,orChangesto
designbeforebidopening
)GeneralConditionsoftheContract(EJCDC )SpecialConditionsoftheContract(Typical
1. Definitions and Terminology 1. SCOPE

2. Preliminary Matters 2. CONTRACTTERM
3. Contract Documents; Intent, Amending 3. CONTRACTQUANTITIES/NEWORDELETEDITEMS
Reuse 4. CONTRACTREQUIREMENTSANDBIDDER/CONTRACTOR
4. Availability of Lands; Subsurface and QUALIFICATIONS
Physical Conditions; Reference Points 5. SPECIFICATIONS
5. Bonds and Insurance 6. DELIVERY
6. Contractor's Responsibilities 7. F.O.B.DESTINATIONFREIGHTINCLUDED/INSTALLED/
7. Other Work ONSITESERVICE
8. Owner's Responsibilities 8. METHODOFBID
9. Engineer's Status During Construction 9. BIDRESPONSEREQUIREMENTS
10. Changes in the Work; Claims 10.METHODOFAWARD
;11. Cost of the Work; Cash Allowance 11.MINORITYBUSINESSPARTICIPATION
Unite Price Work 12.SUBCONTRACTINGORTHIRDPARTYPAYMENTS
12. Change of Contract Price; Change of 13.FIRMPRICES
Contract Times 14.ORDERS
13. Test and Inspections; Correction, 15.INVOICINGREQUIREMENTS
Removal or Acceptance of Defective 16.ITEMRETURNPOLICY
Work 17.SHIPMENTS,DUPLICATESANDOVERSHIPMENTS
14. Payments to Contractor and 18.CONTRACTCANCELLATION
Completion 19.CERTIFICATIONFORCOLLECTIONOFSALESANDUSE
15. Suspension of Work and Termination TAX
16. Dispute Resolution 20.BIDDERRESPONSESHEET
17. Miscellaneous

: 27 : 1
: 28 )( : 2
: 29 : 3
: 30 : 4
: 31 : 5
: 32 : 6
: 33 : 7
: 34 : 8
: 35 : 9
: 36 : 10
: 37 : 11
: 38 : 12
: 39 : 13
: 40 : 14
: 41 : 15
: 42 : 16
: 43 : 17
: 44 : 18
: 45 : 19
: 46 : 20
: 47 : 21
: 48 : 22
: 49 : 23
: 50 : 24
: 51 : 25
: 52 : 26
Bonds
Abondisaguaranteefromaresponsible&able
thirdparty
BidBond:12%ofbidsubmitted
PerformanceBond:5%ofContractvalue
AdvancedPaymentBond:100%ofadvanced
payment(5%ofContractvalue,nottoexceed
50M)
ConstructionContracts
FixedCost Negotiated
LumpSum .1 CostPlusContract:
FixedQuantity&Cost Cost+%fee
2.UnitPrice Cost+FixedFee
VariableQuantity,FixedCost Cost+FixedFeew/GMP*
Cost+FixedFee+ProfitShare
Cost+IncentiveFee
Turnkey(DesignBuild)
O O ConstructionManagement
A/E C A/E CM
S C
S C
S S CC
*GMPGuaranteedMaximumPrice
BidPreparation
DirectCost (CostofLabor,EQP&Materialused
inthecompletionoftheworkitself)
IndirectCost (Sharedcostthatcannotbeassigned
to specific work, such as crane used
fordifferentworkitemsonthesame
project)
Overhead (Shared Administrative cost among
projects %ageofDirect&Indirect)
Profit/Loss
BidOpening
EachorganizationformsaBidOpening
Committee
Functions:
1. Openseachbidsubmitted
2. AscertainsthepresenceofBidBond
3. Announcesthenameofbidder&bidamount
4. Announcesalternatebidifpresent
5. Recordseachbidsparticulars
AcceptancePeriod/Withdrawal
Withdrawal of Bids: No
Ifbidshavebeenopenedandthelowbidderisidentified,
submitted bid may be withdrawn
thenthecontractormustenterintocontractorforfeithisbid
for a period of sixty (60) days
security.
after the scheduled closing time
Thebidsecurityprotectstheownerfromfailurebythe
contractortoenterintoaformalconstructionagreement.
for the receipt of bid.
Thecontractorisprotectedbytheacceptanceperiod.The
noticetobiddersspecifiesaperiodfollowingbidopening
duringwhichtheproposedbidsaretoremaininforce.The
indicationisthatiftheownerdoesnotactinthisperiodto
acceptoneofthebids,thenthecontractorscanwithdraw or
adjusttheirbids.
WithdrawalofBids:Nosubmittedbidmaybewithdrawnfor
aperiodofsixty(60)daysafterthescheduledclosingtimefor
thereceiptofbid.
BidAnalysis
ContractorPrequalification:competenceofthe
contractor.
ResponsiveBid:Thebidshouldaddressproject&owner
requirementsforqualityandtime.
FrontEndLoading(UnbalancedBids):Theprocessof
increasingthecostofearlycompletioncomponentsofa
projectortheunitcostofitemswithwidemarginof
errorinquantity,withoutchangingtheoverallbidprice.
Anyconditionsattachedtothebid(Ex:Ownersupplyof
power).
ComparingbidwiththeEngineersEstimate
ContractAward
Acceptanceperiodendswithcontractaward.
NTP: Notice to Proceed is the legal Project Start and
contractoraccesstoprojectsite.
Letter of Intent: Signals contract award when site

access is delayed so the contractor can buy matls &
EQP,mobilize,andobtainbankfacilities
If acceptance period ends without award, contractors
canwithdraworamendtheirbids.
ContractAgreement
ContractisformalizedbysigningAgreement
Contract Agreement is the single document that
binds the parties and by reference describes the
work to be performed for a consideration.
Contract documents are: (1) signed contract
agreement, (2) the supplementary conditions, (3)
the general conditions, (4) the specific
specifications, (5) the drawings, (6) the general
specifications, (7) priced bill of quantity and (8)
letter of acceptance or NTP.
ContractAgreement
ContractisformalizedbysigningAgreement
Contract Agreement is the single document that
binds the parties and by reference describes the
work to be performed for a consideration.
Contract documents are: (1) signed contract
agreement, (2) the supplementary conditions, (3)
the general conditions, (4) the specific
specifications, (5) the drawings, (6) the general
specifications, (7) priced bill of quantity and (8)
letter of acceptance or NTP.
TimeExtensions
(Clause36)
Often circumstances beyond the contractor's
control, which could not have been reasonably
anticipated at the time of bidding, lead to delays.
These delays make it difficult or impossible to
meet the projected completion date.
Claims for extension of time must be based on
delays that are caused by the owner or the owner's
agents or on delays due to acts of God.
Time extensions are added to the original duration.
ChangedConditions&ChangeOrders
(Clause43&44)
Changes that are dictated, for any reason, during
constructionrepresentanalterationofalegalarrangement
and,therefore,mustbeformallyhandledasamodification
tothecontract.
ChangedConditions:Unknownsubsurfaceconditions.
Contractorsareawardeddamages+timeextension
ChangeOrder:Addition,deletion,orchangesthatimpacts
costA/Otime.
Sincechangeordersareminicontracts,their
implementationhasmanyoftheelementsoftheoriginal
contractbidcycle.
LiquidatedDamages
(Clause39)
Arbitrarydailydelaychargestoencouragethe
contractortomaintaincompletionschedule
LiquidatedDamages:Justifiedpenalties,that
reflectactuallossduetoprojectdelay
ProgressPaymentsandRetainage
(Clause50)
Workcompletedisestimatedbycontractoratendof
eachmonth,andapprovedbytheresidentengineer
(ownersrepresentative).
Estimatesofcompletionarepercentages,and
valuationiscumulative.
WorkItemsasstatedintheproposalform,modified
bycontractnegotiation.
Retainage:Deductionfromcontractorsmonthly
paymentstoguaranteeprojectcompletion
ProgressReporting
AfterAward,thecontractormustsubmitaschedule
ofactivities
ProgressPaymentsreflectvalueofworkcompleted,
notthetimetocomplete
BaselineSchedule,usinganyofthefollowing:
Cumulative(SCurve)
Bar/Ganttchart
Network(CPM)
Monthlyupdatereflectingprogressmonthto
month
LegalStructure
Proprietorship(singleowner):istheoldestformof
constructionorganization
Partnership:Astheneedforcapital,orexpertise
grew,Partnershipevolved.Eachpartnerisliableup
tohistotalassets(Risk/RewardSharing)
LLP:LimitedLiabilityPartnership,similarto
partnershipbutwithlimittopartners.
Corporation:ThedevelopmentofCapitalMarkets
ledtothecreationofseparatelegalentity,with
limitedliability
ManagementStructure
ManagementFunctions:
Organize(Chart,Description,LineofAuthority)
Staff
Plan,Direct,Monitor&Control
Leadership&DelegationofAuthority
ConstructionsDualOrganizations
EvolutionofOrganizations:
Centralized Horizontal Vertical Matrix

SpanofControl

.

200 200 50 15 5 1
300 300 100 30 10 2
300 300 100 30 10 3
200 200 50 15 5 4
200 200 50 15 5 5
200 200 50 15 5 6
300 300 100 30 10 7
300 300 100 30 10 8
100 100 50 15 5 9
10 10 2 ,3 ,1 10
http://www.mpwh.gov.sa:
600 600 250 75 1
500 500 200 50 2
500 500 200 50 3
600 600 250 75 4
500 500 200 50 5
500 500 200 50 6
600 600 250 75 7
http://www.mpwh.gov.sa:
EstimatingProcess
Agenda
Definitionofestimating
Whatisestimatinginconstruction?
Costvariableinconstruction
Typesofestimates
Conceptualestimate
Detailedestimate
AvoidingErrorsinEstimates
ESTIMATINGCONSTRUCTIONCOSTS
Thekeytoagoodjobandsuccessfulcostcontrol
isthedevelopmentofagoodestimateasthe
basisforbidsubmittal.
Estimatingistheprocessoflookingintothe
futureandtryingtopredictprojectcostsand
resourcerequirements.
Tominimizeerrors,aconsistentprocedureorset
ofstepsforpreparinganestimateisneededto
minimizeerrorsandachievereliableresults.
TYPESOFESTIMATES
TYPESOFESTIMATES
Type When? How?
Arepresentativeunitismultiplied
Priortothecommencementof byapriceperunittoobtainagross
Conceptual
design estimate( 10%accuracy)ofthe
facilitycost.
Bythearchitector
40%completionofthetotal architect/engineertoreflect
Preliminary
design expectedcostsbasedonmore
definitivedata.
Totaljobcostminusmarkup
Engineer Detaildesignisaccomplished Shouldachieveapproximately
3%accuracy.
Onthebasisofthebidding
documents,
Biddingphase
Bid Includeamarkupforprofit.
ConstructionManagement,3/EbyDanielW.Halpin
Copyright 2006byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
ConstructionManagement,3/EbyDanielW.Halpin
Copyright 2006byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
Example 1: A 5M GPD desalinization plant was constructed in 1995 at a cost of 20M.

What would be the cost of 15M GPD in 2005, if the cost capacity factor is
0.37,andDesalinizationIndexDI2005=107,andDI1995=99.
x
C1 Q1
CostCapacityformulaisoftheform: = , where x = cos t capacity factor (< 1)
C2 Q2
x
Q
0.37
15
C2 = C1 2 = 20 = 20 30.37 = 30 M
1
Q 5
C2(now)=30*107/99=32.4M
Example 2: You are required to submit an estimate for 6m high, 3000 m2 warehouse
construction. You looked up your cost file and found that you had built an
8mhigh,2500m2 for2.5M,7yearsagowhenthecostindexwas120.Ifthe
costindexisnow165,whatisyourcostestimatepercubicmeter?
Cost/m3(7)=2,500,000/(8*2,500)=125
Cost/m3(Now)=125*165/120=171.88
Estimate=171.88*6*3000=3,093,840
DETAILEDESTIMATEDEVELOPING
STEPS
1.Breaktheprojectintocostcenters.
2.Estimatethequantitiesrequiredforcostcentersthat
representphysicalenditems(e.g.,cubicyardsofearth,
linealfeetofpipe,etc.).Forphysicalsystemsthis
procedureiscommonlycalledquantitytakeoff.Forthose
costcentersthatrelatetononphysicalitems,determine
anappropriateparameterforcostcalculation(e.g.,the
levelofbuilder'sriskinsurancerequiredbythecontract
ortheamountsoftherequiredbonds).
ESTIMATEDEVELOPINGSTEPS(Contd)
3. Priceoutthequantitiesdeterminedinstep2usinghistorical
data,vendorquotations,suppliercatalogs,andotherpricing
information.Pricedevelopmentforphysicalworkitemsmay
requireananalysisoftheproductionratestobeachieved
basedonresourceanalysis.Ifthisanalysisisused,the
estimatormust:
a. Assumeworkteamcompositiontoincludenumberof
workers(skilledandunskilled)andequipmentrequired.
b. Onthebasisofteamcomposition,estimateanhourly
productionratebasedonthetechnologybeingused.
c. Makeanestimateoftheefficiencytobeachievedonthis
job,consideringsiteconditionsandotherfactors.
d. Calculatetheeffectiveunitprice.
4. Calculatethetotalpriceforeachcostcenter.
TypicalEstimate
SummarySheet
QUANTITYTAKEOFF
(SURVEYING)
Thedevelopmentofthequantitiesofworktobeplacedin
appropriateunits(e.g.,squarefeet,cubicyards,etc.).
Theproceduresemployedbytheestimatortocalculatethese
quantitiesshouldincorporatestepstominimizeerrors.
Fiveofthemostcommonerrorsexperiencedduringquantity
takeoffare:
1. Arithmetic:Errorsinaddition,subtraction,andmultiplication
2. Transposition:Mistakesincopyingortransferringfigures,dimensions,
orquantities
3. Errorsofomission:Overlookingitemscalledfororrequiredto
accomplishthework
4. Poorreference:Scalingdrawingsratherthanusingthedimensions
indicated
5. Unrealisticwasteorlossfactor.
WorkBreakdownStructureWBS
Foundation
Excavation Concrete Steel
ProjectControl 13
Workpackages
Aworkpackage isawelldefinedscopeofwork
thatusuallyterminatesinadeliverableproduct.
Eachpackagemayvaryinsizebutmustbea
measurableandcontrollableunitofworktobe
perform.
Italsomustbeidentifiableinanumerical
accountingsysteminordertopermitcaptureof
bothbudgetedandactualperformance
information.
Aworkpackageisacostcenter.
CSI MasterFormat 95 Titles for Divisions 1-16
1. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2. SITE CONSTRUCTION
3. CONCRETE
4. MASONRY
5. METALS
6. WOOD AND PLASTICS
7. THERMAL AND MOISTURE PROTECTION
8. DOORS AND WINDOWS
9. FINISHES
10. SPECIALTIES
11. EQUIPMENT
12. FURNISHINGS
13. SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION
14. CONVEYING SYSTEMS
15. MECHANICAL
16. ELECTRICAL
Division3 Concrete
1. Concrete:
Plain Concrete
Reinforced Concrete: Substructure
Reinforced Concrete: Superstructure
2. Formwork
Foundations
Columns
Beams
Slabs
3. Reinforcing Steel
PlainConcrete
Concrete is classified by type, strength, and location

Concrete volume is measured from detailed drawings
in cubic meters, rounded to the nearest 0.5 meter
Concrete Mat Slab on grade
Foundation (Spread, Columns
Continuous, Raft) Beams
Pedestal Slabs
Grade Beams Retaining Structures
Shear Walls Stairs & Landings
Use 5-10% waste factor
FoundationDetails
ASTMStandardReinforcingBars
Soft Nom Area Weight

Metric Diam mm2 Factors
Size mm kg/m
10 9.5 71 .560
13 12.7 129 .994
16 15.9 199 1.552
19 19.1 284 2.235
22 22.2 387 3.042
25 25.4 510 3.973
29 28.7 645 5.060
32 32.3 819 6.404
36 35.8 1006 7.907
43 43.0 1452 11.384
57 57.3 2581 20.239
Bar Size (kg/m) Area (mm)
6 0.222 28.3
8 0.395 50.3
10 0.617 78.5
12 0.888 113
14 1.21 154
16 1.58 201
20 2.47 314
25 3.85 491
28 4.83 616
32 6.31 804
40 9.86 1257
50 15.4 1963
SmallWallConstruction
Activity
Material
List
UnitPrice
Iftheworkisfairlystandard,thecostcanbecalculated
bysimplytakingdollarperunitcostfromcompany
recordsandapplyingthiscostwithaqualitative
correctionfactortothequantityofworktobe
performed.
Unitpricingvaluesareavailableinmanystandard
estimatingreferences:
R.S.MeansCompany,buildingConstructionCostData
F.R.Walker'sTheBuildingEstimator'sReferenceBook
TheRichardsonGeneralConstructionEstimating
Standards
LineItemCostDevelopment
UsingR.S.Means
Figure13.1(p.206)
Costsbasedonarepresentativeunit.
(FromBuildingConstructionCostData.CopyrightReed
ConstructionData,KingstonMA7815857880allrights
reserved.)
Theaccuracyofanestimateisameasureof
howaccurateorcorrectthenumbersinthe
estimateare
Thecompletenessofanestimateisameasure
ofwhetherthebidhasalltheitemsneeded
fortheprojectwithoutduplicatingitems
ListCostCodes
SpendMoreTimeonLargeCosts
PrepareDetailedEstimates
MarkItemsCountedDuringtheQuantity
Takeoff
DoubleCheckAllTakeoffs
IncludeUnitsinCalculations
AutomatewithSpreadsheets
UseWellTestedandCheckedFormulas
DoubleCheckAllCalculations
PerformCalculationsinTwoWays
DropthePennies
HaveSomeoneReviewtheEstimate
ReviewEachCostCodeasaPercentageofthe
TotalCosts
CheckUnitCostsforEachCostCode
CompareCoststoanotherProject
AllowPlentyofTime
Questions
PROJECT
CASH FLOW
Objective
Perform cash flow analysis without and

with advance payment.
Agenda
Cash Flow
Cash Flow Projection
Overdraft Requirements
Cash Flow
According to Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia:
It is an accounting term that refers to the

amounts of cash being received and spent
by a business during a defined period of
time, sometimes tied to a specific project.
Cash Flow (Contd)
Contractor incurs cost before receiving

monthly payments from Owner.
The difference between income & expense
is financed
Advanced payments reduce financing cost
Projects create a Financing Envelope
that limits the contractors ability to bid.
The projection of income and

expense during the life of a project
can be developed from several time-
scheduling aids used by the
contractor.
Example: See Figure 9.1
Month #1 Month #2 Month #3 Month #4
50,000
A
40,000
B
60,000
C
D 30,000
Monthly direct cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000

Monthly indirect cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
Total monthly costs 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Cumulative monthly costs 30,000 100,000 180,000 200,000

The flow of money from the owner to
the contractor is in the form of progress
payments.
Because of the delay in payment of
billings by the owner and the Retainage
withheld, the revenue profile lags
behind the expense S-curve
(Overdraft).
See Figure 9.2.
Expenses and Income Profiles

(Contd)
Contractors offset the overdraft
borrowing requirement by requesting
front or mobilization money (Advance
Payment) from the owner.
This shifts the position of the income
profile so that no overdraft occurs.
See Figure 9.3.
Influence of front, or mobilization payment on
expense and income profile
In order to know how much credit
must be made available at the
bank, the contractor needs to
know what the maximum
overdraft will be during the life of
the project.
See Table 9.1 & Figure 9.4
Overdraft Calculation
1. Calculate total price of work
performed at end of each billing
period.
2. Calculate total amount billed at end
of each billing period.
3. Calculate amount of payment
received.
4. Calculate Overdraft at end of month.
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6
OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN OUT IN IN

Direct Cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000
Indirect Cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Subtotal 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Profit (25%) 7,500 17,500 20,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Billed 37,500 87,500 100,000 25,000
Retainage
Withheld (10)
3,750 8,750 0 0
----- --------- --------- ---------
Payment Received 0 33,750 78,750 100,000 37,500

Overdraft End of
Month
30,000 100,300 147,553 90,279 (8,819) (46,319)
Interest on
Overdraft balance 300 1003 1,476 903 0
(1% per Month)
--------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Amount
Financed
30,300 101,303 149,029 91,182 (8,819)
Overdraft At end of month 2 = 30,300+70,000=100,300

Overdraft At end of month 3 = 101,303+80,000-33,750=147,553
Overdraft At end of month 5 = 91,181+0-100,000= -8,819

Overdraft At end of month 6 = -8,819 +0-37,500= -46,319
Cash Flow
No Advance Payment
ROR Calculation
No Advance Payment
In case if there is an
Advance Payment of 20,000
See Table 9-3
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6

Direct Cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000
Indirect Cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Subtotal 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Profit (25%) 7,500 17,500 20,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Billed 37,500 87,500 100,000 25,000
Retainage
Withheld (10)
3,750 8,750 0 0
----- --------- --------- ---------
Payment Received 20,000 33,750 78,750 100,000 17,500

Overdraft End of
Month
10,000 80,100 127,151 69,673 (29,630) (47,130)
Interest on
Overdraft balance 100 801 1272 697 0
(1% per Month)
--------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Amount
Financed
10,100 80,901 128,423 70,370 (29,630)


Cash Flow
With Advance Payment
ROR Calculation
Objectives

Questions
PROJECT
CASH FLOW
Objective

Agenda
Cash Flow
Cash Flow
According to Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia:
It is an accounting term that refers to the

amounts of cash being received and spent
by a business during a defined period of
time, sometimes tied to a specific project.
Cash Flow (Contd)
Contractor incurs cost before receiving

monthly payments from Owner.
The difference between income & expense
is financed
Advanced payments reduce financing cost
Projects create a Financing Envelope
that limits the contractors ability to bid.
The projection of income and

expense during the life of a project
can be developed from several time-
scheduling aids used by the
contractor.
Example: See Figure 9.1
Month #1 Month #2 Month #3 Month #4
50,000
A
40,000
B
60,000
C
D 30,000
Monthly direct cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000

Monthly indirect cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
Total monthly costs 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Cumulative monthly costs 30,000 100,000 180,000 200,000

The flow of money from the owner to
the contractor is in the form of progress
payments.
Because of the delay in payment of
billings by the owner and the Retainage
withheld, the revenue profile lags
behind the expense S-curve
(Overdraft).
See Figure 9.2.
Expenses and Income Profiles

(Contd)
Contractors offset the overdraft
borrowing requirement by requesting
front or mobilization money (Advance
Payment) from the owner.
This shifts the position of the income
profile so that no overdraft occurs.
See Figure 9.3.
Influence of front, or mobilization payment on
expense and income profile
In order to know how much credit
must be made available at the
bank, the contractor needs to
know what the maximum
overdraft will be during the life of
the project.
See Table 9.1 & Figure 9.4
Overdraft Calculation
1. Calculate total price of work
performed at end of each billing
period.
2. Calculate total amount billed at end
of each billing period.
3. Calculate amount of payment
received.
4. Calculate Overdraft at end of month.
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6

Direct Cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000
Indirect Cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Subtotal 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Profit (25%) 7,500 17,500 20,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Billed 37,500 87,500 100,000 25,000
Retainage
Withheld (10)
3,750 8,750 0 0
----- --------- --------- ---------
Payment Received 0 33,750 78,750 100,000 37,500

Overdraft End of
Month
30,000 100,300 147,553 90,279 (8,819) (46,319)
Interest on
Overdraft balance 300 1003 1,476 903 0
(1% per Month)
--------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Amount
Financed
30,300 101,303 149,029 91,182 (8,819)
Overdraft At end of month 2 = 30,300+70,000=100,300


Cash Flow
No Advance Payment
ROR Calculation
No Advance Payment
In case if there is an
Advance Payment of 20,000
See Table 9-3
Month
1 2 3 4 5 6

Direct Cost 25,000 65,000 75,000 15,000
Indirect Cost 5,000 5,000 5,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Subtotal 30,000 70,000 80,000 20,000
Profit (25%) 7,500 17,500 20,000 5,000
--------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Billed 37,500 87,500 100,000 25,000
Retainage
Withheld (10)
3,750 8,750 0 0
----- --------- --------- ---------
Payment Received 20,000 33,750 78,750 100,000 17,500

Overdraft End of
Month
10,000 80,100 127,151 69,673 (29,630) (47,130)
Interest on
Overdraft balance 100 801 1272 697 0
(1% per Month)
--------- --------- --------- --------- ---------
Total Amount
Financed
10,100 80,901 128,423 70,370 (29,630)


Cash Flow
ROR Calculation
Objectives

Questions
Basics of Cost and
Schedule Control
Dr. Mahmoud Abdel Salam Taha-Spring 2009
Topics
Monitoring and Scheduling: Two Parts of a
Feedback System.
Definitions
Schedule Updates from Monitoring
Components of Effective Monitoring
Cost Control As A Management Tool
Project Cost Control Systems
Earned Value Method
Parameters
Example
Scenarios

Monitoring and Control:
Two Parts of a Feedback System
Goal is to detect and correct deviation from
desired
Budget
Schedule
Quality
Detection: Monitoring
Correction: Control
Much harder than monitoring!!
Bring project performance back in line with plans
Typical: Bring plans in line with performance
Growing Expenditures, Declining

Control

Definitions
Project Monitoring is the set of
procedures and management practices
used to collect information about the
performance achieved or forecasted in a
project, based on a set of performance
metrics.
Performance Analysis: The process of
determining performance variances based
on monitored or forecasted performance.
Definitions
Project Control: is the establishment of a system to measure
report, and forecast deviations in the project scope, budget, and
schedule.
The purpose of project control is to adjust the project to meet its
goals by assessing the performance of the project, analyzing
the causes of performance problems, designing changes to
address problems that are determined to need attentions and
implementing those changes through control actions.
Project control is distinguished from project planning in two
Important ways: 1) project control yields a set of designs,
decisions, and actions, whereas project planning yields a
design and 2) project control is a real time process during the
implementation Not before the implementation begins.
Schedule Updates from
Monitoring
New estimates for activity
Costs
Durations
Resource availability
New critical path
May lead to changed monitoring priorities
NB: A schedule that does not get updated to
reflect in--field conditions is
Unlikely to be used
Dangerous if used
Components of Effective
Monitoring
Representative Performance Metrics
(established at planning phase)
Cost & Schedule Milestones should be well--
defined and defined and clearly
approved/rejected.
Reporting Schedule (perhaps of variable
ts)
Financial importance of activity
Activity criticality Rate of work
Rate of work
Difficulty of work Dr. Mahmoud Abdel Salam Taha-Spring 2009
Components of Effective
Monitoring (Contd)
Management Scheme organized for honestly

and accurately identifying and reporting
performance
Involvement of responsible and
knowledgeable people in the reporting
scheme
Project Reviews (walkthroughs &
inspections)
Project Audits
COST CONTROL AS A
MANAGEMENT TOOL
The early detection of actual or potential
cost overruns in field construction activities
is vital to management.
It provides the opportunity to initiate
remedial action and increases the chance
of eliminating such overruns or minimizing
their impact.
Cost overruns increase project costs and
diminish profits

PROJECT COST CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. Charts of Accounts
2. Project Cost Plan
3. Data Collection
4. Data Reporting
5. Decision
COST ACCOUNTS
The first step in establishing, a cost control
system for a construction job is the definition of
project-level cost centers.
Their primary function is to divide the total
project into significant control units, each
consisting of a given type of work that can be
measured in the field.
See Fig 15.2 Textbook page 254.

Cost Coding Systems
A variety of cost coding systems exist in
practice, and standard charts of accounts
are published by organizations such as the
American Road Builders Association,
Associated General Contractors, and the
Construction Specifications Institute.
Table 15.1 Textbook page 255 (UCI)
Fig 15.3 Textbook page 256.
PROJECT COST CODE

STRUCTURE
Example from R.S. Means

Large & Complex Projects
1. Labor 6. Construction equipment

2. Permanent materials 7. Supply
3. Temporary materials 8. Subcontract
4. Installed equipment 9. Indirect
5. Expendables
Integrated Construction Management
Figure 15.6
(p.259 )
Product control
matrix.

Figure 15.7
(p. 259)
Three-
dimensional
visualization of
work-package-
oriented cost
accounts.
EARNED VALUE METHOD

One widely accepted way of calculating progress on
complex projects using a work or account based
breakdown system.
This system of determining project progress addresses
both schedule status (e.g., on schedule, behind
schedule, etc.) and cost status (e.g., over budget. etc.).
This method of tracking cost and schedule was originally
implemented by the Department of Defense in the late
1970s to help better control complex projects. The
system was called the Cost and Schedule Control
Systems Criteria or C/SCSC.

Earned Value method
parameters
1.BCWS: Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled = Value of the
baseline at a given time
2.ACWP: Actual Cost of Work Performed - Measured in
the field
3.BCWP: Budgeted Cost of Work Performed = [%
Complete] x BCAC
4.BCAC: Budgeted Cost At Completion = Contracted Total
Cost for the Work Package
5.AQWP: Actual Quantity of Work Performed - Measured
in the field
6.BQAC: Budgeted Quantity at Completion - Value of the
Quantity Baseline as Projected at a given Point.
See Fig 15-10 textbook page 261
Earned Value method (Contd)
Example: See textbook page 262-264
See Figure 15.13 textbook page 265

Figure 15.11-A Simple Project Hierarchy.

Figure 15.12a (p. 264)
State of Control Account for Single Project (continued on next two slides).
Figure 15.12b (cont.)

Figure 15.12c (cont.)
Figure 15.13 (p. 265)

Scenarios for Permutations
Between ACWP, BCWP, and
BCWS (Singh, 1991).

Table 15.3 (p. 266)
Values of CPL, CV, and SPI, SV for the Six Scenarios (Singh, 1991).
Questions!

1. Chart of Cost Accounts
What will be the basis adopted for
developing estimated project
expenditures, and how will this basis be
related to the firm's general accounts and
accounting functions?
What will be the level of detail adopted in
defining the project cost accounts and how
will they interface with other financial
accounts?
2. Project Cost Plan

How will the cost accounts be utilized to
allow comparisons between the project
estimate and cost plan with actual costs as
recorded in the field?
How will the project budget estimate be
related to the construction plan and
schedule in the formation of a project cost
control framework?

3. Cost Data Collection
How will cost data be collected and

integrated into the cost reporting system?
4. Project Cost Reporting
What project cost reports are relevant and

required by project management in its cost
management of the project?

5. Cost Engineering
What cost engineering procedures should
project management implement in its
efforts to minimize costs?

Figure 15.2 (p. 254)
List of typical product expense
(cost) accounts.
Figure 15.3 (p. 256)

Detailed codes for classification
within the Uniform Construction
Index

Figure 15.10 (p. 261)
Control Values for Earned
Value Analysis.
MATERIAL
MANAGEMENT
Dr. Mahmoud A.Salem-Springl 2009
Objective
Recognize professional issues such as

material management process.

Agenda
Material Management Process

Order
Approval Process
Fabrication & Delivery Process
Installation Process
Material Types
Introduction to Material
Management
What is material management?
Determining what materials are needed
Receiving quotes from suppliers
Developing purchase orders
Ordering materials
Managing the delivery of materials
Identifying storage locations for
materials
Material Management Process
Fabrication
Approval & Delivery Installation
Order Process
Process Process
Phases of Material Life Cycle
Selecting Materials
Review quantity takeoff (BOM) for:

Quantities of materials
Special or long-lead-time materials
and equipment
Machinery needed to install materials
and equipment
Potential substitutions

Selecting Suppliers
Most contractors have established

relationships with a few suppliers
Review past delivery performance
Review pricing
Understand quality of materials
Select best suppliers using above criteria
ORDER
When the contract for construction is awarded, the
contractor immediately begins awarding
SUBCONTRACTS and preparing PURCHASE
ORDERS for the various parts of the work.
The subcontract agreement defines the specialized
portion of the work to be performed and binds the
contractor and subcontractor to certain obligations.
The subcontractor, through the agreement, must
provide all materials and perform all work described
in the agreement.
See Appendix G for AGC Standard Subcontract
Agreement
ORDER
All provisions of the agreement between the
owner and contractor are made part of the
subcontract agreement by reference.
Article 6.17 (Appendix A) of the General
Conditions is particularly important
concerning material supplied by a
subcontractor or supplier.
Paragraph 6.17C provides that "Where a
Shop Drawing or Sample is required by the
Contract Documents. . . , any related Work
performed prior to ENGINEER's review and
approval of the pertinent submittal will be at
the sole expense and responsibility of
CONTRACTOR.
Develop Purchase Orders

The purchase order is a purchase contract between the
contractor and the supplier. This document depicts the
materials to be supplied, their quantities, and the
amount of the purchase order.
Purchase orders vary in complexity and can be as
simple as a mail order form (e.g., Department Store
Catalogue) or almost as complex as the construction
contract itself.
When complex and specially fabricated items are to be
included in the construction, very detailed specifications
and drawings become part of the purchase order.
See Figures (16-3) and (16-4)
Elements of Purchase Order
Five items can be identified as follows:
1. Quantity or number of items required.
2. Item description. This may be a standard
description and stock number from a catalogue
or a complex set of drawings and
specifications.
3. Unit price.
4. Special instructions
5. Signatures of agents empowered to enter into a
contractual agreement.
FOB location
Price quotations normally establish an FOB location at which
point the vendor will make the goods available to the
purchaser.
FOB means Free on Board and defines the fact that the
vendor will be responsible for presenting the goods free on
board at some mutually agreed on point such as the
vendor's sales location, factory, or the purchaser's yard or
job site.
The vendor may quote the price as cost, insurance, and
freight (CIF), i.e. the quoted price includes item Cost plus
Insurance expenses and the shipment cost to include Freight
to the FOB location.

The Bill of Lading
The bill of lading is a contractual agreement
between a common carrier and a shipper to
move a specified item or group of goods from
point A to point B at a contracted price.
If ownership passes to the purchaser at the
vendor's location, the contract for shipment is
made out between the purchaser and the
common carrier.
In cases in which the vendor has quoted a CIF
price, he acts as the agent of the purchaser in
retaining a carrier and establishing the
agreement on behalf of the purchaser.
The Bill of Lading

If goods are to be paid cash on delivery (i.e.,
COD), the title of ownership passes at the time
of payment.
In such cases, the bill of lading is between
vendor and common carrier.
If damage should occur during shipment,
recovery of loss falls to the vendor as owner.
See Figure (16-5)
A typical bill of lading memorandum is shown in
Figure 16.6.

Invoice
The invoice normally states the payment
procedures and establishes trade discounts that
are available to the purchaser if he pays in a
timely fashion.
Trade discounts are incentives offered by the
vendor for early payment. If the purchaser pays
within a specified period, he must pay the stated
price minus a discount.
Failure to pay within the discount period means
that the full price is due and payable.
Trade discounts received are treated as earned
income in financial statements.
See Figure 16.7Dr. Mahmoud A.Salem-Springl 2009
Terminology Relating to Trade

Discounts
ROG/AOG: The discount period begins upon receipt
of goods (ROG) or arrival of goods (AOG).
2/10 NET 30 ROG: This expression appearing on
the invoice means 2% can be deducted from the
invoiced amount if the contractor pays within 10
days of AOG/ROG. Full payment is due within 30
days of AOG/ROG.
2/10 PROX NET 30: A 2% cash discount is available
if invoice is paid not later than the 10th of the month
following ROG. Payment is due in full by the end of
the following month.
2/10 E.O.M.: The discount (2%) is available to the
11th of the month following ROG. Payment in full is
due thereafter. Dr. Mahmoud A.Salem-Springl 2009
APPROVAL PROCESS
Details that further amplify the contract
drawings, submitted by Subs & suppliers are:
(1) shop drawings,
(2) product data, and
(3) samples.
Shop Drawings
Shop drawings are defined as "All drawings, diagrams,
illustrations, schedules, and other data or information which are
specifically prepared or assembled by or for CONTRACTOR and
submitted by CONTRACTOR to illustrate some portion of the
Work."
The detailing, production, and supplying of shop drawings are the
sole responsibility of the contractor or the contracted agent.
The design professional is responsible for verification that the
supplied shop drawings correctly interpret the contract
documents.
Dimensions, quantities, and coordination with other trades are the
responsibility of the contractor.
Approved shop drawings become the critical working drawings of
a project and are considered a part of the contract documents.
Typically, shop drawings are submitted for materials such as
reinforcing steel, formwork, pre-cast concrete, structural steel,
millwork, casework, metal doors, and curtain walls.
Product Data
Product data may be submitted to illustrate the
performance characteristics of the material items
described by the shop drawings or may be
submitted as verification that a standard product
meets the contract specifications.
Product data are illustrations, standard schedules,
performance charts, instructions, brochures,
diagrams, and other information furnished by the
contractor to illustrate a material, product, or system
for some portion of the work.
Mill test reports, concrete mix designs, masonry fire
rating tests, curtain wall wind test reports, and
mechanical equipment performance tests are
examples of product data.
Samples
Samples usually involve the finishes of a project
and are physical examples of materials to be
supplied.
The architect may require samples of plastic
laminate finishes for doors and counters,
flooring, wall coverings, paint, pre-cast concrete,
ceilings, and other items.
These are used by the architect in developing
the overall building finish scheme.

Stages of the Approval Process
1. submission by the subcontractor or supplier,
2. review of the submittal by the contractor,
3. review by the architect or design, professional, and
4. return of submittal to the subcontractor or supplier.
Approved.
Approved with noted corrections; no return submittal
needed.
Approved with noted corrections; however, a final
submittal is required.
Not approved; resubmit.
FABRICATION AND DELIVERY

PROCESS
Of the four phases of a material's life cycle the
fabrication and delivery process is the most
critical.
Generally, the largest amount of time is lost
and/or gained in this phase.
The duration of the fabrication and delivery
process depends directly on the nature of the
material and the amount of physical
transformation involved.
For these reasons, the contractor must employ
every available method of monitoring materials
throughout the fabrication and delivery process.

FABRICATION AND DELIVERY
PROCESS
Materials delivered are checked for
compliance with the approved submittal as
regards quality, quantity, dimensions, and
other requirements.
Discrepancies are reported to the
subcontractor or supplier.
These discrepancies, whether they be
shortages or fabrication errors, are subjected
to the same monitoring and controlling
process as the entire order.
INSTALLATION PROCESS
The installation process involves the physical
incorporation into the project of a material item.
Materials arriving at the job site may be
installed immediately, partially installed and
partially stored, or completely stored for later
installation.
When storage occurs, the installation process
becomes directly dependent on the effective
storage of materials.
One of the most important aspects of the
effective storage of materials is the physical
protection of material items.
Select Storage Sites
For expansive sites:

Storage may be at a location adjacent to the
site
Storage may be at the point of installation
For small/tight sites:
Storage may be in a room inside the new
facility
Storage may be in rented buildings or land
nearby
MATERIAL TYPES
1. bulk materials that require little or

no fabrication,
2. manufacturer's standard items that
require some fabrication, and
3. items that are fabricated or
customized for a particular project.
See Tables 16-1, 16-2 & 16-3
Questions
Figure 16.3 (p. 277)

Field purchase order (courtesy of Henry C. Beck Co.).

Figure 16.4 (p. 278)
Formal purchase order
(courtesy of Henry C. Beck
Co.).
Figure 16.5 (p. 279)

Procurement documents and title transfer sequence.

Figure 16.6 (pp. 280-281)
Typical bill of lading (courtesy of Augusta Meadow Steel Products, Inc.)
(Continued on next slide.)
Figure 16.7 (p. 282)

Typical invoice (courtesy of Bibb Steel & Supply Company).

CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
AND ETHICS
Civil & Construction Engineering

Building the Physical Environment
Project areas include:
Environmental
Geotechnical
Structural
Transportation
Water Resources
1
Ethical Concerns for Public
Health
Safety
Welfare
Stewardship
Engineering as a Social
Experiment
(Martin & Schinzinger, 1989)
Engineers are researchers

Clients (humans) are subjects
Subjects must be aware of risk exposure
from researchers
Researchers faced with many moral and
ethical decisions
2
Ethical Issues in Engineering
(Koehn, 1993)
Incompetence & Misrepresentation
Conflict of Interests
Discrimination/Favoritism/Harassment
Misuse of Resources
Failure to Protect Health, Safety, Welfare
Improper Relations with Professionals
Ethical Issues, cont.
Improper Community/Political Involvement

Mishandling Sensitive Information
Failure to Deal with Employee Concerns
Alcohol/Drug Abuse
Failure to Protect Environment
Poor Quality Control
A set of principals or rules which members of a group

agree to abide by.
A set of values or a guiding philosophy of the
estimator.
4
Theories for Ethical Decisions
Commonly Accepted Ethical Theories:
Egoism
Virtue Theory
Utilitarianism
Moral Rights
Egoism -
A person should do what is in their personal
best interest.
Example: I will focus on my personal goals.
5
Virtue Theory -
A person should do what their group
considers to be good.
Example: I will be a responsible and law-

abiding citizen of my community.
Utilitarianism -
A person should do what is in the best
interests of the community, greatest good
for greatest number.
Example: I will consider how my actions

affect the most people.
6
Moral Rights ( )
A person should have respect for other
peoples moral rights.
Example: I will not harm another person to

gain benefits for me or others.
Framework for Ethical Decisions:

Code of Ethics
Vesilind (1987) suggests three objectives:
1. Enhance the image of the profession

2. Clarify rules of conduct in the profession
3. Promote the public good
7

Code of Ethics for Engineers
ABET Code of Ethics for Engineers

now housed by
American Association of Engineering Societies (AAES)
The Fundamental Cannons
ABET Code of ethics for Engineers (now housed by

American Association of Engineering Societies AAES)
The Fundamental Cannons:

Engineers shall hold paramount safety, health and welfare of the
public in the performance of their professional duties.

Engineers shall perform services only in the area of their competence.

Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and
truthful manner.

Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client
as faithful agents or trustees, and shall avoid conflict of interest.

8
ABET Code of ethics for Engineers (now housed by
American Association of Engineering Societies AAES)
The Fundamental Cannons: (continued)

Engineers shall build their professional reputations on the merit of
their services and shall not compete unfairly with others.

Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the
honor, integrity and dignity of the profession.

Engineers shall continue their professional development, throughout
their career, and shall provide opportunities for professional
development of those engineers under their supervision.

Civil Engineering Code of Ethics

American Society of Civil Engineers
Code of Ethics
(www.asce.org/professional/ethics/)
9
Case Study
What: Hyatt Regency Walkway Collapse
Where: Kansas City, Missouri
When: July 17, 1981
Why: Negligence
How Much: 114 Deaths
200+ Injured
Numerous Lawsuits
Case Study

1981 -

10
Case Study

1981 -

Suspension rod
connected to atrium roof
ay
r walkw
o
rt h flo
Fou Washer & Nut
way
o r walk
lo
nd f
Seco Washer & Nut
Box beam
Case Study

1981 -

Rod connected to
atrium roof
11
Case Study

1981 -

Design modification by the

Manufacturer
Replaced one-rod system

by two-rods system
Motivation:
1- facilitate assembly
2- avoid threading the entire rod
2P
Investigation
Design modification
were stamped
APPROVED without
being checked.
The Result
www.ethics.tamu.edu
12
The Culprit
www.ethics.tamu.edu
What Happened
1. Engineer designed continuous rod support
2. Contractor requested double-rod support
3. Engineer approved, but did not re-analyze
revised design
4. Fourth floor box beam carried the load of
two floors (2nd and 4th)
5. Collapse
6. Two engineers at the design firm had their
licenses revoked
13
Ethically Speaking
It wasnt a matter of doing something wrong, they
just never did it at all. Nobody ever did any
calculations to figure out whether or not the
particular connection that held the skywalks up
would work. It got built without anybody ever
figuring out if it would be strong enough. It just
slipped through the cracks.
Patrick McLarney
Attorney for Missouri Licensing Board
(Levy and Salvadori, 2002)
Ethical Theory Applications
Egoism
If I had checked the design, I would still
have my license.
Virtue Theory
If I had checked the design, then I would
not have reflected poorly on the engineering
community.
14
Ethical Theory Applications,
cont.
Utilitarianism
If I had checked the design, then all of
those people would not have been killed.
Moral Rights
I must always check the design because
everyone who enters the building has the
right to health, safety, and welfare.
Questions
15

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ENES 110 - Statics

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Engineering Mechanics: Statics Tenth Edition

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 1

Statics, Units, Calculations &

Mechanics can be defined as that branch

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 3

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 5

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 7

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 9

Newtons Three Laws of Motion

directly proportional to the force.

Newtons Three Laws of Motion (contd)

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 11

Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction

F = force of gravitation between the two particles

m1 m2 = mass of each of the particles

Newtons Law of Gravitational Attraction

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 13

W = mg ( g = 9.81 m/s 2 ) (1-4)

U.S. Customary Units

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 15

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 17

International System of Units (SI)

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 19

Must have dimensional homogeneity.

Be consistent when rounding off

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 21

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 23

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 25

Law of Sines and Cosines

sin() = sin() = sin()

Chapter 1. GENERAL PRINCIPLES Slide No. 27

Properties of Right Triangles

A2 + B2 = C2 (Pythagorean Theorem) Hypotenuse

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 1

To show how to add forces and resolve

determine the angle between two vectors or

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 3

There are four

Scalar and Vectors

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 5

Scalar and Vectors

Notations for Vectors

designate the vector A. Its magnitude is

Scalar and Vectors

Addition rule: Simple arithmetic Cartesian Components

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 7

Scalar and Vectors

Multiplication or Division of a Vector by a

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 9

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 11

Vector Addition of Forces

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 13

Vector Addition of Forces

magnitude, while the law of sines is used to

Vector Addition of Forces

Law of Sines and Cosines

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 15

Vector Addition of Forces

Vector Addition of Forces

Chapter 2a. FORCE VECTORS Slide No. 17

Vector Addition of Forces

FR = (100)2 + (150)2 2(100)(150) cos115 = 212.6 = 213 N

150 212.6 150 sin 115