Alternative fuel vehicle 1

Alternative fuel vehicle

An alternative fuel vehicle is a vehicle that runs on a fuel other
than "traditional" petroleum fuels (petrol or diesel); and also refers
to any technology of powering an engine that does not involve
solely petroleum (e.g. electric car, hybrid electric vehicles, solar
powered). Because of a combination of factors, such as
environmental concerns, high oil prices and the potential for peak
oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power
systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many
governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually Toyota Prius, a hybrid vehicle. Museum of Toyota of
alternative fuel vehicles, but through advanced technologies in the Aichi Prefecture, Japan.

electric battery and motor/generator, they make a more efficient

use of petroleum fuel. Other research and development efforts in
alternative forms of power focus on developing all-electric and
fuel cell vehicles, and even the stored energy of compressed air.

As of 2011 there were more than one billion vehicles in use in the
world, compared with over 80 million alternative fuel and
advanced technology vehicles that had been sold or converted
worldwide as of October 2013[1], and made up mainly of:
About 34 million flexible-fuel vehicles as of October 2013[1],
led by Brazil with over 23 million units (made of 20 million A Brazilian filling station with four alternative fuels for
cars and light duty vehicles, and 3 million flex fuel sale: biodiesel (B3), gasohol (E25), neat ethanol
motorcycles), followed by the United States with almost 10 (E100), and compressed natural gas (CNG). Piracicaba,
Brazil.
million flex-fuel cars and light duty trucks, Canada
(600,000),[2] and Europe, led by Sweden (229,400).[3]
17.8 million natural gas vehicles as of December 2012[1], led by Iran with 3.30 million, followed by Pakistan
(2.79 million), Argentina (2.29 million), Brazil (1.75 million), China (1.58 million) and India (1.5 million).
17.5 million LPG powered vehicles by December 2010, led by Turkey with 2.39 million, Poland (2.32 million),
and South Korea (2.3 million).
Over 7 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide as of December 2013[1], led by Toyota Motor
Company (TMC) with more than 6 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold through December 2013, followed by
Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1 million hybrids by September 2012, and Ford
Motor Corporation with more than 277thousand hybrids sold in the United States by September 2013.[4][5][6] The
world's best selling hybrid is the Toyota Prius, with 3 million units sold by June 2013. Global sales are led by the
United States with over 3million units sold by October 2013, followed by Japan with over 2.6million hybrids by
September 2013,[7][8] and Europe with more than 650,000 units by August 2013.[]
5.7 million neat-ethanol only light-vehicles built in Brazil since 1979,[9] with 2.4 to 3.0 million vehicles still in
use by 2003. and 1.22 million units as of December 2011.
Over one million plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) sold worldwide by the end of December 2013. Most electric
vehicles in the world roads are low-speed, low-range neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), with about 479,000
NEVs on the road by 2011. In addition, just in China, a total of 200,000 low-speed small electric cars were sold in
2013. As of December 2013[1], over 380,000 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility
vehicles have been sold worldwide. Plug-in car sales are led by the United States with over 170,000 units
Alternative fuel vehicle 2

delivered since 2008, followed by Japan with over 71,000 units since 2009, China with about 38,600 units since
2011, the Netherlands with 28,673 units since 2009, France with 28,560 all-electric cars and light utility vans
since 2010, and Norway with 20,486 plug-in electric vehicles since 2003. As of mid January 2014, the world's
best selling highway-capable plug-in electric car is the Nissan Leaf all-electric car, with 100,000 units sold
worldwide by mid January 2014, followed by the Volt/Ampera family of plug-in hybrids, with combined sales of
about 70,000 units sold by January 2014, the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with about 48,600 units sold by
December 2013,[10] and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV family of electric car and vans, with global cumulative sales of
more than 36,000 units through October 2013.
An environmental analysis extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. A life-cycle assessment of a
vehicle involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on
a single factor such as the type of fuel.

Single fuel source

Air engine
The air engine is an emission-free piston engine that uses compressed air as a source of energy. The first compressed
air car was invented by a French engineer named Guy Ngre. The expansion of compressed air may be used to drive
the pistons in a modified piston engine. Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at
normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion
has the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust is cold air (15 C), which could
also be used to air condition the car. The source for air is a pressurized carbon-fiber tank. Air is delivered to the
engine via a rather conventional injection system. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during
which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two stage process allows improved heat transfer rates.

Battery-electric
Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), also known as all-electric vehicles
(AEVs), are electric vehicles whose main energy storage is in the
chemical energy of batteries. BEVs are the most common form of what
is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero
emission vehicle (ZEV) because they produce no tailpipe emissions at
the point of operation. The electrical energy carried on board a BEV to
power the motors is obtained from a variety of battery chemistries
arranged into battery packs. For additional range genset trailers or
pusher trailers are sometimes used, forming a type of hybrid vehicle. General Motors EV1 electric car.
Batteries used in electric vehicles include "flooded" lead-acid,
absorbed glass mat, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries.

Attempts at building viable, modern battery-powered electric vehicles began in the 1950s with the introduction of the
first modern (transistor controlled) electric car - the Henney Kilowatt, even though the concept was out in the market
since 1890. Despite the poor sales of the early battery-powered vehicles, development of various battery-powered
vehicles continued through the mids 1990s, with such models as the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV.
Alternative fuel vehicle 3

Battery powered cars had primarily used lead-acid batteries and NiMH
batteries. Lead-acid batteries' recharge capacity is considerably
reduced if they're discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis, making
them a less-than-ideal solution. NiMH batteries are a better choice, but
are considerably more expensive than lead-acid. Lithium-ion battery
powered vehicles such as the Venturi Fetish and the Tesla Roadster
The Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling have recently demonstrated excellent performance and range, but they
highway-capable all-electric car in history, remain expensive, nevertheless is used in most mass production
surpassed the 100,000 global sales milestone in models launched since December 2010.
January 2014.
As of December 2013[1], several neighborhood electric vehicles, city
electric cars and series production highway-capable electric cars and utility vans are available in several countries,
including Tesla Roadster, GEM cars, Buddy, Mitsubishi i MiEV and its rebadged versions Peugeot iOn and Citron
C-Zero, Chery QQ3 EV, JAC J3 EV, Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, Mia electric, BYD e6, Renault Kangoo Z.E., Bollor
Bluecar, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus Electric, BMW ActiveE, Renault Twizy, Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV,
RAV4 EV second generation, Renault Zoe, Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV, Roewe E50, Chevrolet Spark EV, Fiat 500e,
BMW i3 and Volkswagen e-Up!. Other models scheduled for market launch between 2013 and 2014 include the
Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive, Volkswagen XL1, and Tesla Model X. As of January
2014[1], the world's best selling highway-capable plug-in electric car is the Nissan Leaf all-electric car, with over
100,000 units sold since December 2010.

Solar

A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained

from solar panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be used
to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at this
time, but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles.
They are raced in competitions such as the World Solar Challenge
and the North American Solar Challenge. These events are often
sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States
Department of Energy keen to promote the development of
alternative energy technology such as solar cells and electric
vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by universities to
develop their students engineering and technological skills as well
as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda.
Nuna team at a racecourse.
Alternative fuel vehicle 4

Nuna solar powered car, which has travelled up to

140km/h (84mph).

The North American Solar Challenge is a solar car race across

North America. Originally called Sunrayce, organized and
sponsored by General Motors in 1990, it was renamed American
Solar Challenge in 2001, sponsored by the United States
Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory. Teams from universities in the United States and
Canada compete in a long distance test of endurance as well as
efficiency, driving thousands of miles on regular highways.

Nuna is the name of a series of manned solar powered vehicles

that won the World solar challenge in Australia three times in a
Trev's battery lasts over 250,000 kilometres. row, in 2001 (Nuna 1 or just Nuna), 2003 (Nuna 2) and 2005
(Nuna 3). The Nunas are built by students of the Delft University
of Technology.
The World solar challenge is a solar powered car race over 3,021 kilometres (1,877mi) through central Australia
from Darwin to Adelaide. The race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or
corporations although some are fielded by high schools.
Trev (two-seater renewable energy vehicle) was designed by the staff and students at the University of South
Australia. Trev was first displayed at the 2005 World Solar Challenge as the concept of a low-mass, efficient
commuter car. With 3 wheels and a mass of about 300kg, the prototype car had maximum speed of 120km/h and
acceleration of 0100km/h in about 10 seconds. The running cost of Trev is projected to be less than 1/10 of the
running cost of a small petrol car.

Dimethyl ether fuel

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising fuel in diesel engines,[11] petrol
engines (30% DME / 70% LPG), and gas turbines owing to its high
cetane number, which is 55, compared to diesel's, which is
4053.[12][13] Only moderate modification are needed to convert a
diesel engine to burn DME. The simplicity of this short carbon chain
compound leads during combustion to very low emissions of
particulate matter, NOx, CO. For these reasons as well as being
sulfur-free, DME meets even the most stringent emission regulations in
Installation of BioDME synthesis towers at
Europe (EURO5), U.S. (U.S. 2010), and Japan (2009 Japan).[14] Mobil
Chemrec's pilot facility
is using DME in their methanol to gasoline process.
Alternative fuel vehicle 5

DME is being developed as a synthetic second generation biofuel (BioDME), which can be manufactured from
lignocellulosic biomass.[15] Currently the EU is considering BioDME in its potential biofuel mix in 2030;[16] the
Volvo Group is the coordinator for the European Community Seventh Framework Programme project
BioDME[17][18] where Chemrec's BioDME pilot plant based on black liquor gasification is nearing completion in
Pite, Sweden.[19]

Ammonia fuelled vehicles

Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium,
and in engine and solar energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid
ammonia also fuelled the Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine, that
powered the X-15 hypersonic research aircraft. Although not as
powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and
its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid
oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.

Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for

internal combustion engines. The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5
MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb), which is about half that of diesel. In a normal
engine, in which the water vapour is not condensed, the calorific value
Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New
of ammonia will be about 21% less than this figure. It can be used in Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871.
existing engines with only minor modifications to
carburettors/injectors.

If produced from coal, the CO2 can be readily sequestered (the

combustion products are nitrogen and water).
Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working
fluid, have been proposed and occasionally used. The principle is
similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with ammonia as the
working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines
were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney
in the UK and in streetcars in New Orleans. In 1981 a Canadian
company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia The X-15 aircraft used ammonia as one
as fuel.[20] component fuel of its rocket engine

Ammonia and GreenNH3 is being used with success by developers in

Canada, since it can run in spark ignited or diesel engines with minor modifications,also the only green fuel to power
jet engines, and despite its toxicity is reckoned to be no more dangerous than petrol or LPG. It can be made from
renewable electricity, and having half the density of petrol or diesel can be readily carried in sufficient quantities in
vehicles. On combustion it has no emissions other than nitrogen and water vapour.[citation needed]

Biofuels
Alternative fuel vehicle 6

Bioalcohol and ethanol

The first commercial vehicle that used ethanol as a fuel was the Ford
Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a
carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol,
or a combination of both.[21] Other car manufactures also provided
engines for ethanol fuel use. In the United States, alcohol fuel was
produced in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the
production of alcohol in 1919. The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal
combustion engines, either alone or in combination with other fuels,
lapsed until the oil price shocks of the 1970s. Furthermore, additional
attention was gained because of its possible environmental and
long-term economical advantages over fossil fuel.
The Ford Model T was the first commercial
flex-fuel vehicle. The engine was capable of
Both ethanol and methanol have been used as an automotive fuel.
running on gasoline or ethanol, or a mix of both.
While both can be obtained from petroleum or natural gas, ethanol has
attracted more attention because it is considered a renewable resource,
easily obtained from sugar or starch in crops and other agricultural
produce such as grain, sugarcane, sugar beets or even lactose. Since
ethanol occurs in nature whenever yeast happens to find a sugar
solution such as overripe fruit, most organisms have evolved some
tolerance to ethanol, whereas methanol is toxic. Other experiments
involve butanol, which can also be produced by fermentation of plants.
Support for ethanol comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel, which
addresses climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, though these The 1996 Ford Taurus was the first flexible-fuel
benefits are now highly debated,[22][23][24] including the heated 2008 vehicle produced with versions capable of
running with either ethanol (E85) or methanol
food vs fuel debate.
(M85) blended with gasoline.

Most modern cars are designed to run on gasoline are capable of

running with a blend from 10% up to 15% ethanol mixed into gasoline
(E10-E15). With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered
vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85% (E85), the
maximum set in the United States and Europe due to cold weather
during the winter, or up to 100% (E100) in Brazil, with a warmer
climate. Ethanol has close to 34% less energy per volume than
gasoline,[25][26] consequently fuel economy ratings with ethanol blends
are significantly lower than with pure gasoline, but this lower energy
content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in mileage,
because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a
The 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex was the first
particular fuel in a particular engine, and also because ethanol has a
commercial flexible-fuel vehicle in the Brazilian
higher octane rating which is beneficial to high compression ratio market, capable of running on any mixture of
engines. gasoline (E20 to E25 blend) and ethanol (E100).

For this reason, for pure or high ethanol blends to be attractive for
users, its price must be lower than gasoline to offset the lower fuel economy. As a rule of thumb, Brazilian
consumers are frequently advised by the local media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when
ethanol prices are 30% lower or more than gasoline, as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the results and
seasonal harvests of sugar cane and by region. In the US, and based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the
average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was found 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline. The EPA-rated mileage of
Alternative fuel vehicle 7

current American flex-fuel vehicles could be considered when making price comparisons, though E85 has octane
rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline. Regional retail E85 prices vary widely
across the US, with more favorable prices in the Midwest region, where most corn is grown and ethanol produced. In
August 2008 the US average spread between the price of E85 and gasoline was 16.9%, while in Indiana was 35%,
30% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 19% in Maryland, 12 to 15% in California, and just 3% in Utah. Depending of the
vehicle capabilities, the break even price of E85 usually has to be between 25 to 30% lower than gasoline. (See price
comparisons for most states at e85prices.com [27])
Reacting to the high price of oil and its growing dependence on
imports, in 1975 Brazil launched the Pro-alcool program, a huge
government-subsidized effort to manufacture ethanol fuel (from its
sugar cane crop) and ethanol-powered automobiles. These ethanol-only
vehicles were very popular in the 1980s, but became economically
impractical when oil prices fell - and sugar prices rose - late in that
decade. In May 2003 Volkswagen built for the first time a commercial
ethanol flexible fuel car, the Gol 1.6 Total Flex. These vehicles were a
commercial success and by early 2009 other nine Brazilian
manufacturers are producing flexible fuel vehicles: Chevrolet, Fiat,
Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citron, and
Nissan. The adoption of the flex technology was so rapid, that flexible
fuel cars reached 87.6% of new car sales in July 2008. As of August
2008, the fleet of "flex" automobiles and light commercial vehicles had
reached 6 million new vehicles sold, representing almost 19% of all
E85 fuel sold at a regular gasoline station in registered light vehicles.[28] The rapid success of "flex" vehicles, as
Washington, D.C..
they are popularly known, was made possible by the existence of
33,000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by
2006, a heritage of the Pro-alcool program.[29]

In the United States, initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the 1973
oil crisis, and later on, as a goal to improve air quality. Also, liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only
because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with
existing distribution systems and engines, thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking
advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure. California led the search of sustainable alternatives with
interest in methanol. In 1996, a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed, with models fully capable of running either
methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline. This ethanol version of the Taurus was the first commercial production
of an E85 FFV.[30] The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued,
although by the end of the 90's, the emphasis was on the FFV E85 version, as it is today. Ethanol was preferred over
methanol because there is a large support in the farming community and thanks to government's incentive programs
and corn-based ethanol subsidies. Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles, but due to
agriculture policy, in the end emphasis was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles.
Alternative fuel vehicle 8

Biodiesel

The main benefit of Diesel combustion engines is that they have a

44% fuel burn efficiency; compared with just 25-30% in the best
gasoline engines.[31] In addition diesel fuel has slightly higher
Energy Density by volume than gasoline. This makes Diesel
engines capable of achieving much better fuel economy than
gasoline vehicles.

Biodiesel (Fatty acid methyl ester), is commercially available in

most oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it
is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still Bus running on soybean biodiesel

commonly produced in relatively small quantities (in comparison

to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who raise
oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter
of policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public
awareness. It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas
than in cities. Biodiesel has lower Energy Density than fossil
diesel fuel, so biodiesel vehicles are not quite able to keep up with
the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle, if the diesel
injection system is not reset for the new fuel. If the injection
timing is changed to take account of the higher Cetane value of
biodiesel, the difference in economy is negligible. Because
biodiesel contains more oxygen than diesel or vegetable oil fuel, it
produces the lowest emissions from diesel engines, and is lower in
most emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a higher
lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump
diesel for lubricity and emissions reduction.

Some Diesel-powered cars can run with minor modifications on

100% pure vegetable oils. Vegetable oils tend to thicken (or
solidify if it is waste cooking oil), in cold weather conditions so
vehicle modifications (a two tank system with diesel start/stop Biodiesel (B20) pump in the U.S.
tank), are essential in order to heat the fuel prior to use under most
circumstances. Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces fuel viscosity, to the range cited by injection
system manufacturers, for systems prior to 'common rail' or 'unit injection ( VW PD)' systems. Waste vegetable oil,
especially if it has been used for a long time, may become hydrogenated and have increased acidity. This can cause
the thickening of fuel, gumming in the engine and acid damage of the fuel system. Biodiesel does not have this
problem, because it is chemically processed to be PH neutral and lower viscosity. Modern low emission diesels
(most often Euro -3 and -4 compliant), typical of the current production in the European industry, would require
extensive modification of injector system, pumps and seals etc. due to the higher operating pressures, that are
designed thinner (heated) mineral diesel than ever before, for atomisation, if they were to use pure vegetable oil as
fuel. Vegetable oil fuel is not suitable for these vehicles as they are currently produced. This reduces the market as
increasing numbers of new vehicles are not able to use it. However, the German Elsbett company has successfully
produced single tank vegetable oil fuel systems for several decades, and has worked with Volkswagen on their TDI
engines. This shows that it is technologically possible to use vegetable oil as a fuel in high efficiency / low emission
diesel engines.
Alternative fuel vehicle 9

Greasestock is an event held yearly in Yorktown Heights, New York, and is one of the largest showcases of vehicles
using waste oil as a biofuel in the United States.[32][33][34][35]

Biogas
Compressed Biogas may be used for Internal Combustion Engines after purification of the raw gas. The removal of
H2O, H2S and particles can be seen as standard producing a gas which has the same quality as Compressed Natural
Gas. The use of biogas is particularly interesting for climates where the waste heat of a biogas powered power plant
cannot be used during the summer.

Charcoal
In the 1930s Tang Zhongming made an invention using abundant charcoal resources for Chinese auto market. The
Charcoal-fuelled car was later used intensively in China, serving the army and conveyancer after the breakout of
World War II.

Compressed natural gas (CNG)

High pressure compressed natural gas, mainly composed of
methane, that is used to fuel normal combustion engines instead of
gasoline. Combustion of methane produces the least amount of
CO2 of all fossil fuels. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to CNG and
become bifuel Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) as the gasoline tank is
kept. The driver can switch between CNG and gasoline during
operation. Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are popular in regions or
countries where natural gas is abundant. Widespread use began in
the Po River Valley of Italy, and later became very popular in New
Zealand by the eighties, though its use has declined.

The Brazilian Fiat Siena Tetrafuel 1.4, the first

multifuel car that runs as a flexible-fuel on pure
gasoline, or E25, or E100; or runs as a bi-fuel with
natural gas (CNG).
Alternative fuel vehicle 10

As of December 2012[1], there were 17.8 million natural gas

vehicles worldwide, led by Iran with 3.30 million, followed by
Pakistan (2.79 million), Argentina (2.29 million), Brazil (1.75
million), China (1.58 million) and India (1.5 million). As of 2010,
the Asia-Pacific region led the global market with a share of
54%.[36] In Europe they are popular in Italy (730,000), Ukraine
(200,000), Armenia (101,352), Russia (100,000) and Germany
(91,500), and they are becoming more so as various manufacturers
produce factory made cars, buses, vans and heavy vehicles. In the
Buses powered with CNG are common in the United
United States CNG powered buses are the favorite choice of
States.
several public transit agencies, with an estimated CNG bus fleet of
some 130,000. Other countries where CNG-powered buses are
popular include India, Australia, Argentina, and Germany.

CNG vehicles are common in South America, where these vehicles are mainly used as taxicabs in main cities of
Argentina and Brazil. Normally, standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve
installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics. The Brazilian GNV fleet is
concentrated in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo. Pike Research reports that almost 90% of NGVs in Latin
America have bi-fuel engines, allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG.[37]
In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under
Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run on 100% ethanol (E100), E25 (Brazil's normal ethanol
gasoline blend), pure gasoline (not available in Brazil), and natural gas, and switches from the gasoline-ethanol blend
to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions.[38] Other existing option is to retrofit an
ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system. Some taxicabs in So
Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, run on this option, allowing the user to choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and
CNG) according to current market prices at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as "tri-fuel"
cars.
HCNG or Hydrogen enriched Compressed Natural Gas for mobile use is premixed at the hydrogen station.

Hydrogen
A hydrogen car is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its
primary source of power for locomotion. These cars generally use
the hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion or fuel-cell
conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in
fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline cars. In
fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity through
fuel cells which then powers electric motors. With either method,
The 2009 Honda FCX Clarity is an hydrogen fuel cell
the only byproduct from the spent hydrogen is water, however
automobile launched to the market in 2008.
during combustion with air NOx can be produced.

Honda introduced its fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called the FCX and have since then introduced the second generation
FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity, based on the 2007 concept model, began in June 2008 in the
United States, and it was introduced in Japan in November 2008. The FCX Clarity is
Alternative fuel vehicle 11

available in the U.S. only in Los Angeles Area, where 16

hydrogen filling stations are available, and until July 2009, only 10
drivers have leased the Clarity for US$600 a month. At the 2012
World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Daimler AG, Honda,
Hyundai and Toyota all confirmed plans to produce hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles for sale by 2015, with some types planned to enter the
showroom in 2013.[39]

A small number of prototype hydrogen cars currently exist, and a

significant amount of research is underway to make the technology
Hydrogen fueling station in California.
more viable. The common internal combustion engine, usually
fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel liquids, can be converted to
run on gaseous hydrogen. However, the most efficient use of
hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors instead
of a traditional engine. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the
fuel cells, which produces electricity to power the motors. One
primary area of research is hydrogen storage, to try to increase the
range of hydrogen vehicles while reducing the weight, energy
consumption, and complexity of the storage systems. Two primary
methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression. Some
believe that hydrogen cars will never be economically viable and
that the emphasis on this technology is a diversion from the
Sequel, a hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicle from
development and popularization of more efficient hybrid cars and General Motors.
other alternative technologies.[citation needed]

Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes,
submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space
Shuttles into space. A working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the
form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[40]
BMW's Clean Energy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than hydrogen fuel cell electric
cars. A limited series production of the 7 Series Saloon was announced as commencing at the end of 2006. A BMW
hydrogen prototype (H2R) using the driveline of this model broke the speed record for hydrogen cars at 300km/h
(186mi/h), making automotive history. Mazda has developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen. The Wankel uses a
rotary principle of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the engine from the intake. This reduces
pre-detonation, a problem with hydrogen fueled piston engines.[citation needed]

The other major car companies like Daimler, Chrysler, Honda, Toyota, Ford and General Motors, are investing in
hydrogen fuel cells instead. VW, Nissan, and Hyundai/Kia also have fuel cell vehicle prototypes on the road. In
addition, transit agencies across the globe are running prototype fuel cell buses. Fuel cell vehicles, such as the new
Honda Clarity, can get up to 70 miles (110km) on a kilogram of hydrogen. [citation needed]

Liquid nitrogen car

Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is a method of storing energy. Energy is used to liquify air, and then LN2 is produced by
evaporation, and distributed. LN2 is exposed to ambient heat in the car and the resulting nitrogen gas can be used to
power a piston or turbine engine. The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from 1kg of LN2 is 213
W-hr or 173 W-hr per liter, in which a maximum of 70 W-hr can be utilized with an isothermal expansion process.
Such a vehicle with a 350 liter (93 gallon) tank can achieve ranges similar to a gasoline powered vehicle with a 50
liter (13 gallon) tank. Theoretical future engines, using cascading topping cycles, can improve this to around 110
Alternative fuel vehicle 12

W-hr/kg with a quasi-isothermal expansion process. The advantages are zero harmful emissions and superior energy
densities compared to a Compressed-air vehicle, and a car powered by LN2 can be refilled in a matter of minutes.

Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)

Liquified natural gas is natural gas that has been cooled to a point at which it becomes a cryogenic liquid. In this
liquid state, natural gas is more than 2 times as dense as highly compressed CNG. LNG fuel systems function on any
vehicle capable of burning natural gas. Unlike CNG, which is stored at high pressure (typically 3000 or 3600 psi)
and then regulated to a lower pressure that the engine can accept, LNG is stored at low pressure (50 to 150 psi) and
simply vaporized by a heat exchanger before entering the fuel metering devices to the engine. Because of its high
energy density compared to CNG, it is very suitable for those interested in long ranges while running on natural gas.
In the United States, the LNG supply chain is the main thing that has held back this fuel source from growing
rapidly. The LNG supply chain is very analogous to that of diesel or gasoline. First, pipeline natural gas is liquified
in large quantities, which is analogous to refining gasoline or diesel. Then, the LNG is transported via semi trailer to
fuel stations where it is stored in bulk tanks until it is dispensed into a vehicle. CNG, on the other hand, requires
expensive compression at each station to fill the high pressure cylinder cascades.

Autogas (LPG)
LPG or liquified petroleum gas is a low pressure liquified gas mixture
composed mainly of propane and butane which burns in conventional
gasoline combustion engines with less CO2 than gasoline. Gasoline
cars can be retrofitted to LPG aka Autogas and become bifuel vehicles
as the gasoline tank stays. You can switch between LPG and gasoline
during operation. Estimated 10 million vehicles running worldwide.

There are 17.473 million LPG powered vehicles worldwide as of A propane-fueled school bus in the United States.
December 2010, and the leading countries are Turkey (2.394 million
vehicles), Poland (2.325 million), and South Korea (2.3 million).[] In the U.S., 190,000 on-road vehicles use propane,
and 450,000 forklifts use it for power.Whereas it is banned in Pakistan(DEC 2013) as it is considered a risk to public
safety by OGRA.
Hyundai Motor Company began sales of the Elantra LPI Hybrid in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009.
The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid electric vehicle to be powered by an
internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel.

Steam
A steam car is a car that has a steam engine. Wood, coal, ethanol,
or others can be used as fuel. The fuel is burned in a boiler and the
heat converts water into steam. When the water turns to steam, it
expands. The expansion creates pressure. The pressure pushes the
pistons back and forth. This turns the driveshaft to spin the wheels
forward. It works like a coal-fueled steam train, or steam boat. The
steam car was the next logical step in independent transport.

Steam cars take a long time to start, but some can reach speeds
over 100mph (161km/h) eventually. the late model doble could
be brought to operational condition in less than 30 seconds, and The Stanley Steam Car
were fast, with high acceleration, but they were ridiculously
expensive.
Alternative fuel vehicle 13

A steam engine uses external combustion, as opposed to internal combustion. Gasoline-powered cars are more
efficient at about 25-28% efficiency. In theory, a combined cycle steam engine in which the burning material is first
used to drive a gas turbine can produce 50% to 60% efficiency. However, practical examples of steam engined cars
work at only around 5-8% efficiency.
The best known and best selling steam-powered car was the Stanley Steamer. It used a compact fire-tube boiler
under the hood to power a simple two-piston engine which was connected directly to the rear axle. Before Henry
Ford introduced monthly payment financing with great success, cars were typically purchased outright. This is why
the Stanley was kept simple; to keep the purchase price affordable.
Steam produced in refrigeration also can be use by a turbine in other vehicle types to produce electricity, that can be
employed in electric motors or stored in a battery.
Steam power can be combined with a standard oil-based engine to create a hybrid. Water is injected into the cylinder
after the fuel is burned, when the piston is still superheated, often at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more. The
water will instantly be vaporized into steam, taking advantage of the heat that would otherwise be wasted.

Wood gas
Wood gas can be used to power cars with ordinary internal
combustion engines if a wood gasifier is attached. This was quite
popular during World War II in several European and Asian
countries because the war prevented easy and cost-effective access
to oil.

Multiple fuel source

Vehicle with a gasifier
Alternative fuel vehicle 14

Flexible fuel
A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle is an alternative
fuel automobile or light duty truck with a multifuel engine that can
use more than one fuel, usually mixed in the same tank, and the
blend is burned in the combustion chamber together. These
vehicles are colloquially called flex-fuel, or flexifuel in Europe, or
just flex in Brazil. FFVs are distinguished from bi-fuel vehicles,
where two fuels are stored in separate tanks. The most common
commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol
flexible-fuel vehicle, with the major markets concentrated in the
United States, Brazil, Sweden, and some other European countries.
In addition to flex-fuel vehicles running with ethanol, in the US
and Europe there were successful test programs with methanol
flex-fuel vehicles, known as M85 FFVs, and more recently there
have been also successful tests using p-series fuels with E85 flex
fuel vehicles, but as of June 2008, this fuel is not yet available to
the general public.

Ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles have standard gasoline engines that Six typical Brazilian full flex-fuel models from several
carmakers, popularly known as "flex" cars, that run on
are capable of running with ethanol and gasoline mixed in the
any blend of ethanol and gasoline(actually between
same tank. These mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the E20-E25 to E100).
percentage of ethanol in the mixture, for example, E85 is 85%
ethanol and 15% gasoline. (See common ethanol fuel mixtures for more information.) Though technology exists to
allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture up to E100, in the U.S. and Europe, flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run
on E85. This limit is set to avoid cold starting problems during very cold weather. The alcohol content might be
reduced during the winter, to E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden. Brazil, with a warmer climate, developed vehicles
that can run on any mix up to E100, though E20-E25 is the mandatory minimum blend, and no pure gasoline is sold
in the country.

By October 2013 cumulative global sales of flexible-fuel vehicles have reached around 34 million units, led by
Brazil with 20 million automobiles and light trucks, and 3 million flexible-fuel motorcycles, followed by the United
States with about 10 million units, Canada (600,000), and Europe, led by Sweden (229,400). In Brazil, 65% of
flex-fuel car owners were using ethanol fuel regularly in 2009, while, the actual number of American FFVs being
run on E85 is much lower; surveys conducted in the U.S. have found that 68% of American flex-fuel car owners
were not aware they owned an E85 flex. This is thought to be due to a number of factors, including:
Alternative fuel vehicle 15

The appearance of flex-fuel and non-flex-fuel

vehicles is identical;
There is no price difference between a pure-gasoline
vehicle and its flex-fuel variant;
The lack of consumer awareness of flex-fuel
vehicles;
The lack of promotion of flex-fuel vehicles by
American automakers, who often do not label the
cars or market them in the same way they do to
hybrid cars
By contrast, automakers selling FFVs in Brazil
Typical labeling used in the US to identify E85 vehicles. Top left: a
small sticker in the back of the fuel filler door. Bottom left: the bright
commonly affix badges advertising the car as a
yellow gas cap used in newer models. E85 Flexfuel badging used in
flex-fuel vehicle. As of 2007, new FFV models sold in
newer models from Chrysler (top right), Ford (middle right) and GM
(bottom right). the U.S. were required to feature a yellow gas cap
emblazoned with the label "E85/gasoline", in order to
remind drivers of the cars' flex-fuel capabilities. Use of E85 in the U.S. is also affected by the relatively low number
of E85 filling stations in operation across the country, with just over 1,750 in August 2008, most of which are
concentrated in the Corn Belt states, led by Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and
Wisconsin with 114.[41] By comparison, there are some 120,000 stations providing regular non-ethanol gasoline in
the United States alone.

There have been claims that American automakers are motivated

to produce flex-fuel vehicles due to a loophole in the Corporate
Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) requirements, which gives the
automaker a "fuel economy credit" for every flex-fuel vehicle sold,
whether or not the vehicle is actually fueled with E85 in regular
use. This loophole allegedly allows the U.S. auto industry to meet
CAFE fuel economy targets not by developing more fuel-efficient
models, but by spending between $100 and $200 extra per vehicle
to produce a certain number of flex-fuel models, enabling them to
US E85FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.
continue selling less fuel-efficient vehicles such as SUVs, which
netted higher profit margins than smaller, more fuel-efficient cars.

In the United States, E85 FFVs are equipped with sensor that automatically detect the fuel mixture, signaling the
ECU to tune spark timing and fuel injection so that fuel will burn cleanly in the vehicle's internal combustion engine.
Originally, the sensors were mounted in the fuel line and exhaust system; more recent models do away with the fuel
line sensor. Another feature of older flex-fuel cars is a small separate gasoline storage tank that was used for starting
the car on cold days, when the ethanol mixture made ignition more difficult.
Alternative fuel vehicle 16

Modern Brazilian flex-fuel technology enables FFVs to run an any

blend between E20-E25 gasohol and E100 ethanol fuel, using a
lambda probe to measure the quality of combustion, which
informs the engine control unit as to the exact composition of the
gasoline-alcohol mixture. This technology, developed by the
Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994, and further improved and
commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of
The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was the first flex-fuel
Magneti Marelli, is known as "Software Fuel Sensor". The motorcycle launched to the market in the world.
Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems developed a
similar technology, known as "Multifuel", based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba, So Paulo.[42]
This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time, as fuel flow needs to be
decreased to avoid detonation due to the high compression ratio (around 12:1) used by flex-fuel engines.

The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda
da Amaznia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700. Because the motorcycle does not have a
secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do, the tank must have at least 20% of gasoline to
avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15C (59F). The motorcycles panel includes a gauge to warn the
driver about the actual ethanol-gasoline mix in the storage tank.

Hybrid
A hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive
power. The most common type of hybrid vehicle is the
gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles, which use gasoline (petrol) and
electric batteries for the energy used to power internal-combustion
engines (ICEs) and electric motors. These motors are usually relatively
small and would be considered "underpowered" by themselves, but
they can provide a normal driving experience when used in The Toyota Prius is the top selling hybrid electric
combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require vehicle with over 3 million units sold by June
greater power. 2013.

The Toyota Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997 and it is sold
worldwide since 2000. By 2010 the Prius is sold in more than 70
countries and regions, with Japan and the United States as its largest
markets. In May 2008, global cumulative Prius sales reached the 1
million units, and by September 2010, the Prius reached worldwide
cumulative sales of 2 million units, and 3 million units by June 2013.

The Honda Insight is a two-seater hatchback hybrid automobile

manufactured by Honda. It was the first mass-produced hybrid
automobile sold in the United States, introduced in 1999, and produced
until 2006. Honda introduced the second-generation Insight in Japan in The Chevrolet Volt/Opel Ampera family is the
February 2009, and the new Insight went on sale in the U.S. on April world's top selling plug-in hybrid with about

22, 2009.[43] Honda also offers the Honda Civic Hybrid since 2002. 70,000 units sold by mid January 2014.

As of December 2013[1], there are over 50 models of hybrid electric

cars available in several world markets, and over 7 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide, led by
Toyota Motor Company (TMC) with more than 6 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold by December 2013,
followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1 million hybrids by September 2012,
and Ford Motor Corporation with more than 277thousand hybrids sold in the United States by September 2013. The
Alternative fuel vehicle 17

world's best selling hybrid is the Toyota Prius, with 3 million units sold by June 2013. Global sales are led by the
United States with over 3million units sold by October 2013, followed by Japan with over 2.6million hybrids by
September 2013, and Europe with more than 650,000 units by August 2013.
Until 2010 most plug-in hybrids on the road in the US were conversions of conventional hybrid electric vehicles, and
the most prominent PHEVs were conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius, which have had plug-in charging and
more batteries added and their electric-only range extended. Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto
released the F3DM to the Chinese fleet market in December 2008[44][45] and began sales to the general public in
Shenzhen in March 2010. General Motors began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. in December 2010.
Deliveries to retail customers of the Fisker Karma began in the U.S. in November 2011. During 2012, the Toyota
Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford C-Max Energi, and Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid were released. The Honda Accord Plug-in
Hybrid, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Ford Fusion Energi and McLaren P1 (limited edition) were released in 2013.
As of January 2014[1], the Volt/Ampera family of plug-in hybrids, with combined sales of about 70,000 units, is the
top selling plug-in hybrid in the world, and the second best selling plug-in electric car after the Nissan Leaf.
The Elantra LPI Hybrid, launched in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009, is a hybrid vehicle powered by
an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild
hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (LiPoly) batteries.

Pedal-assisted electric hybrid vehicle

In very small vehicles, the power demand decreases, so human power can be employed to make a significant
improvement in battery life. Two such commercially made vehicles are the Sinclair C5 and TWIKE

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Alternative_fuel_vehicle& action=edit
[2] As of 2008
[3] As of September 2013, see Graph "Bought flexifuel vehicles"
[4] By June 2012 Ford had sold 200,000 full hybrids in the US since 2004.
[5] See the section: December 2012 Hybrid Cars Numbers. A total of 434,498 hybrid electric vehicles were sold during 2012. Ford sold 32,543
hybrids in the U.S. during 2012, including 14,100 Ford Fusion Hybrids, 10,935 C-Max Hybrids, 6,067 Lincoln MKZ Hybrids, and 1,441 Ford
Escape Hybrids.
[6] See the section: September 2013 Hybrid Car Sales Numbers: A total of 389,910 hybrid vehicles were sold in the U.S. between January and
September 2013.
[7] Select Year 2012 and see total sales from January to December. A total of 266,567 Aquas were sold in 2012.
[8] Select Year 2013 and see total sales from January to September. A total of 208,678 Aquas were sold between January and September 2013.
[9] pp. 62-63.
[10] , Prius PHEV cumulative sales in Japan totaled 15,400 units and global sales reached 48,600 units.
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[23] Originally published online in Science Express on 7 February 2008. See Letters to Science by Wang and Haq. There are critics to these
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[24] Originally published online in Science Express on 7 February 2008. There are rebuttals to these findings for assuming a worst case scenario
Alternative fuel vehicle 18

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[27] http:/ / www. e85prices. com/
[28] As of March 31st, 2008, DENATRAN reports a total fleet of 50 million, including motorcycles, trucks and special equipment, and 32
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[29] See Chapter 6. Homegrown Energy.
[30] Original source: 1996 North American International Auto Show Press Release
[31] Engine efficiency
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[33] Tillman, Adriane. " Greasestock Festival returns, bigger and better (http:/ / northcountynews. com/ news/ ncn_news1. asp)". May 14, 2008.
[34] " Greasestock 2008 (http:/ / www. greasestock. org/ )". Greasestock (http:/ / greasestock. org). Retrieved May 20, 2008.
[35] Max, Josh. " Gas-guzzlers become veggie delights at Greasestock in Yorktown Heights (http:/ / www. nydailynews. com/ autos/ 2008/ 05/
13/ 2008-05-13_gasguzzlers_become_veggie_delights_at_gr. html)". Daily News. May 13, 2008.
[36] Click on Ranked by number.
[37] See details in Press Release
[38] The article argues that even though Fiat called it tetra fuel, it actually runs on three fuels: natural gas, ethanol, and gasoline.
[39] "Hydrogen fuel cells to hit showrooms by 2013" (http:/ / www. collisionrepairmag. com/ news/ collision-repair/
15044-hydrogen-fuel-cells-to-hit-showrooms-by-2013)
[40] Thames & Kosmos kit (http:/ / www. thamesandkosmos. com/ products/ fc/ fc2. html), Other educational materials (http:/ / www. bpa. gov/
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cgi-bin/ fuelweb/ view=NavPage/ cat=14).
[41] For a complete and updated listing, go to www.e85refueling.com
[42] Print edition No. 1941
[43] http:/ / automobiles. honda. com/ insight-hybrid/ blogdetail. aspx?id=151
[44] Crippen, A. (December 15, 2008) "Warren Buffett's Electric Car Hits the Chinese Market, But Rollout Delayed For U.S. & Europe" (http:/ /
www. cnbc. com/ id/ 28236421) CNBC. Retrieved December 2008.
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dec2008/ gb20081215_913780. htm) Business Week. Retrieved December 2008.

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Clean Cities - 2014 Vehicle Buyer's Guide (http://www.afdc.energy.gov/uploads/publication/60448.pdf),
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), U.S. Department of Energy, Clean Cities program. December
2013.
EERE:
Alternative Fuel Price Report (http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/price_report.html).
U.S. Alternative Fueling Stations (http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/fuels/stations.html).
Green Car Guide (http://www.green-car-guide.com)
Popular Mechanics describes the pros and cons of various alternative fuels and what the future looks like for each
(http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/earth/2690341.html?page=1).
Powering Ahead - The future of low-carbon cars and fuels (http://www.racfoundation.org/assets/
rac_foundation/content/downloadables/powering_ahead-kay_et_al-apr2013.pdf), the RAC Foundation and UK
Petroleum Industry Association, April 2013.
Questions and Answers about Trev. (http://www.unisa.edu.au/solarcar/trev/Q&A.asp), UniSA, Division of
Information Technology, Engineering and the Environment.
Sustainable Green Fleets (http://www.greenfleet.info) EU-sponsored Dissemination project for alternative
propelled cars and alternative fuels
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Academy of Sciences (2013), ISBN 978-0-309-26852-3
Article Sources and Contributors 19

Article Sources and Contributors

Alternative fuel vehicle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=596128582 Contributors: 123suthan, 2over0, 3DRivers, 6a4fe8aa039615ebd9ddb83d6acf9a1dc1b684f7,
A.Abdel-Rahim, Abendigoreebs, Academic Challenger, AdjustShift, Agoldenroad, Alankroeger, Alansohn, Alfashturm, Alliemarier, Andrew Hampe, Andyjsmith, AniRaptor2001, Apparition11,
Appraiser, AtholM, Auntof6, BMRR, Bearcat, Beland, Ben Ben, Bernard Fenley, Bhadani, Blanchardb, Boznia, Briancua, Bry9000, Brykupono, Capricorn42, Cardsplayer4life, Cbdh19,
Cherubino, Chris the speller, Ckatz, Clovis Sangrail, CommonsDelinker, CoolMInded, CsDix, DMacks, Dancter, Daniel J. Leivick, Deepred6502, DennisIsMe, Dirkbb, Ebikeguy, Edward,
Egustafson3, Engineman, Epbr123, Evbat95, FallenTomato390, Gaius Cornelius, Geniac, Geochron, Gobonobo, Gogo Dodo, Grafen, Greg Vezina, Grievous Angel, Ground Zero, HaeB, Hans42,
Headbomb, Henganr1, Hmains, Hoeksas, Hu12, Huaiwei, I already forgot, I dream of horses, Illustria, Imperial Star Destroyer, IntProp, J JMesserly, JForget, JLDBooth, Jackpoison, Jmj6879,
Johnfos, Julia Rossi, KFP, KVDP, Kencan98, Khazar2, Khutuck, Komson Pirapatrungsuriya, Kraffft, Ksyrie, Lamro, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LtNOWIS, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MER-C, MKoltnow,
Mac, Mandarax, Manway, Mariordo, Marokwitz, Mion, Mmxx, Monkeyman2323, N5iln, NW's Public Sock, Neil Clancy, NeilTarrant, Nick Number, Nneonneo, Nopetro, Nukeless, OSX, Old
Moonraker, Omegatron, PeterH2, Philip Trueman, Possum, Prashanthns, Raul654, RaymondSutanto, Reedy, Revolvin, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rlsheehan, Rogergummer, SCStrikwerda,
Sam Korn, Selpg, Sergey bloomkin, Shadowjams, ShotmanMaslo, Shreeshktn, Siliconov, Skamecrazy123, SmartGuy Old, Smjg, SteveBaker, Sushiya, Teenbachelor, Timpo, Tohd8BohaithuGh1,
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