Machine Design

Dr. Arvind Kumar Rajput

MED, SOE, SNU
 Standards in Design

Standardization is very important in design

It is defined as obligatory norms, to which various
characteristic of a product should confirm.

Examples-
1. Materials
2. Dimensions
3. Shape of component
4. Method of testing
5. Method of marking
6. Method of packing/storing of the product
1. Standards for Materials

i.e. chemical composition, Mechanical properties and heat treatment.

Example- Indian standards IS210 specifies seven grades of cast Iron
designated as
FG 150 this no. indicates UTS in N/mm^2
FG 200
FG 220
FG 260
FG 300
FG 350
FG 400
Likewise IS 1570 specifies chemical composition of various grade of alloy
steel.
55Cr3 0.5-0.6% carbon, 0.10-0.35% silicon, 0.6-0.8% manganese
and chromium
2. Standard for shape and Dimension
Machine element like bolt, screw, nut, bearing, belt chain
follow the standard for shape and dimensions.
Examples- IS 2494 specifies dimension and shape of the
cross section of belt i.e. width, height and included angle.
3. Standards for Fits, Tolerances and Surface Finish
Components
IS 2709 Guide for selection of type of fit(Clearance
Fit, Transition
fit, Interference fit)
IS 8000 Geometrical Tolerance on technical drawing
IS 10719 Surface texture on technical drawing
IS 919 Limits and Fits for Engineering
4. Standard for testing of products
Codes gives procedure to test the product such as pressure
vessel, boiler, crane and wire rope where safety of the
operator is an important concern.
IS 2825 code for Unfired pressure vessels.
5. Standards for Engineering drawing of components
Special publication SP46 by bureau of indian standards on
engineering drawing practice for school and colleges.
Standard and Code

Standard set of specification of parts, material or processes.

Code
1. set of specifications for analysis, Design, Manufacture, Testing and
erection of the product.
2. Purpose of a code is to achieve a specified level of safety.

Types of Standards
1. Company Standards - used in particular company or group.
2. National Standards -
IS( Indian Standards)
DIN( German)
AISI or SAE (USA)
BS (UK)
3. International Standard Prepared by ISO ( the international standard
organization)
For example SKF bearing

In design, the aim is to use as many standard component as possible for a

given machine
 Selection of Preferred sizes

Size is a very generic term which include different parameters like

power transmitting capacity, speed dimensions of the component
such as height, length, width, volume or weight of the product.
For Example Plywood size, Motor RPM( 960-1440 in most of the
cases).
Preferred number are used to specify the size of the product in
these cases.
French Engineeer Charles Renard first introduced preferred
numbers in the 19th centuary.
The system is based on the use of Geometric Progression to
develop a set of numbers.
Basically five basic series R5, R10, R20, R40 and R80 which increase
in steps of 58%, 26%, 12%, 6% and 3% respecticvely .
Each Series has its own series factor
Series factor
Preferred Number
 Selection of Material
Tension Test provide following information
Proportional limit
Elastic limit
Yield strength
Ultimate tensile strength
Modulus of Resilience
Modulus of Toughness
% Elongation
% reduction in area

Specimen used in tension test is as per IS1608

The standard gauge length Lo = 5.65*(Ao)^1/2,
Ao = cross sectional area of specimen
For circular section , Lo = 5Do
 Designation of Material
Cast Iron - Iron containing more than 2% of carbon
For example - Grey cast iron, FG 150, FG 200 etc.
Blackheart malleable cast iron - BM 350, BM 320
Whiteheart malleable cast iron - WM400, WM350
Pearlitic heart malleable cast iron - PM700, PM600

Steel - Designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating anyone of

A Tensile strength
B Carbon Content
C composition of alloying element

A Steels which are standardized on the basis of their tensile strength

without detailed chemical composition are specified by two ways-
1. A symbol Fe followed by minimum tensile strength in N/mm^2.
2. A symbol FeE followed by yield strength in N/mm^2.
Example- Fe360, FeE250
B The designation of plain carbon steel consist of the following
three quantity---
1. A figure indicating 100 times of the average percentage of carbon.
2. A letter C
3. A figure indicating 10 times of the average percentage of
manganese

e.g. S5C4 indicates plain carbon steel , 0.55% carbon and 0.4%
manganese

The designation of unalloyed free cutting steels consist of---

1. A figure indicating 100 times of the average percentage of carbon.
2. A letter C
3. A figure indicating 10 times of the average percentage of
manganese
4. A symbol S, Se, Te or Pb depending upon the element that is
present and which makes the steel free cutting.
5. A figure indicating 100 times of the average percentage of the
above element that makes the steel free cutting.
E.g. 25C12S14 ( .25%C, 1.2% Mn, .14% Sulphur)
C Designation of alloy steel
Term alloy steel is used for low and medium alloy steel containing
total alloying element not exceeding 10 %%
Designation
1. A figure indicating 100 times of the average percentage of
carbon.
2. Chemical symbol of alloying elements each followed by the
figure for its average percentage content multiplied by a factor.

The multiplying factor depends upon the alloying elements

Elements Multiplying factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si & W 4
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb Ti, Ta, Zn, Mo, 10
P, S, N 100

e.g. 25Cr4Mo2 (0.25%C, 1%Cr, 0.2%Mo)

 Designation of High alloy steel
Term High alloy steel is used for alloying steel containing
more than 10% of alloying element.
Designation
1. A letter X
2. A figure indicating 100 times of the average percentage of
carbon.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by
the figure for its average percentage content rounded off to
the nearest integer.
4. Chemical symbol to indicate a specially added element to
attain desired
properties if any.
e.g. X15Cr25Ni12 (.15%C, 25%Cr, 12%Ni)
 Basically Plain carbon steel is of three types which are as follows
1. Low carbon steel contains C<0.3% e.g. Mild Steel.
2. Medium carbon steel contains 0.3%<C> 0.5%. It is stronger and
tougher than low carbon steel.
3. High carbon steel contains C>0.5% e.g. hard steel/Tool
steel.
Free cutting steel Steel of this group include carbon steel
and carbon manganese steel with a small percentage of
Sulphur(added to improve machinability).
 Design against static Load

Static Load Gradually applied force that does not change its
magnitude or direction with respect to time.
Materials-----
1. Ductile has relatively higher tensile before fracture takes place.
2. Brittle has small tensile strain
Tensile strain 5% is considered as the dividing line between brittle and
ductile materials.
Failure Failure means material fails to function satisfactorily
Basically there are three modes of failure
1. Elastic Deflection
2. General Yielding
3. failure by fracture
 Elastic Deflection For applications like transmission shaft
supporting gears, the maximum force acting on the shaft
without affecting its performance is limited by the
permissible elastic deflection. Sometimes the elastic
deflection results in unstable conditions.
Design of these mechanical component is based on the
permissible lateral and torsional deflection.
General Yielding Ductile material loses its engineering
services due to a large amount of plastic deformation after
the yield point stress is reached.
Localized yielding The localized yielding in the region of
stress concentration is restricted to a very small portion of
component and is not considered significant.
The yield strength of a material is an important property
when a component is designed against failure due to
general yielding.
 Fracture Brittle component ceases to function satisfactorily
because of sudden fracture without any plastic deformation. For
these material UTS of the material is an important property to
determine the dimension or design of the components.
Factor of safety During design, it is necessary to provide sufficient
reserve strength in case of an accident. This is done by taking a
suitable factor of safety.
FOS = failure stress/Allowable stress = failure load/ working load
Thus the allowable stress is the stress value which is used in design to
determine the dimension of any component.
For ductile materials,
the allowable stress
= /FOS , = Yield Strength
For brittle materials, the allowable stress
= /FOS = Ultimate Tensile strength
The factor of safety ensures against uncertainties and known
conditions.
The magnitude of factor of safety depends upon

1. Effect of Failure Some time failure may be little inconvenience or

cause loss of time. For example failure of bearing in gearbox.

However sometimes it may be dangerous to the human life e.g. failure

of pressure vessels. Thus FOS is high in application where failure of
machine/part may result in serious accidents.
2. Type of load FOS is normally low for static load i.e. load which do
not vary in magnitude or direction with respect to time.
For impact/ sudden load, the FOS is kept high.
3. Degree of accuracy in force analysis When the forces acting on
machine parts are accurately or precisely determined, a lower factor
of safety is selected.
4. Material of component Usually for ductile material, the factor of
safety is small or yield strength is the criterion of failure. However for
brittle material like cast iron high FOS is selected.
5. Reliability of component For defense applications, Power station,
high reliability of component is expected. The FOS increases with
reliability.
6. Cost of component As cost increases, the FOS also increases.

7. Testing of Machine element

8. Service condition

9. Quality of Manufacture
 Stresses

Stress due to axial load that may be tensile or compressive

=

=
Stresses due to shear force

=

= Average shear stress
A= Cross- sectional area of the rivet
 Stresses due to bending load

=

= Applied Bending Moment
I = Moment of Inertia of Cross-section about Neutral axis
y = Distance of surface from centre
I = 3 /12 for rectangle
I = 4 /64 for circular
 Stresses due to Torsional load

=


=

4
=
32
= Torsional shear stress
J = Ip = polar moment of inertia
 Stresses due to eccentric axial loading
=

=

Principal stresses

= ( )/2

 Design of Machine Component

The prerequisite of design of machine elements are those on which their
efficiency depends are as following-
Strength
Stiffness
Wear resistance important where is relative motion.
Corrosion resistance when machine element exposed to
various fluids, humidity in natures.
Failure of Machine element ceases to provide the satisfactory
services.
Deformations are of three kinds
Elastic Strain
Plastic Strain
Fracture
 Design
Design are basically of two types which are as follows

1. Stiffness Design If the dimension of the part are based on elastic

deformation so as to prevent excessive plastic deformation, the design is called
rigidity of stiffness design.

2. Strength Design If the dimensions are based on the plastic deformation.

Strength design is preferred over stiffness design as

Machine component design are based on strength usually have sufficient
elastic rigidity or stiffness.
Design calculation for strength is easier.
If parts are not simple in form, it is very difficult to determine the deflections.
Members like spring are designed for both strength and stiffness.
 Theories of Failure
There are no. of machine elements which are subjected to several types of
load/stresses simultaneously. E.g.- Power screw.
Failure of Machine Component
Elastic Failure
Yielding
Fracture
Here we mainly concern with the theories of elastic failure
Theories of Elastic failure It provides a relationship between the strength
of machine component subjected to complex state of stresses with the
mechanical properties obtained in tension test.

Several theories of elastic failure have been proposed based on different

hypothesis of failure.
Maximum principle stress theory

It is given by British Engineer WJM Rankine in 1850.

The failure of mechanical element subjected to bi-axial or tri-
axial stresses occurs when the maximum principle stress
reaches the yield or ultimate strength of the material.

Suppose ,
1 > 2 > 3
failure occurs when
1 = or
So the allowable or design stress is computed as
For tensile stress,

1 = or

 For compressive stress,

1 = or

Region of safety for bi-axial stress system
Maximum Shear stress theory
It is given by CA coulomb, H Tresca and JJ Guest.
It is named as Tresca theory.
This theory states that the failure of a mechanical component subjected
to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs when the maximum shear stress at
any point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress
in the standard specimen of the tension test.

Suppose a component is subjected to uniaxial stress

= (1 2 )/2
1
=
2
 When the specimen starts yielding,
1 =

= =
2 2
Therefore maximum shear stress theory predict that the yield strength in
shear is half of the yield strength in tension

Region of Safety
Shear Diagonal

Shear diagonal or line of pure shear is the locus of all points,

corresponding to pure stress.

1 = 2 = 12
1
= 1 = 45
2

This is applicable for ductile material component.

 Distortion Energy theory

This theory states that the failure of the mechanical

component subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses occurs
when the strain energy of distortion per unit volume at any
point in the component becomes equal to the strain energy of
distortion per unit volume in the standard specimen of
tension test when yielding starts.
 Deriving the Distortion Energy
Hydrostatic stress is average of principal stresses

Strain energy per unit volume,

Substituting Eq. (319) for principal strains into strain energy
equation,
 Deriving the Distortion Energy

Strain energy for producing only volume change is obtained by

substituting sav for s1, s2, and s3

Substituting sav from Eq. (a),

Obtain distortion energy by subtracting volume changing energy,

Eq. (57), from total strain energy, Eq. (b)
 Deriving the Distortion Energy

Tension test specimen at yield has s1 = Sy and s2 = s3 =0

Applying to Eq. (58), distortion energy for tension test
specimen is

DE theory predicts failure when distortion energy, Eq. (58),

exceeds distortion energy of tension test specimen, Eq. (59)
 Von Mises Stress

Left hand side is defined as von Mises stress

For plane stress, simplifies to

In terms of xyz components, in three dimensions

In terms of xyz components, for plane stress

 Distortion Energy Theory With Von Mises Stress
Von Mises Stress can be thought of as a single, equivalent, or
effective stress for the entire general state of stress in a stress
element.
Distortion Energy failure theory simply compares von Mises
stress to yield strength.

Introducing a design factor,

Expressing as factor of safety,

Sy
n
s
Region of safety
Selection and use of failure criterion
Ductile material typically have the same tensile strength and
compressive strength.
For ductile material the choice of theory depends on the
degree of accuracy and computational efficiency.
 The compressive strength of brittle material is
much higher than their tensile strength. Therefore
the failure criterion should show a difference in
tensile and compressive strength. On this account,
maximum principle stress theory is use for brittle
material.
For ductile material, the most accurate way to
design is to use of Distortion energy theory and the
easiest way to design is of maximum shear stress
theory.
 Problems
P-1 It is required to standardize II speeds from 72 to 720 rpm
for a machine tool. Specify the speeds.

P-2 The stresses at a point in a body are

= 50 Mpa , = 30 Mpa, = 80 Mpa,
= 400Mpa
Determine factor of safety
1. Using Tresca theory Ans (2.48)
2. using von Mises theory Ans (1.5889)