Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Berry, Rosa Maria, MSN, RN; Raleigh, Edith D Hunt, PhD, RN. Journal of Gerontological
Nursing 30.4 (Apr 2004): 8-13.
Turn on hit highlighting for speaking browsers by selecting the Enter button
Hide highlighting
Abstract (summary)
Translate Abstract
Foot problems continue to be a major cause of morbidity, disability, and mortality for
individuals with diabetes. According to Rothman's model of causation, as interpreted by
Pecoraro, Reiber, and Burges (1990), each amputation related to diabetes implies the
existence of a completed causal pathway of predisposing factors. The purpose of this
descriptive retrospective study was to evaluate foot care provided to residents in a 179-bed
long-term care facility. The charts of all 17 eligible residents with a diagnosis of diabetes
mellitus were reviewed for documentation of assessment and care of their feet. All data were
collected by the investigator using the Minimum Data Set (MDS) 2.0 Assessment of Diabetic
Foot Care Instrument and a demographic and foot care history instrument. Foot problems
were documented for 59% of the participants. Podiatrist-documented foot examination was
found in only one of the charts reviewed; however, six residents had been referred to
podiatrist. Throughout the charts reviewed, no documentation of protective sensation using
the Semmes-Weinstein monofilament or vibration test was found. The findings of this study
are consistent with previous research that showed a gap exists between the established
standard and the degree to which the standards are met (Fain & Melkus, 1994; Wylie-Rosett
et al., 1995). Adequate attention to the problem by health care providers, efforts to increase
awareness of foot care standards, and early intervention may be steps to close the gap. Nurses
must identify patients at risk for foot problems and actively intervene to prevent
complications from occurring.
Full text
Headnote
ABSTRACT
Foot problems continue to be a major cause of morbidity, disability, and mortality for
individuals with diabetes. According to Rothman's model of causation, as interpreted by
Pecoraro, Reiber, and Surges (1990), each amputation related to diabetes implies the
existence of a completed causal pathway of predisposing factors. The purpose of this
descriptive retrospective study was to evaluate foot care provided to residents in a 179-bed
long-term care facility. The charts of all 17 eligible residents with a diagnosis of diabetes
mellitus were reviewed for documentation of assessment and care of their feet. All data were
collected by the investigator using the Minimum Data Set (MDS) 2.0 Assessment of Diabetic
Foot Care Instrument and a demographic and foot care history instrument. Foot problems
were documented for 59% of the participants. Podiatrist-documented foot examination was
found in only one of the charts reviewed; however, six residents had been referred to
podiatrist Throughout the charts reviewed, no documentation of protective sensation using
the Semmes- Weinstein monofilament or vibration test was found. The findings of this study
are consistent with previous research that showed a gap exists between the established
standard and the degree to which the standards are met (Fain & Melkus, 1994; Wylie-Rosett
et al., 1995). Adequate attention to the problem by health care providers, efforts to increase
awareness of foot care standards, and early intervention may be steps to close the gap. Nurses
must identify patients at risk for foot problems and actively intervene to prevent
complications from occurring.
Research shows that foot problems are a source of higher health care costs and a major cause
of morbidity, disability, and mortality among individuals with diabetes (American Diabetes
Association [ADA], 1999; Lupo, 1997; Scheffler, 1996; Umeh, Wallhagen, Oc Nicoloff,
1999). Neuropathy, infection, deformity, and vascular insufficiency threaten the feet and the
overall functional well-being of patients with diabetes. Of the 14 million Americans with
diabetes, 55,000 have lower limb amputations each year, with elderly individuals and
minorities being disproportionately affected (National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention
and Health Promotion, 1992; WylieRosett et al., 1995).
Diabetes accounts for approximately 50% to 80% of all nontraumatic lower extremity
amputations (LEAs) in the United States (Christensen, Funnell, Ehrlich, Fellows, & Floyo1,
1990; Lupo, 1997; Scheffler, 1996; Spollett, 1998). It is estimated that each year, 45 of every
10,000 individuals with diabetes ages 45 to 64 years experience the loss of a lower extremity.
At least 15% of all individuals with diabetes eventually will have a foot ulcer, and 6 of every
1,000 individuals with diabetes will have an amputation (National Institute of Diabetes and
Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1997). Although foot problems cannot be eradicated
completely, early recognition and management can prevent or delay the onset of adverse
outcomes.
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
The frequency of lower extremity amputations can be reduced with routine foot screening
and education (Earth, Campbell, & Jupp, 1991; Collier, Kinion, & Brodbeck, 1996; Feldman,
1998; Hunt, 1996). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention indicated that
identification and treatment of patients at risk for diabetes-related foot problems and patient
education about proper foot wear and care may prevent as many as 50% of amputations
(USDHHS, 1991). Despite evidence that foot care can prevent amputation, proper foot care
continues to be a commonly neglected aspect of management for patients with diabetes.
Standards of care have become the means of monitoring important aspects of care through
early detection and prevention. The American Diabetes Association's (ADA) 1999 and 2000
Clinical Recommendations outline the essentials of foot care for individuals with diabetes.
The ADA recommends that all individuals with diabetes receive a thorough foot examination
at least once a year to identify high-risk foot conditions. This examination should include an
assessment of protective sensation, foot structure, vascular status, and skin integrity.
Individuais with one or more high-risk conditions should be evaluated more frequently for
the development of risk factors. Risk factors associated with an increased risk of amputation
include:
* Bony deformity.
* Erythema.
Individuals with neuropathy should have a visual inspection of their feet during every visit
with a health care professional.
Health care providers have been remiss in performing and documenting foot examinations
(Fain & Melkus, 1994; Umeh et al., 1999). A study of nurse practitioners (NPs) determined
the extent to which NPs' patterns of diabetes care were consistent with ADA standards of care
(Fain & Melkus, 1994). An audit of 78 medical records representing a proportionate number
for each of six master's prepared certified NPs revealed discrepancies between established
standards and the degree to which standards were documented. A comprehensive
examination requires documentation of skin condition, pulse or vascular status, and
neurological assessment. Nurse practitioners documented comprehensive foot care
examinations in only 23% (n = 18) of the charts reviewed, with a 54% (n = 42) referral rate to
podiatrists (Fain & Melkus, 1994). The results of the study indicated a gap between the
established standards of care and the degree to which the minimum standards were being met.
Wylie-Rosett et al. (1995) studied clinic adherence to ADA guidelines for foot examinations.
The charts of 350 patients with diabetes were reviewed for foot examination documentation
at inner-city clinics. A documented foot examination was defined as assessing at least two of
the three components comprising a standard foot examination. The review determined the
periodicity and prevalence of foot examinations and referrals to a podiatrist or vascular
surgeon, and identified risk factors for foot care complications during a 2-year period. There
was no indication of foot examination or referral for 56% of the patients during the 2-year
period. Evidence of examinations by primary care providers and referrals was found in 12%
of the charts. Patients with foot care referrals were more likely to have had a foot
examination by their primary care providers. There was a positive association between
having a foot examination by a primary care provider and referral to a podiatrist or vascular
surgeon.
Findings from these two studies support the premise that primary care practitioners need to
better understand the importance of diabetes care and management, especially related to foot
care. Implementation of foot care and management strategies for patients with diabetes could
make a difference in detecting and reducing diabetes-related complications.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Most diabetes-related LEAs result from a combination of contributing causes (Frykberg,
1999; Pecoraro et al., 1990; Reiber et al., 1999). Assessment and intervention related to
preventive education could potentially reduce the rate of LEAs and reduce medical costs as
well. Prevention, education, and early intervention must underlie the principles of diabetes-
related foot care management, therefore increasing these health care provider actions related
to foot care for patients with diabetes is necessary. Although many foot conditions require the
care of a specialist such as a podiatrist, some problems can be handled adequately by nurses
(Christensen et al., 1990).
The purpose of this study was to evaluate diabetes-related foot care provided to residents in a
long-term care (LTC) facility in the Midwest. The study's research questions were:
* What proportion of residents with diabetes are assessed routinely for foot problems?
* What proportion of residents with diabetes receive foot care compliant with the ADA
standards?
* What proportion of resident with diabetes who have foot problems receive podiatry visits
every 3 months?
METHOD
Instruments
The data collection instrument used was a quality indicator data retrieval worksheet tided,
"Skin Integrity Management Monitoring Plan: Assessment of Diabetic Foot Care" (Rantz &
Popejoy, 1998). This quality indicator instrument, Minimum Data Set version 2 (MDS 2.0),
was purchased by the project facility (Rantz & Popejoy, 1998). The monitoring plan is based
on current standards of practice and meets ADA guidelines. The data collection instrument
was formatted as a checklist of 11 items related to diabetic foot care. These items equate to
the ADA recommendations for foot assessment in clients with DM. Documentation of each
item was recorded as Yes, No, or Not Applicable allowing for measurement of frequency of
occurrence. The MDS 2.0 skin integrity items were estimated to have a weighted kappa of .73
in a study of 187 residents from 21 nursing homes in the United States (Morris et al., 1997),
indicating adequate documented reliability. Demographic information and foot care history
were also collected (Table 1).
Data Collection and Analysis
All data were collected by the investigator (first author) through a retrospective review of
residents' charts, including a review of the patient's entire medical record. Charts were
reviewed only after the resident had voluntarily signed a consent form. Measures were taken
to maintain record confidentiality. The anonymity of participants was protected through use
of a case number as an identification code. Approval to conduct this study was obtained from
the facility's research review board and the university human subjects review committee.
Data analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 7.5 (SPSS
Inc., Chicago, IL) computer software. Descriptive statistics including means, standard
deviations, and frequencies were used to describe the sample and answer the research
questions.
RESULTS
Demographics
Of the 17 charts reviewed, 11 (65%) participants were women and 6 (35%) were men. The
mean age was 75.7 (SD = 9.8) with a range of 58 to 91 years. Seventy-one percent (n = 12) of
the sample were White and 29% (n = 5) were African-American. Length of stay ranged from
2 months to 20 years with 71% (n = 12) admitted within the previous 2 months, 17% (n = 3)
within the previous year, and 12% (n = 2) admitted more than 18 years ago. The mean
duration of DM was 18.7 years (SD = 17.9). Eighty-eight percent (n = 15) of the sample had
a diagnosis of Type 2 DM, and 12% (n = 2) Type IDM.
Findings
The first research question addressed what proportion of residents with diabetes were
assessed routinely for foot problems. All residents with diabetes consistently received routine
foot assessment during admission (100%, N= 17). Only one participant was assessed weekly.
No documentation was found for daily foot assessment for any of the participants. Foot
problems were documented in 10 (59%) participants upon admission (Table 2). Skin
breakdown occurred in 9 of these 10 participants. Areas of the foot that were blistered,
reddened, callused, or rough, were immediately treated to prevent further complication.
Assessment of wound healing related to the wound location was documented in five of these
nine charts (56% of participants with skin breakdown). Only three (33%) charts contained
documentation of wound size and diameter. Color and temperature of surrounding tissues
were documented in 6 (60%) of the 10 charts of participants with foot problems.
The second research question addressed the proportion of residents with diabetes receiving
foot care compliant with the ADA standards. The ADA standards require foot examination
include:
* Vascular status.
* Skin integrity.
* Tuning fork.
* Palpation.
* Visual examination.
In this facility, a podiatrist documented foot examination in only one of the charts reviewed.
However, six residents had been referred to podiatrists. Throughout the charts reviewed, no
documentation of protective sensation examination using the Semmes-Weinstein
monofilament, assessment of foot structure, education about risk and prevention of foot
problems, or vibrations was found. This lead to the conclusion that the facility was not
providing foot care compliant with ADA standards.
The third research question addressed what proportion of residents with diabetes and
documented foot problems received a podiatry visit every 3 months. Foot problems were
documented in 10 patients with DM (59%). Six of the ten residents with diabetes (60%) who
had foot problems had been referred to a podiatrist. Three of those residents were admitted
within the past 2 months and the other three within the past year. The three residents admitted
within the past year had received one podiatry visit (30%)y but no 3-month follow-up visit. It
was not possible to assess subsequent 3 -month follow-up for the three residents admitted
within the past 2 months because they had been at the facility less than 3 months.
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study showed poor documentation of foot problems, failure to meet ADA
foot care standards, and that a large number of residents in a LTC facility with a history of
DM had foot problems. This is consistent with previous research indicating a gap between
established standards of care and the degree to which the standards are met (Fain & Melkus,
1994; Wylie-Rosett et al., 1995). In this sample, residents with diabetes were routinely
assessed for foot problems upon admission. However, compliance with standards for follow-
up assessment was low. This study also shows that residents with diabetes who had foot
problems did not receive a 3-month podiatrist follow-up visit.
There are several possible explanations for these findings - one of which may be lack of
knowledge of ADA foot care standards. The staff at the LTC facility may need additional
professional education on diabetes care, especially ADA foot care standards, assessment
skills, management, and documentation. Educational activities on ADA standards and foot
care are critical in maintaining quality care. Annual educational review programs for the
nursing staff about ADA standards could influence diabetic foot care outcomes and make a
difference in detecting foot problems and reducing complications such as LEAs (Fain &
Melkus, 1994). In addition, periodic in-service training in foot care assessment and
documentation is recommended as an opportunity to educate the nursing staff on areas for
improvement and review areas of concern. Every LTC facility's activities for health care
professionals should include diabetes education programs because they can result in better
patient care for a substantial number of residents (ADA, 1999; Tonino, 1990). Nurses and the
podiatrist must become aware of the need for preventive care and make routine foot
examination a standard practice.
Another possible explanation for these findings may be the need for a systematic approach to
foot examinations for residents with diabetes. Lack of a convenient means of reminding about
and documenting podiatrist referrals and follow-up visits can be a factor in the lack of
documentation. A study by Deeb, Pettijohn, Shirak, and Freeman (1988) indicated that a
systematic approach to patient care improves rates of foot examinations. The lack of a system
to track podiatry visits could influence referral outcomes. To address these problems, a
system using a "high risk feet" sticker placed on the chart could serve as a reminder to the
nursing staff to conduct foot assessments and track podiatrist visits. The nursing staff would
indicate on the sticker the date of the next podiatry visit and foot examination to facilitate
routine follow-up care.
The lack of assessment documentation may be attributed to the need for a screening form for
diabetesrelated foot disease. A screening form can be used to:
Attention should be also directed at developing a systematic classification of foot lesions that
can be used to assess the development and progression of lower extremity lesions on patients
with diabetes. A strong emphasis on documentation might improve assessment results.
Limitations
The results of this study are limited to one LTC facility; however, the demographic profile of
the sample charts is representative of many LTC facility populations. In addition, similar
results have been reported in other studies (Fain & Melkus, 1994; Umeh et al., 1999).
Recommendations from this study are not new. Results of this study suggest that LTC
agencies have not been effective in implementing the ADA recommendations or the
procedural recommendations such as those identified in this article. The root of the problem
may be that facilities have no incentives to change practices. An innovative solution may be
for health care insurance companies to establish financial incentives to encourage compliance
with ADA standards. After implementation of these incentives, data should be collected to
determine if they are effective.
Several implications for practice are drawn from these findings for nurses working with older
adults in LTC facilities. Nurses must identify patients at risk for foot problems and actively
intervene to prevent complications from occurring. Complications related to neuropathy can
often be prevented with relatively simple measures, such as foot examinations, education
about proper foot care and foot wear, and podiatrist referrals for high-risk patients (ADA,
1999; Barth et al., 1991; Brodbeck & Collier, 1994; Collier et al., 1996; Hunt, 1996; Kruger
& Guthrie, 1992).
Nurses involved with caring for individuals in LTC facilities are in an ideal position to
improve the quality of health care for residents with diabetes. Findings from the Diabetes
Control and Complications Trials (DCCT) Research Group (1993) verified the importance of
the nurse's role in the management of patients with diabetes. Foot assessment by nurses can
positively affect comfort, mobility, and quality of life for the growing number of adults with
diabetes living in LTC facilities.
Establishing a system for routine foot assessment and care may significantly increase
compliance with ADA standards. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has
designated a decrease in the rate of amputation among the general population and among
specific high-risk groups as a national health objective. The objective serves as a call for both
health care providers and individuals with diabetes to make routine diabetesrelated foot care a
high priority.
Sidebar
Implementation of foot care and management strategies for patients with diabetes could make
a difference in detecting and reducing diabetesrelated complications.
Sidebar