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2000 Factory Mutual Insurance Company. All rights reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in whole or in part, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission of Factory Mutual Insurance Company.
7-32 Flammable Liquid Operations
Page 2 FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets
List of Figures
Fig. 1. Preferred locations for processes containing flammable or combustible liquids. (Table 1) ............... 4
Fig. 2a. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for up to 70 gal (265 l) of
flammable/combustible liquid in open equipment. ........................................................................................ 10
Fig. 2b. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for up to 70 gal (265 l) of
flammable/combustible liquid in closed equipment. ......................................................................... 11
Fig. 3a. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for more than 70 gal (265 l) of
flammable/combustible liquid in open equipment. .......................................................................... 12
Fig. 3b. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for more than 70 gal (265 l) of
flammable/combustible liquid in closed equipment. ......................................................................... 13
Fig. 4. Buried-pipe entrance into building. ................................................................................................... 20
Fig. 5. Preferred arrangement for above grade pipe entrance into building. .............................................. 21
Fig. 6. Welding neck type flange. ................................................................................................................ 23
Fig. 7. Slip-on type flange. ........................................................................................................................... 23
Fig. 8. Compressed inert-gas transfer method. ........................................................................................... 31
Fig. 9. Hydraulic transfer method. ................................................................................................................ 33
Fig. 10. Railcar loading/unloading station-bonding arrangement to prevent sparks due to stray currents. . 35
Fig. 11. Sprinklered vs. Unsprinklered Flammable/Combustible Liquid Fires. ............................................ 45
Fig. 12. Maximum Pressure Developed During Venting of Gases, With and Without Vent Ducts. ............ 48
List of Tables
Table 1.
Construction For Flammable and Combustible Liquid Occupancies (notes 1 & 2). ...................... 4
Table 2.
Sprinkler Protection for Occupancies Utilizing Flammable/Combustible Liquids. ........................ 17
Table 3.
Space Separation for Flammable/Combustible Liquid Loading/Unloading Stations. ................... 34
Table 4.
The volume of a stoichiometric vapor-air mixture that may be produced from either 1 gallon
or 1 liter of some common flammable liquids. (Note: these values are based on
complete vaporization of the liquid.) ............................................................................................. 38
Table 5. Heat of Combustion for Representative Materials. ....................................................................... 43
Table 6. Explosion Venting Constants. ....................................................................................................... 46
Table 7. Venting Constants for Other Vapors and Gases. ......................................................................... 47
1.0 SCOPE
This loss prevention data sheet provides recommendations for the prevention of and protection against fires
and explosions in occupancies handling, processing, or transferring flammable or combustible liquids. Data
sheets covering specific occupancies may supersede this data sheet. Additional recommendations may be
needed to provide adequate prevention and protection features for a chemical process plant with the poten-
tial for hazardous chemical reactions, three dimensional fires, or operating pressures in excess of 100 psig
(7 bar g). Refer to Section 3.1 for guidelines on applying recommendations.
International standards may be applied when required, instead of referenced United States standards (i.e.,
ASTM, ASME, etc.).
NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, also covers this material.
1.1 Changes
September 2000. This revision of the document has been reorganized to provide a consistent format.
Fig. 1. Preferred locations for processes containing flammable or combustible liquids. (Table 1)
Table 1. Construction For Flammable and Combustible Liquid Occupancies (notes 1 & 2).
Hazard
Cutoff Room/Building
Type
Construction
refer to Quantity of
(note 3)
Section 3.1 Flammable Distance Construction of Main Buildings
for Liquid gal x Roof Exposed Wall
A B
Location definitions (1) ft (m) (note 4) C
>75 (23) PV PV PV
> 1500 (6) 10-75
PR PV LW
(3-23)
Explosion
> 50 (15) PV PV PV
1 < 1500 (6) 10-50
PR PV LW Any
(note 5) (3-15)
> 50 (15) LW
> 1500 (6)
< 50 (15) FR
Fire LW LW
> 25 (8) LW
< 1500 (6)
< 25 (8) FR
Vertical Exposure Horizontal
Protection: Exposure
PV PR and 1 hour fire Protection:
2
Explosion Any Abutting DNA PV rated for 10 ft (3 m) PR for length of
(note 6)
above exposure. exposing wall A
Vertical Exposure plus 10 ft
PR
Protection: Any (3 m) beyond
Explosion PV PR PR
3&4 Any Inside DNA
Fire NC FR FR
1. This table assumes adequate sprinkler protection is provided in the Main Building and the exposure. Table also assumes damage limiting
construction is designed in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction.
2. If sprinkler protection is not provided in the exposing building (i.e., low value building), use Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior
Fire Exposure, (applies to Location 1 only). Use the following exposure rating in Data Sheet 1-20: Exposure A for quantities greater
than 1500 gal (6000 l). Exposure B for quantities less than 1500 gal (6000 l). Construction features for the exposing building still apply
when an explosion hazard exists.
3. The types of construction are defined as follows:
LWlight weight/noncombustible; FR1 hour fire rated; PRpressure resistant.
NCnoncombustible; PVpressure venting;
4. Pressure resistant construction should also be provided for floors that have spaces below. Roof construction should meet the requirements
listed in Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction.
5. For <10 ft (3 m) with an explosion hazard, use Location 2, Explosion Hazard.
6. For abutting structures with a fire hazard only, use Location 1, Fire Hazard, <50 ft/<25 ft (15 m/8 m). Sprinklered and adequate damage
limiting construction, designed in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-limiting Construction, is provided when an explosion hazard
exists.
If the exposing building is not sprinklered (low value building, Location 1 only) and the quantity of flam-
mable or combustible liquid in the building is more than 1500 gal (6000 l), apply spacing and construction rec-
ommendations listed in Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure, using exposure A
(Tables 2 through 7). Construction features shown in Table 1 still apply to the exposing building when an
explosion hazard exists.
If the exposing building is not sprinklered (low value building, Location 1 only) and quantity of flammable or
combustible liquid in the building is less than 1500 gal (6000 l), apply spacing and construction recommen-
dations listed in Data Sheet 1-20, using exposure B. Construction features shown in Table 1 still apply to the
exposing building when an explosion hazard exists.
2.1.1.4 For interior locations with flammable/combustible liquids having a flash point below 200F (93C), pro-
vide at least a one hour fire-rated partition to cut off the flammable liquid occupancy from surrounding occu-
pancies (Table 1). Other recommendations may exist for specific occupancies (covered by occupancy
specific data sheets).
If unheated combustible liquids with flash points above 200F (93C) are in use, the water supply is adequate,
and no high-value occupancies are exposed, a curb surrounding the combustible liquid operation is accept-
able in lieu of a fire rated partition. The curbing should be designed for a spill from largest vessel or con-
tainer plus a 2 in. (51 mm) freeboard in accordance with Data Sheet 7-83, Drainage Systems For Flammable
Liquids, (criteria for areas with containment but no drainage).
2.1.1.5 When a flammable/combustible liquid occupancy creates a room explosion hazard (see Section 3.1.4),
provide damage limiting construction as recommended in Table 1 and Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting
Construction. If a mist explosion hazard exists, refer to Data Sheet 1-44, to design the explosion venting.
When damage limiting construction is not possible for small rooms that create a severe exposure to high value
adjoining occupancies, consider an explosion suppression system. Install the system in accordance with
Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection Systems.
2.1.1.6 Provide emergency drainage and/or containment for all flammable/combustible liquid areas pro-
tected by water fire suppression systems. Determine the need for drainage and/or containment using Data
Sheet 7-83, Drainage Systems For Flammable Liquids. The design of the drainage/containment system or a
possible alternative to adequate drainage should be in accordance with Data Sheet 7-83. Curbs and floors
in flammable/combustible liquid areas should be watertight. The surface grade around flammable/
combustible liquid areas should direct possible liquid releases away from important buildings.
Arrange drainage systems to prevent flammable vapors from backing up into buildings or rooms that are
tied into those systems. One method of accomplishing this is the use of trapped drains. Provide this arrange-
ment for all buildings/rooms with drains that are tied into a drainage system that can handle flammable/
combustible liquids regardless of the occupancy in that room/building.
a) Direct measurement instruments that use glass for containment (e.g., sight glasses, liquid level
indicatorglass type, rotameter) should be used only as a last resort and avoided entirely on pro-
cesses that contain flammable gases or flammable/combustible liquids above their normal atmospheric
boiling point. Locate sight glasses above liquid level. Sight glasses and liquid level indicators should be
Factory Mutual Research Approved (see Appendix A for definition). Follow the manufacturers
recommendations for mounting and maintenance.
b) The instruments materials of construction should be compatible with the materials being handled. Rate
glass for the temperature, pressure and chemical service conditions under which it will operate.
c) The instruments strength should be equal to or greater than the equipment to which they are attached.
d) Use restricted orifices in piping connecting the instruments to the equipment. Provide self-closing
faucets on draw-off/sample lines (sample tubes).
e) Avoid sudden temperature changes (e.g., addition of a very high or low temperature liquid to the inside
or outside of a vessel) on instruments with glass components (e.g., sight glasses).
f) Inspect all instruments on a regular schedule. Determine inspection frequency by the severity of local
conditions.
g) Inspect sight glasses at least once a week. Record sight glass inspections. When surface damage is
detected, replace the glass immediately. If sight glasses are exposed to frequent changes in temperature
and pressure, replace at regular intervals as determined by processing conditions.
h) Rotameters should be armored and arranged so only a sample of the flow is directed through the glass
reading chamber instead of the entire stream. Vents on air releases used in conjunction with some meter-
ing devices should be piped to outdoor locations to prevent the release of flammable or combustible
liquids in the event of meter failure.
i) Conduct instrument maintenance, including tightening bolts and replacement, only when the associ-
ated equipment or piping has been shut down and depressurized. Equipment containing flammable liq-
uids or gases should be emptied and purged.
2.1.2.4 Flammable or combustible liquid handling and processing equipment that, under normal operating
conditions, have the potential for a vapor-air explosion or mist explosion within the equipment (i.e., equip-
ment explosion hazardsee Section 3.1.5) should be protected by one of the following methods (listed in
order of preference):
a) Provide explosion venting designed to limit the pressure developed by an explosion to approximately
133% of the equipments yield strength (stress). If damage to the equipment creates a significant exposure
(i.e., high value equipment or difficult to replace), design the explosion venting to limit the pressure devel-
opment to approximately two thirds (23) of the equipments yield strength (stress) to prevent permanent
equipment deformation. Equipment explosion venting calculations are presented in the Appendix C,
Section C.5. The initial pressure of the equipment must be considered when calculating the needed vent
size.
b) Design the equipment to contain the maximum expected pressure due to a vapor-air explosion. The
maximum pressure should not exceed 133% of the equipments yield strength (stress). To prevent
permanent equipment damage, the maximum pressure should not exceed two thirds (23) of the equip-
ments yield strength (stress). Most vapor-air explosions will produce a maximum pressure of approxi-
mately nine times the initial absolute pressure in the equipment (this applies to equipment operating at
atmospheric or at elevated initial pressures).
c) Provide a gas inerting system designed in accordance with Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of
Tanks, Process Vessels, and Equipment, that is arranged to prevent the creation of a flammable vapor-
air mixture. The inerting system should have a reliable inert gas supply. Equipment operators should be well
trained on the importance and function of the inerting system.
d) An explosion suppression system, designed in accordance with Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protec-
tion Systems, should be provided on high value equipment, equipment that exposes high value pro-
cesses, or equipment with frequent explosions, when either explosion venting, containment, or inerting
cannot be provided.
2.1.2.5 Provide purging or ventilation systems for equipment with a vapor-air explosion hazard to reduce
the risk of creating a vapor-air mixture in the flammable (explosive) range (not needed on inerted equip-
ment). Design purging systems in accordance with Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process
Vessels, and Equipment. Ventilation systems should be designed in accordance with Data Sheet 6-9, Indus-
trial Ovens and Dryers. Utilize purging to avoid passing through the flammable (explosive) range of the flam-
mable vapor during start-up or shutdown operations. Design ventilation systems to limit flammable vapor
concentrations to less than 25% of the lower flammable (explosive) limit (these systems are normally found
in ovens and dryers).
2.1.2.6 Supports for important equipment or equipment containing flammable/combustible liquids (e.g., mix-
ing tanks, storage tanks) that are blocked from ceiling sprinkler discharge (i.e., equipment that is wider than
3 ft (0.9 m) or 10 ft2 (0.9 m2) in area) should be protected against potential failure due to the high tempera-
tures created by pool fires. Use automatic water spray or sprinklers, arranged to protect the supports, in rooms
without a room explosion hazard. Use reinforced concrete or protected steel supports when a room explosion
hazard exists or as an alternative to water spray or sprinklers.
2.1.2.7 Tanks, mixers and other equipment to which flammable or combustible liquids are transferred should
be arranged to prevent accidental overflow. One or a combination of the following methods or equivalent
should be used (listed in order of preference):
a) Provide a trapped overflow drain leading back to the source of supply or to a point of safe discharge.
The capacity of the overflow drain should be at least equal to that of the fill pipe.
b) A liquid level-limit switch arranged to stop the liquid flow by closing a valve or stopping the pump should
be provided. An audible alarm may be used as a first warning that is followed by shutdown of the liquid
flow. The liquid level-limit switch should be Approved. This arrangement is acceptable if the equipment
normally operates under pressure so that an overflow drain is not practical but overflow is possible during
filling because of open manholes or sampling connections. This may also be used in conjunction with an
overflow drain (provide an alarm to prevent overflow).
The use of weigh tanks, measuring tanks, and dispensing meters to accurately provide a measured quan-
tity of liquid to a tank will assist in the prevention of overflows. Arrange weigh tanks and measuring tanks to
prevent overflow (using either a or b). The use of a dispensing meter does not eliminate the need to
follow recommendations a and b above.
2.1.2.8 Provide overflow protection and emergency bottom drains for open top tanks to prevent overflow
due to sprinkler discharge and hose streams, and to remove the exposed flammable/combustible liquid from
a fire area. The overflow protection and emergency bottom drains should be designed in accordance with
Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow/Roll Coaters, and Oil Cookers. Sprinkler discharge overflow protection may
be omitted if the exposure created by spilling flammable/combustible liquids is limited, and one of the
following is provided:
a) The tank or equipment is equipped with automatic closing covers or normally closed covers.
b) The liquid in the tank has a flash point above 200F (93C).
c) The tank has a capacity of less than 100 gal (380 l) and there is less than 20 ft2 (1.9 m2) of exposed
surface.
Provide at least 6 in. (150 mm) of freeboard on tanks without overflow protection.
2.1.2.8.1 Emergency bottom drains may be omitted if the exposure created by burning flammable/combustible
liquids is limited, and one of the following exists:
a) The liquid has a flash point greater than 200F (93C).
b) The tank has a capacity of less than 500 gal (1900 l) and is located on the first floor.
c) The tank has a capacity of less than 150 gal (600 l) and is located on an upper floor.
2.1.2.9 Equipment heating should be provided by steam, hot water, organic heat transfer fluid (see Data
Sheet 7-99/12-19, Heat Transfer By Organic and Synthetic Fluids) or other means not requiring an open flame.
Arrange heating equipment for automatic control. Provide a high temperature interlock arranged to provide
an audible alarm and shut down the heating equipment. Equipment and process temperatures should be
continuously monitored by the operator. Maximum equipment temperatures should be below the liquids
autoignition or autodecomposition temperature.
2.1.2.10 Flammable/combustible liquid storage should be cut off from points of use (e.g., manufacturing area).
The quantity of flammable/combustible liquids in areas where they are used should be limited to one shifts
needs (approximately 100 gal (400 l) or as specified by other specific data sheets).
2.1.2.11 Use drum pumps (preferred, easy control of liquid discharge) or self-closing faucets (gravity driven,
less control with failure of faucet), where permitted, for drums arranged for dispensing flammable and
combustible liquids. Use drip cans below faucets with on-side dispensing operations of Class I flammable
liquids (in areas where the ambient temperature can approach 100F (38C) include Class II combustible
liquids). A shallow metal drip pan is acceptable for use with Class II and III combustible liquids except as noted
above. The drum pumps, self-closing faucets, and drip cans should be Approved.
2.1.2.12 Provide safety bungs on drums of Class I liquids arranged for upright dispensing with a drum pump
that is not equipped with pressure and vacuum relief vents. If ambient temperatures can approach 100F
(38C), safety bung use should include Class II liquids. Also provide safety bungs on drums of Class I, II and
III liquids arranged for on-side dispensing. Safety bung use for Class III liquids is intended to prevent possible
spillage during on-side dispensing. Safety bungs prevent the creation of vacuum during dispensing, prevent
the release of flammable/combustible liquids and their vapors, allow the release of excess internal pressure
that can be created when the drum is exposed to a fire (i.e., prevent a BLEVE), and prevent the flashback
of released vapor. Attach safety bungs only to the 2 in. (51 mm) drum opening to ensure its proper operation.
Provide safety bungs on intermittent drum storage of flammable or combustible liquids located in a dispens-
ing area if the stored drums will be exposed to a spill from the dispensing drum and sprinkler protection in
the area is not adequate for drum storage (Data Sheet 7-29, Flammable Liquid Storage in Portable
Containers) or sprinkler operation may be delayed (e.g., locations under 20 ft [6 m] high ceilings). Store the
drums on the floor, upright and a maximum of one high. If the dispensing area is adequately curbed and
drained so a spill will not expose the stored drums, safety bungs are not needed on the stored drums. Drums
stored in adequately protected dedicated storage areas do not need safety bungs.
2.1.2.13 Use Approved safety cans for handling small quantities of Class I, II, and IIIA liquids. Class IIIB
liquids can be handled in nonrated containers.
2.1.2.14 Use Approved flammable liquid storage cabinets for storing small quantities (type, quantity and
container size is limited by Approval Standard) of Class I, II, and IIIA liquids in manufacturing areas or areas
that are not designed for flammable or combustible liquid use. Provide mechanical ventilation in cabinets
where flammable vapors may be present (e.g., open containers, dispensing in cabinet). To maintain cabinet
integrity, the ventilation ducts should have a fire resistance similar to the cabinet. If ventilation is not needed,
keep the two ventilation openings closed to ensure the cabinets fire rating is maintained.
2.1.2.15 Flammable/combustible liquids should be transferred in closed systems. Arrange liquid pumping
and piping systems in accordance with recommendations listed in Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
2.1.3 Occupancy
2.1.3.1 Ventilation
Ventilation systems are designed to confine, dilute and remove the maximum normal amount of flammable
vapor released from equipment and handling of flammable and combustible liquids during normal operations.
Adequately designed low level ventilation will reduce the chances of a flammable vapor-air mixture accumu-
lating in the process area. Excessive vapor release caused by equipment failure (pipe break, release from
a relief valve), accidental discharge of heated flammable/combustible liquids (drum or tank spill), or an uncon-
trolled chemical reaction (venting a reactor) cannot be adequately safeguarded by the ventilation rates
provided below. Designing a ventilation system to remove a large vapor release is outside the scope of this
document.
2.1.3.1.1 Continuous low level mechanical ventilation designed to provide 1 cfm/ft2 (0.3 m3/min/m2) of floor
area should be provided in rooms or buildings where Class I liquids or liquids with a flash point up to 300F
(149C) that are heated above their flash point are used.
2.1.3.1.2 In addition to providing the design in Recommendation No. 2.1.3.1.1, the exhaust ventilation should
confine flammable vapor concentrations exceeding 25% of the lower explosive limit to within 2 ft (0.6 m)
of points of release (e.g., open mixing or dip tanks, dispensing stations).
2.1.3.1.3 Exhaust air should be removed through a system of blowers, fans and ductwork terminating out
of doors away from air inlets, doorways and other openings. Exhaust ducts should be constructed of non-
combustible materials. Run the ducts as directly as possible to the outdoors with a minimum of bends. Protect
long runs of ventilation ducts with the potential for accumulation of combustible deposits in accordance with
Data Sheet 7-78, Industrial Exhaust Systems. Exhaust systems for small rooms may consist of a fan installed
at floor level arranged to exhaust out of doors (i.e., installed in exterior wall).
The ventilation system should take suction within 12 in. (0.3 m) of the floor. Locate intake openings at open
tank lips, near equipment or dispensing, and in any pits located within the cutoff room or within 25 ft (8 m)
of the operations that produce vapors.
Ventilation systems that are arranged to recirculate air into the room should be provided with an Approved
combustible gas detector arranged to stop recirculation, and return to full exhaust when the vapor
concentration reaches 25% of its lower explosive limit (LEL).
2.1.3.1.4 At a minimum, interlock exhaust fans with equipment power supplies. However, if flammable or com-
bustible liquids are kept in the room or building during idle periods, the exhaust ventilation should operate
continuously and be monitored (provide visual or audible ventilation failure alarm at occupied locations).
2.1.3.1.5 Provide make-up air inlets in exterior walls. Air inlets should be remote from exhaust outlets so that
air will sweep through the hazardous area. If gas or oil make-up air heaters are provided, they should be
indirect-fired and properly safeguarded.
If make-up air is taken from other plant areas, those areas should be free of flammable or combustible liquids.
Install automatic closing fire dampers or doors at make-up air inlet openings in interior fire walls or parti-
tions. The dampers or doors should have a fire rating equal to that of the walls.
2.1.3.1.6 For unheated liquids with a flash point greater than 100F (38C) and heated liquids with a flash
point greater than 300F (149C), provide natural draft ventilation arranged to provide 1 ft2 (0.1 m2) of free
inlet and outlet opening per 500 ft2 (47 m2) of floor area.
3. Is Ventilation Electrical
Separation Between Pit and Provided in Equipment
Point of Vapor Liberation Pit? Needed in Pit
05 ft (01.5 m) Yes/No Class I
Division 1
520 ft No Class I
(1.56 m) Division 1
Yes Class I
Division 2
> 20 ft (6 m) Yes/No Ordinary
Fig. 2a. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for up to 70 gal (265 l) of flammable/combustible liquid
in open equipment.
The use of all nonrated equipment (including maintenance equipment, battery operated equipment, etc.)
unless it is recognized as being intrinsically safe, should be strictly prohibited in rated areas unless the area
has been purged of all flammable and combustible liquids as well as their vapors. An alternative is to provide
a pressurized or purged enclosure for the electric equipment designed in accordance with Data Sheet 5-1,
Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
Standard electrical equipment is acceptable in: a) areas handling unheated Class II or III liquids, or b) above-
grade areas with flammable liquid piping (no associated equipment such as pumps, valves, connect and dis-
connect points, filters, tanks, etc.).
2.1.4.2 Equipment handling Class I liquids or Class II and III liquids heated above their flash points should
be electrically bonded and grounded in accordance with Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity, Data Sheet 5-10,
Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems and Equipment, and NFPA National Electric Code, Articles
250 and 500. Proper grounding and bonding of equipment reduces the potential for buildup of electric charge
on separated pieces of equipment due to static accumulations or stray electric currents.
2.1.4.3 Prohibit smoking or the use of open flames in all rooms or buildings requiring hazardous location
rated electrical equipment (i.e., Class I Division 1 or 2). Post signs to define hazardous areas and state
restrictions for the area.
1. Class I, Division 2
2.
Is Ventilation Electrical
Separation Between Pit and Provided in Equipment
Point of Vapor Liberation Pit? Needed in Pit
015 ft No Class I
(05 m) Division 1
Yes Class I
Division 2
> 15 ft (5 m) Yes/No Ordinary
Fig. 2b. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for up to 70 gal (265 l) of flammable/combustible liquid
in closed equipment.
2.1.4.4 When heating rooms or buildings containing a flammable or combustible liquid occupancy, use a sys-
tem that does not introduce an ignition source (e.g., steam or hot water, organic heat transfer oil, or haz-
ardous location rated electric heating). Direct natural gas/fuel oil-fired make-up air heaters are acceptable if
the heating unit is located outside the room or building and there is no air recirculation. Heating equip-
ment temperatures should be below the auto-ignition point of the liquids present in the room. If Class I liq-
uids are present, the heaters should be at least 4 ft (1.2 m) above the floor level.
2.1.4.5 Arrange all equipment that may produce sparks (electrical, static, mechanical, or friction), open flames,
or hot surfaces to prevent or strictly limit contact with flammable/combustible liquids or their vapors. Equip-
ment that, over time, may produce sparks or hot spots due to wear (e.g., rotating equipment such as motors,
agitators, pumps, etc.) should be maintained on a strict schedule.
Equipment or piping that create hot surfaces (e.g., steam pipe) should be avoided in areas with piping systems
containing unusually low ignition temperature liquids, such as carbon disulfide.
2.1.4.6 Industrial trucks should be properly rated and Approved for use in areas requiring Class I Division
1 or 2 electrical equipment. Refer to Data Sheet 7-39, Industrial Trucks, to select the appropriate truck rating.
2.1.4.7 Avoid hot work of any kind in areas handling, processing or storing flammable liquids. Hot Work
provides an ignition source in an area where fuel is available in significant quantities and in a readily ignit-
able form. Ideally, relocate any hot work to a nonhazardous location. When relocation is not possible, a docu-
mented Hot Work Permit System is needed.
3. Is Ventilation Electrical
Separation Between Pit and Provided in Equipment
Point of Vapor Liberation Pit? Needed in Pit
05 ft Yes (always Class I
(01.5 m) needed) Division 1
525 ft No Class I
(1.58 m) Division 1
Yes Class I
Division 2
25 ft No Class I
(8 m) Division 2
Yes Ordinary
Fig. 3a. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for more than 70 gal (265 l) of flammable/combustible
liquid in open equipment.
Use a documented permit system to strictly control all hot work operations. The permit is issued only after a
complete review of all proposed work, the hazards in the area, and all precautions needed to prevent a fire
or explosion. If all of the requirements cannot be met, then the permit should not be issued and the work
should not be allowed.
Precautions are listed on the FM Global Hot Work Permit itself. Some of the minimum requirements include:
a) Automatic sprinkler protection should be in service. Charged small hose or fire extinguishers should
be available at work area.
b) Remove flammable and combustible liquid storage from the area. All combustibles within 35 ft (11 m)
of the work should be removed or covered with a fire-resistive tarpaulin (see Data Sheet 1-0, Safeguards
During Construction, Alteration and Demolition).
1. Class I, Division 2
2. Ordinary Electric Equipment
3. Is Ventilation Electrical
Separation Between Pit and Provided in Equipment
Point of Vapor Liberation Pit? Needed in Pit
025 ft No Class I
(08 m) Division 1
Yes Class I
Division 2
> 25 ft (8 m) Yes/No Ordinary
Fig. 3b. Location of hazardous area rated electrical equipment for more than 70 gal (265 l) of flammable/combustible
liquid in closed equipment.
c) Drain all equipment or piping in the area of flammable and combustible liquids. Equipment or pipe
to be worked on should be steam cleaned or provided with an inert atmosphere to prevent creation of a
flammable atmosphere (see Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels, and Equip-
ment). Piping supplying the area with flammable and combustible liquids should be shut off at the source
(valve should be locked shut to prevent unexpected opening). If the piping is to be worked on, it should
be blanked off. Check equipment or piping with an Approved portable oxygen analyzer (see Data Sheet
5-49, Gas and Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems) before and during the hot work. This is to ensure
that sufficient oxygen to support combustion is not present inside the equipment or piping.
d) All permanent storage tanks or piping that cannot be moved or drained must be protected against physi-
cal contact and heat from hot work equipment. Preferably all equipment that is within reach of the hot
work equipment (grinder, welding rod holder, cutting torch, etc.) will be drained, purged and inerted. If this
is not possible due to the quantities of flammable liquids involved, physical protection can be provided
by placing welding curtains and temporary barriers between the equipment and the hot work. A careful
review of the area is required to ensure that no vents or other openings are near the hot work that could
allow fumes and sparks from the hot work to meet.
e) Keep mechanical ventilation in the room/building in operation. Use a portable combustible gas ana-
lyzer before and during the work. If any detectable readings are obtained, then work cannot begin or con-
tinue until the source is found and suitably mitigated such that the concentration is maintained below 10%
of the LEL.
f) Provide a continuous fire watch both during and at least 60 minutes after work. Check the area at least
hourly for up to three hours after the end of hot work operations.
Avoid the use of nonrated electrical equipment in areas containing flammable liquids. If such equipment must
be temporarily introduced, view this as hot work and follow the permit precautions. As with other hot work,
if the precautions cannot be taken, the permit should not be issued and the nonrated electrical equipment
should not be used.
For situations where the above steps are not applicable or unusual circumstances are present, consult a
specialist in flammable/combustible liquid handling before any hot work is performed.
inerted before it is opened or tapped. Bolts for flanges or for connections to flanged fittings should be tight-
ened with a torque wrench to ensure proper tightness without overstressing. Prohibit the use of power tools
unless the precautions listed in Recommendation No. 2.1.4.7 are strictly followed. Use Approved safety tools
in areas where a flammable atmosphere may exist.
2.1.5.8 Relocate equipment needing repair or maintenance that requires use of a cutting torch or other hot
work operation preferably to a nonhazardous location. Regardless of where the work is done, the equip-
ment should be drained, flushed, purged, and inerted as necessary to eliminate all flammable and combus-
tible liquids and their vapors. Use an Approved combustible vapor analyzer (see Data Sheet 5-49, Gas and
Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems) before and during work to make certain equipment that is not inerted
has been fully purged and remains purged of any flammable vapors. Check equipment that is inerted before
and during work with an Approved oxygen analyzer to ensure a flammable atmosphere is not present. Fol-
low Recommendation No. 2.1.4.7 and Data Sheet 7-59, Inerting and Purging of Tanks, Process Vessels,
and Equipment, to ensure all flammable vapors and potential ignition sources have been eliminated.
2.1.5.9 Use an equipment isolation procedure to supervise valves controlling flammable and combustible
liquids that are shut off for repair or other maintenance procedures. Equipment isolation procedures should
be strictly controlled to ensure equipment repairs/maintenance are complete before flammable/combustible
liquids are introduced.
2.1.5.10 Remove unused piping or tanks. Cap open end pipes promptly. Unused equipment that is not
removed should be completely drained and purged of all flammable/combustible liquids and their vapors.
The equipment should also be disconnected from any surrounding active equipment and clearly labeled as
shutdown to reduce the chances of accidental use.
2.1.5.11 Protect flammable and combustible liquid handling and transfer equipment against external corro-
sion. Protective coatings for buried tanks and piping should be carefully applied and inspected before they are
covered. Conduct regular inspections of the equipment to investigate external corrosion. Increase the
inspection frequency of equipment located in corrosive atmospheres.
2.1.6 Training
2.1.6.1 Create a training program for all employees (including operators, emergency organization members,
and security personnel) who have access to or work in areas containing or processing flammable/combustible
liquids. Design and supervise the training programs to address the complexity of process operations and
the hazard level present at a facility. The training should include proper handling, equipment operation, and
emergency procedures as well as the consequences of failing to follow the procedure. Provide training for
all new employees. Refresher programs should also be provided, as needed, for current employees. The
program should at least include:
a) The hazards created by the materials in use.
b) The proper operation or shutdown of the equipment under normal and emergency conditions. Critical
procedures should be printed and posted for convenient reference.
c) Proper material handling procedures (i.e., bonding/grounding, self-closing faucets, safety bungs, etc.).
d) Flammable/combustible liquid piping system operation and shutdown including the location of all local
and remote shutoff valves.
e) Proper flammable/combustible liquid transfer procedures.
f) The location, proper type and proper use of fire extinguishers for the hazard present.
g) Fixed extinguishing systems operation and function.
availability of emergency response personnel from surrounding communities (e.g., fire department, spill
response teams, etc.), and local, state or federal regulations.
The facilitys emergency organization members and the local fire department should be familiar with the loca-
tion of flammable/combustible liquid processes as well as the emergency response plan. Use emergency
response drills to reinforce the employee training programs (including emergency organization) and assist the
fire department in pre-fire planning.
2.1.7.2 Arrange security rounds to include areas handling flammable and combustible liquids during idle peri-
ods. Train security personnel to ensure all equipment and valves that contain or control flammable and com-
bustible liquids are shut down (including pumps, emergency shutoff valves, mixers, etc.).
2.1.7.3 Establish excellent housekeeping standards for areas storing or handling flammable and combus-
tible liquids. Clean up spills promptly. Keep waste materials in Approved oily waste cans. Remove waste daily.
Maintain adequate aisles to permit unobstructed movement of personnel and access for fire fighting.
2.1.8 Protection
2.1.8.1 Provide automatic sprinkler protection over all areas storing, processing, or transferring flammable
and/or combustible liquids. Extend the sprinkler protection to the physical limits of the area. The physical lim-
its are defined by at least one hour rated fire walls and curbs. Sprinkler systems over areas defined by curbs
only (see Recommendation No. 2.1.1.4) should extend over and 20 ft (6 m) beyond the curbed area. The
sprinkler system should be either a standard closed head, preaction or deluge type. Preaction systems are
preferred over dry systems for unheated locations. Install the sprinkler system in accordance with Data Sheet
2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA).
2.1.8.2 Provide sprinkler protection under any obstruction to water distribution that exceeds 3 ft (0.9 m) in
width or diameter and 10 ft2 (0.9 m2) in area (e.g., under large tanks or pieces of equipment, below grated
mezzanines) to ensure adequate cooling for steel structures. Spacing below mezzanines should be 100 ft2
(9 m2) per head.
2.1.8.3 Automatic sprinkler protection may be omitted in building areas that contain no combustibles (includ-
ing combustible construction) other than flammable or combustible liquid piping if all of the following exist:
a) The piping is welded with no flanged joints or has threaded joints that meet the criteria listed in Rec-
ommendation No. 2.2.1.3.6. Evaluate fire protection requirements for external pipe racks in accor-
dance with Data Sheet 7-14, Fire & Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, &
Liquefied Flammable Gas Processing Equipment & Supporting Structures.
b) There are no valves, pumps, or other accessories that are known to be potential leakage points.
c) The piping system consists solely of ferrous piping installed as recommended in Section 2.2 of this
document.
Automatic sprinkler protection may also be omitted in low value buildings (including pump houses, etc.) with
flammable and combustible liquid processes that have adequate space separation (see Section 2.1.1) from
important buildings and structures.
2.1.8.4 Sprinkler spacing should be a maximum of 100 ft2 (9 m2) when protecting liquids with a flash point
less than 200F (93C) or greater than 200F (93C) and heated to its flash point. A maximum spacing of
130 ft2 (12 m2) when protecting liquids with a flash point greater than or equal to 200F (93C).
2.1.8.5 Automatic sprinkler systems (i.e., wet, preaction, or deluge) should be hydraulically designed as
indicated in Table 2. If a dry sprinkler system is provided, increase the sprinkler operating areas by 50%.
These tables apply to ordinary manufacturing occupancies that use flammable and/or combustible liquids (no
liquid quantity limitations) with no potential for a three dimensional fire. Refer to Data Sheet 7-14, Fire &
Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquids, Flammable Gas, & Liquefied Flammable Gas Processing
Equipment & Supporting Structures, for plants or buildings that are dedicated to flammable/combustible liquid
processing (i.e., plants with processes that involve chemical reactions, chemical plants, etc.), any process
that creates the potential for three dimensional flammable/combustible liquid fires, or processes that operate
at high pressures (pressures approximately 100 psig [7 bar g] or greater). Sprinkler protection recommen-
dations provided in other data sheets that address specific occupancies that use flammable/combustible
liquids supersede the recommendations in this document.
Sprinkler protection for flammable/combustible liquid processes and transfer systems may be designed for
the surrounding occupancy when one of the following applies:
a) The aggregate area of an open tank and its drainboard is less than 20 ft2 (2 m2).
b) The total liquid surface area of an open tank does not exceed 10 ft2 (1 m2).
c) The aggregate liquid capacity within the fire area is less than 70 gal (265 l). The flammable or
combustible liquid should be kept in flammable liquid storage cabinets.
d) The area contains properly arranged ferrous piping (no valves, manifolds, pumps, or other accessories).
2.1.8.6 Sprinklers provided below open grate mezzanines (no flammable or combustible liquids located
above the mezzanine) should be hydraulically designed to provide the same density as recommended for the
ceiling over half the recommended area (or the entire mezzanine area; whichever is smaller). These
sprinklers should be balanced with the ceiling demand at the point of connection. If flammable liquids are
located above the mezzanine, a three dimensional fire potential exists and Data Sheet 7-14, Fire & Explosion
Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, & Liquefied Flammable Gas Processing Equipment &
Supporting Structures, should be used for system design.
2.1.8.7 Spacing of detectors for interior deluge systems (either pilot head, electric, or pneumatic) should
be in accordance with Data Sheet 2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA), (pilot headssame spacing
as sprinklers, electric or pneumatic devices under smooth ceilingsfollow spacing requirements listed in
the Approval Guide a publication of FM Approvals for the particular model) or as recommended in data
sheets that cover the specific occupancy. Exterior deluge system design should be in accordance with Data
Sheet 7-14.
Detector spacing for preaction systems (either pilot head, electric, or pneumatic) should be as follows:
a) Pilot head spacing should be the same as the sprinkler spacing. Preaction sprinkler systems that use
pilot heads should be considered dry systems for design purposes regardless of detector spacing.
b) Electric or pneumatic detector spacing should be the greater of one-half the listed linear detector
spacing or the full sprinkler spacing. Preaction systems with this detector spacing may be considered wet
systems for design purposes. Preaction systems with a detector spacing greater than the above spacing
should be considered dry systems for design purposes. The spacing should never exceed the devices
listed spacing (e.g., Approval Guide listing).
2.1.8.8 Sprinkler piping, valves, and fittings exposed by occupancies that create an explosion hazard should
be protected in accordance with Data Sheet 2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA), and Data Sheet
7-14, Fire & Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, & Liquefied Flammable Gas
Processing Equipment & Supporting Structures.
2.1.8.9 Automatic sprinkler protection may be supplemented with a fixed special protection system (local or
total floodinggaseous, dry chemical, water spray) to limit the exposure created by a potential flammable/
combustible liquid fire. A special protection system should be provided to:
a) Limit fire damage and downtime for high value processes.
b) Limit exposure to high value surrounding occupancies that are susceptible to smoke and water damage.
c) Provide local protection for open tanks that are not accessible to fire fighting with portable extinguishers.
d) Limit the exposure created by inadequate space separation between important buildings or processes
and flammable/combustible liquid operations (e.g., loading and unloading stations, piping systems, etc.).
The special protection system should be Approved and designed in accordance with the applicable data sheet.
2.1.8.10 When an open (deluge) or closed-head AFFF (aqueous film forming foam) sprinkler system is pro-
vided as an alternative to a standard sprinkler or deluge system, the following design criteria should be used
(not acceptable in areas with a three dimensional fire potential or warehouse/storage areas):
a) Closed or open-head AFFF sprinkler systems should be hydraulically designed to provide either the
density listed in Table 2 or the minimum required density provided in the Approval Listing, whichever is
larger. The AFFF concentrate injection percentage should be in accordance with the Approval Listing.
The closed-head systems should be designed to deliver this density over the demand area listed in Table 2.
This protection is acceptable with or without adequate drainage (except when superseded by a specific
occupancy data sheet).
b) Exterior hose stream demand and water supply duration should be as recommended in Table 2.
c) Areas with adequate drainage in accordance with Data Sheet 7-83, Drainage Systems for Flammable
Liquids, should have at least a 10-minute supply of AFFF concentrate provided. Areas without adequate
drainage should have at least a 20-minute supply of AFFF concentrate provided. The supply should be
based on the sprinkler system design requirements, hose stream design requirements and the required
concentrate injection percentage provided in parts (a) and (b) above.
d) Adequate containment designed in accordance with Data Sheet 7-83, should be provided when
adequate drainage is available. If adequate drainage is not available, containment should be designed
to hold sprinkler and hose stream discharge for the full 20-minute foam concentrate duration.
e) The AFFF concentrate should be compatible and Approved for the flammable or combustible liquid
being protected. The AFFF delivery system (proportioning equipment, sprinklers) should be Approved.
f) The AFFF system should be installed in accordance with NFPA 16, Standard for the Installation of
Foam-Water Sprinkler and Foam-Water Spray Systems.
2.1.8.11 Portable extinguishers should be provided for areas (interior and exterior) utilizing or handling
flammable and combustible liquids. Extinguishers should be either carbon dioxide, dry chemical, or AFFF
type. Refer to Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers, to determine effective sizes and locations for the
extinguishers. Extinguishers should be Approved. Protect extinguishers located outside against freezing.
2.1.8.12 Provide small hose (1-12 in. [38 mm]) stations with combination spray/solid stream nozzles in areas
utilizing or handling flammable and combustible liquids. Space hose stations to allow full coverage of the
area being protected. Add a water demand of 50 gpm (11 m3/h) to the sprinkler demand for a single hose
station (100 gpm [23 m3/h] should be added for more than one hose station).
2.1.8.13 Manual protection consisting of yard hydrants should be located within 200 ft (60 m) of all outside
flammable and combustible liquid handling and process areas (e.g., pump houses, loading and unloading
stations, valve-manifold houses, process structures, etc.). Provide manual foam protection for critical process
or handling areas containing liquids with flash points below 200F (93C). Manual foam protection can be
provided by a fixed water spray system, fixed monitor nozzles, or mobile monitor and hose nozzles. Design
the system in accordance with Data Sheet 4-7N, Low Expansion Foam Systems (NFPA).
b) Provide positive exhaust ventilation throughout the trench when the piping system is transporting liquids
with a flash point below 100F. Alternatives to providing ventilation are filling the trench with sand (this
will eliminate the need for drainage as well).
c) If the trench passes below a cutoff wall (e.g., enters a flammable liquid room from an adjacent area),
cut the trench off at the wall with a liquid tight noncombustible barrier. The section of trench outside the
area using the flammable/combustible liquids does not require drainage or ventilation if it is welded piping
only (no leakage pointsvalves, flanged joints, etc.). Protect the section of trench inside the room or
trench areas containing potential leakage points as stated in parts (a) and (b) above.
2.2.1.1.8 If piping is located inside a building and is below grade (e.g., basement areas) or is inaccessible
(e.g., vacant below grade spaces) provide one of the following:
a) Enclose the pipe in a larger pipe throughout its entire length (Fig. 4). Weld the larger pipe at joints.
Provide a means of checking for leaks (e.g., provide a low point drain that is accessible for inspection at
regular intervals).
b) Enclose the pipe in sealed ductwork throughout its entire length. Arrange the ductwork to permit inspec-
tion for leaks and allow drainage of potential leaks to a collection location (e.g., tank or flammable/
combustible liquid drainage system).
c) Basements or below grade spaces containing flammable or combustible liquid piping should be
provided with automatic sprinkler protection (Table 3), adequate drainage (per Data Sheet 7-83, Drainage
Systems for Flammable Liquids), and a low level continuous mechanical exhaust ventilation system for
the entire space. Design the ventilation system to provide 0.5 cfm/ft2 (0.15 m3/min/m2). Natural ventilation
is acceptable for pipe containing liquids with a flash point greater than 100F (38C).
2.2.1.1.9 Piping should enter buildings above grade. Buried piping should be brought above grade before
entering a building as shown in Figure 5. The piping should be adequately protected against damage due to
building settlement. Where flammable or combustible liquid piping enters a building below grade, seal all
other nearby openings in the foundation.
2.2.1.1.10 Enclose piping in a pipe sleeve where the piping passes through exterior walls and foundations.
Seal the opening between the sleeve and the pipe. Extend the sleeve to the exterior of the wall or foundation
at least 2 in. (51 mm) or 18 in. (460 mm) respectively. (Figs. 4 & 5)
Fig. 5. Preferred arrangement for above grade pipe entrance into building.
2.2.1.1.11 Arrange piping system to permit drainage of its content during maintenance operations (repairs,
cutting and welding, etc.). This can be accomplished by pitching pipe back toward the supply, providing low
point drains, and providing flanged connections at various locations to permit disconnection and blanking of
the pipe.
b) Operating environment.
c) Operating strength (i.e., design for maximum expected pressure and temperature).
d) Resistance to mechanical shock (e.g., impact damage).
e) Resistance to thermal shock (e.g., quick cooling or heating due to expected and unexpected process
conditions).
f) Resistance to high exposure temperatures (e.g., high melting point or noncombustible material that
will resist softening or decomposition when heated by an exposure fire).
2.2.1.2.2 Avoid materials such as cast irons, high silicon irons, plastics (thermoplastic, thermoset), glass,
and aluminum in flammable and combustible liquid piping systems due to their potential for failure (low impact
strength, low pressure ratings, low resistance to thermal shock, and low melting point). Seamless copper
or brass pipe and tubing is acceptable for use with flammable and combustible liquids in sprinklered locations
subject to the design conditions provided in ASME B31.3-1990 or latest edition.
2.2.1.2.3 Underground pipe should meet the above requirements (i.e., compatible with liquid in use, adequate
strength for maximum expected operating conditions, high impact strength, and high resistance to thermal
shock) but may be a low melting point material (e.g., plasticthermoplastic, thermoset) since there is no
potential for a fire exposure.
2.2.1.2.4 Consider seamless steel pipe for interior piping systems that operate under severe cyclic condi-
tions (i.e., pressure cycles, thermal cyclesfor example a hydraulic system) and create a significant expo-
sure to the facility.
2.2.1.2.5 Use stainless steel, nickel alloy, lined (glass, rubber, lead, plastic, etc.) steel pipe, or other similar
material when process conditions require high purity levels or create severely corrosive conditions. These
materials provide a high resistance to heat and mechanical damage. Lined pipe may fail internally with impact
or thermal shock, but the steel pipe shell will still contain the pipe contents.
2.2.1.2.6 Provide flexible all-metal seamless hose in piping systems exposed to vibration, settling or thermal
change. The installation should be in accordance with Section 2.2.2.1.
nut dimensions and threads should conform to nationally recognized codes. Existing installations with car-
bon steel and wrought iron bolts are acceptable in sprinklered areas or in outside areas with limited expo-
sures. Make the effort to replace the bolts during maintenance of the joints or if the bolts are corroded.
2.2.1.3.4 Gaskets for use with flanged joints should be compatible with the flange type being used. Consider
the following factors when choosing a gasket material:
a) Chemical compatibility with the liquid in use.
b) Strength and temperature limitations (adequate for maximum possible system pressure and
temperature as well as system pressures when exposed by external fire).
c) Resistance to leakage or total failure.
d) Resistance to cold flow.
e) Resistance to decomposition or melting with an external fire exposure (e.g., noncombustible, high
melting pointgreater than 1200F [650C]).
2.2.1.3.4.1 Use one of the following types of gasket for flammable and combustible liquid service:
a) Spiral-wound stainless steel, Monel, copper, Inconel 600, or equivalent metallic gasket with graphite,
ceramic, or equivalent filler.
b) Metal ring-joint gasket consisting of dead-soft aluminum, Monel, copper, or equivalent.
c) Graphite gasket without organic fillers or resins.
2.2.1.3.4.2 Other gasket materials consisting of fiber-sheet, paper, vegetable fiber, plastic, cork, lead, rub-
ber, Teflon, or equivalent are tolerable in existing systems located in sprinklered areas if all of the following
are true:
a) The operating pressure is less than 100 psig (7 bar g).
b) The system is noncylic.
a) Flexible hose should be constructed of high strength, noncombustible material that is resistant to
decomposition or melting when exposed to an exposure fire, and compatible with the liquid in use. All-
metal construction consisting of materials such as steel, Monel, stainless steel, brass, bronze, or an equiva-
lent material are preferred. Reinforced rubber hose with a synthetic liner and a metal-braid covering is
acceptable when needed to meet operational requirements. Do not use soft rubber, plastic, or other unre-
inforced or unprotected combustible tubing.
b) The hose should be bent only in one plane without subjecting it to tensile, torsional, or excessive
bending stresses.
c) Protect the hose against mechanical damage.
d) Hose joints should comply with all rigid pipe joint recommendations (Section 2.2.1.3).
e) Hose and fittings should have a bursting strength that is greater than the maximum expected working
pressure with a safety factor of at least 4.
2.2.2.1.5 Arrange piping systems located in areas exposed by earthquakes in accordance with Data Sheet
1-2, Earthquakes.
2.2.2.3.4 Safety/emergency shutoff valves should be either diaphragm, solenoid, or fusible-element (weight
or spring operated) type. Positive displacement pumps may also be used as a safety/emergency shutoff.
The valves should be Approved. Valves that may be exposed to a flammable/combustible liquid fire should
be Approved fire safe shutoff valves.
2.2.2.3.5 Arrange safety/emergency shutoff valves to permit complete shutdown of liquid flow during a fire
and to limit the quantity of liquid released in the event of accidental escape. In general this can be accom-
plished by isolating the liquid supply and shutting off liquid at the various points of use. The actual num-
ber and location of safety/emergency shutoff valves will vary depending on the piping system size, complexity
and potential exposure created by a release. All piping systems containing flammable/combustible liquids
should at least have safety/emergency shutoff valves in the following locations:
a) On discharge lines of interior or exterior tanks (aboveground or underground), arranged for transfer
by gravity, centrifugal pump, inert gas pressure, or other means that provide continuous pressure on the
system.
b) On bottom-discharge lines of exterior aboveground tanks feeding a positive displacement pump when
multiple tanks are located in the same area (e.g., two or more tanks in a diked area or a single tank in
a diked area that is not accessible during a fire) to permit supply shutdown in the event of a leak at the
pump. A single exterior tank (e.g., single tank in a diked area that is accessible) feeding a positive
displacement pump may have a manually operated valve on the bottom-discharge line.
c) On bottom-discharge lines of interior tanks feeding positive displacement pumps to permit supply
shutdown in the event of a leak at the pump.
d) At points of use such as dispensing operations or delivery lines to equipment. Valves may be located
on each feed pipe to a piece of equipment/dispensing operation or on the supply pipe to a manifold feed-
ing equipment/dispensing operation. A single valve located at the entrance point to a building or cutoff
room is also acceptable.
2.2.2.3.6 Safety/emergency shutoff valves or positive displacement pumps should be arranged for auto-
matic and manual operation. In locations that are constantly attended and where leakage will be quickly dis-
covered, manual operation is acceptable. Arrange both automatic and manual valve operation to shut down
all flammable/combustible liquid flow in and to the area affected (i.e., shutdown valves at supply tank and
at points of use).
2.2.2.3.7 Automatic operation of safety/emergency shutoff valves and/or positive displacement pumps should
be accomplished by one of the following methods:
a) Thermal actuation by use of heat detectors (e.g., HADs) located above the points of use (including
potential leak points, such as pumps, that create a significant exposure), fusible link operated valves, or
use of thermoplastic tubing for air supply to a pneumatic valve (loss of air supply will cause valve to close,
thermoplastic tubing will melt when exposed to a fire). Fusible link operated valve placement should ensure
it will be exposed to a fire caused by a flammable/combustible liquid release. If the valves placement lim-
its its exposure to a potential fire, the valve should either be arranged to ensure its operation (e.g., in addi-
tion to link at valve, provide a second link over expected leak points with a cable attached to the valve
handle which is arranged to close when the cable releases) or be replaced with a valve that can be
remotely operated.
b) Actuation by operation of a fire protection system such as automatic sprinklers and special protec-
tion systems (water spray, gaseous extinguishing system, etc.). Safety/emergency shutoff valves may be
tied into pressure switches, waterflow alarms, or fire detection systems. Arrangements should be made
to permit protection system alarm testing without unwanted production shutdown.
c) Release of a dead-man type control or self-closing valve. These types of controls require constant atten-
dance by the operator and will close automatically when the operator leaves. Provide self-closing valves
at dispensing operations upstream of any flexible hose.
d) Actuation by abnormal system conditions such as high/low pressure and excess flow. Use this arrange-
ment to reduce a flammable/combustible liquid release before ignition when the expected fire or explo-
sion exposure is excessive. Provide this type of actuation system in addition to a method listed above (ac).
2.2.2.3.8 Manual operation of safety/emergency shutoff valves and/or positive displacement pumps should
be accomplished by providing one or more stop buttons or switches located within the flammable/combustible
liquid operation area (arranged for easy access by the operators and at points of egress from the building
or structure) and at accessible remote locations (e.g., control room, security station, etc.).
2.2.2.3.9 Provide check valves in piping arranged to feed tanks, receivers, or other vessels when: a) the
liquid flow is in one direction only and b) the vessel can supply a leak in the feed pipe by reverse flow. Install
the check valve as close to the vessel as possible. Check valves used on systems with materials that may
impair their proper operation (e.g., paint, printing ink) should be physically checked regularly.
2.2.2.3.10 Provide hydraulic accumulators or safety relief valves on pipelines that can be valved off with
liquid trapped between valves to prevent damage or overpressure from thermal expansion of the liquid. Pipe
the relief valve discharge to a properly arranged collection point.
2.3.1.1.11 Pumps located in pump houses protected with a water spray system should be spaced to limit
the exposure to important buildings using Table 1, Construction for Flammable or Combustible Liquid Occu-
pancies, (for high pressure or high flow rate pumps use the >1500 gal [6000 l] section; for low pressure or
low flow rate pumps use the <1500 gal [6000 l] section).
2.3.1.1.12 Protect pumps located in pump houses or cutoff rooms in accordance with Sections 2.1.1 (Loca-
tion and Construction), 2.1.3.1 (Ventilation), 2.1.4 (Ignition Source Control), 2.1.5 (Operations and Mainte-
nance), 2.1.6 (Training), 2.1.7 (Human Element), and 2.1.8 (Protection). Evaluate pump rooms or pump
houses for a room explosion hazard based on the material being pumped.
2.3.1.3.5 The inert gas transfer system should be interlocked to operate as follows:
a) During normal operation the safety/emergency shutoff valve should be open, the fill line control valve
should be shut, and the directional valve on the gas supply line should be arranged to allow gas flow
into the storage tank.
b) During filling operations the safety/emergency shutoff valve should be closed, the fill line control valve
should be open, and the directional valve on the gas supply line should be arranged to vent the tank
pressure.
c) During fire or leakage conditions the safety/emergency shutoff valve should be closed, the fill line con-
trol valve should be closed, and the directional valve on the gas supply line should be arranged to vent
the tank pressure.
Arrange the inert gas transfer system to prevent valve operation before confirmation of proper valve posi-
tion (e.g., interlock valves on large systems electrically or provide clear procedures for manual valve opera-
tion on small systems). Arrange the control valves to operate automatically (i.e., interlock with safety/
emergency shutoff valve) in the event of a fire or leakage.
c) A pressure relief valve set just above the system operating pressure should be provided downstream
of the pump or on the tank. The pressure relief valve should be piped back to the water tank.
d) A power operated control valve (e.g., solenoid, motor, air operated) should be provided on the process
supply line and the flammable/combustible liquid tank fill line.
e) Provide the water storage tank with a vent line. The vent line should be supplied with a flame arrester
for liquids with a flash point below 100F (38C).
f) A second water line with a control valve should be provided between the two tanks to permit water to
return to the storage tank when the flammable/combustible liquid tank is being filled.
g) Provide a liquid level control on the flammable/combustible liquid storage tank to prevent overflow.
2.3.1.4.6 Supply the following minimum equipment for a single tank hydraulic transfer system (Fig. 9):
a) Provide an accessible manual control valve on the water supply line.
b) Provide a pressure regulator on the water supply line.
c) Provide a check valve on the tank fill line and the water delivery line (upstream of the two way valve).
d) Provide a two-way, three port power operated valve on the water supply line (valve permits water
delivery to tank or water removal from tank).
e) A pressure relief valve set just above the operating pressure should be provided downstream of the
regulator or on the tank.
f) Provide a power operated control valve on the fill line and the process supply line.
g) Provide a liquid level control on the tank to prevent overflow.
2.3.1.4.7 The double and single tank hydraulic transfer systems should be interlocked to operate as follows:
a) During normal operation, the control valve on the process supply line is open and the control valve
on the tank fill line is closed. For the single tank system, the two-way valve is arranged to permit water
flow when needed. For the double tank system, the valve on the water return line is closed and the pump
is arranged to operate when flow is needed.
b) During flammable/combustible liquid tank filling operations, the control valve on the process supply
line is closed and the control valve on the fill line is open. For the single tank system, the two-way valve
on the water supply line allows water flow out of the tank. For the double tank system, the pump is off
and the control valve on the water return line is open.
c) During a fire or leak, the control valves on the process supply line and the fill line are closed. For the
single tank system, the two-way valve is in the same position as described in part (b). For the double
tank system, the pump is off.
Arrange the hydraulic transfer system to prevent valve or pump operation before confirmation of proper valve
position (e.g., interlock the control valves and the pump). The valves and pump should operate automati-
cally in the event of leakage or fire (i.e., interlock with safety/emergency shutoff valve at the point of liquid
use).
2.3.1.4.8 Arrange hydraulic transfer systems to prevent water flow into the process supply line. Double tank
systems should use the same size tanks (limits water quantity). Single tank systems should use float operated
control valves on the discharge lines (float will close when tank is full of water).
2.3.1.4.9 For flammable or combustible liquids that are lighter than water, the water supply line should be
extended to the bottom of the liquid supply tank and the discharge and fill lines should be at the top of the liq-
uid supply tank. For flammable or combustible liquids that are heavier than water, the water supply line should
be at the top of the supply tank and the discharge and fill lines should extend to the bottom of the supply
tank.
2.3.1.5.2 Separate loading and unloading stations from important buildings and facilities to limit the poten-
tial exposure from a liquid spill and fire. When possible provide at least 50 ft (15 m) separation or the mini-
mum distances listed in Table 3.
2.3.1.5.3 An automatic water spray special protection system, designed in accordance with Data Sheet 4-1N,
Water Spray Fixed Systems (NFPA), should be provided for loading/unloading stations when the station
exposes high value plant facilities (i.e., inadequate separation) or if the station is vital to plant production.
2.3.1.5.4 Supply loading and unloading stations with either curbing, drainage, grading, or a combination to
direct a potential liquid spill to a collection location that is accessible to fire fighting and liquid recovery
operations, but does not expose important buildings or facilities.
2.3.1.5.5 Supply loading and unloading stations with adequate control and safety/emergency shutoff valves
to permit control of normal operations as well as isolation of the rail car or truck and plant piping systems
in the event of a leak or fire. Provide safety/emergency shutoff valves on all bottom discharge lines of rail cars
or trucks and on the plant side of flexible piping. Arrange the valves for automatic operation in the event
of a fire as well as remote manual operation and protection from physical damage (e.g., internal tank valve
with a shear fitting downstream).
2.3.1.5.6 Use top loading and unloading of rail cars and trucks when possible. Bottom loading and unloading
is tolerable when:
a) Space separation is provided as recommended.
b) A liquid spill will not expose important buildings or facilities.
c) Safety/emergency shutoff valves are provided on discharge lines of the rail car or truck.
2.3.1.5.7 Use positive displacement pumps for top unloading operations to prevent siphoning. Place the pump
on a noncombustible platform above the liquid level and arrange it to shut down automatically or manually
(from a remote location) in the event of a fire or leak.
2.3.1.5.8 Provide overflow protection for the rail car/truck or the storage tank. Arrange liquid level controls
to automatically shut down filling operations when the tank is full. This control system may be used alone or
in conjunction with meters, scales or manual observation.
2.3.1.5.9 Use steel pipe and swing joints or metal type flexible hose when needed for connections to rail
cars, tank trucks or barges. Metal reinforced rubber hose is acceptable if required by process conditions and
if resistant to the materials being handled and rated for system pressure.
2.3.1.5.10 Provide the following at tank truck loading and unloading stations:
a) Conduct all loading and unloading operations on level surfaces.
b) Provide bonding and grounding in accordance with Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity. Connect bonding
wires before opening tank domes.
c) Set the trucks hand brake and block the wheels before connecting to fixed piping.
d) Post warning signs indicating the tank truck is connected to the piping system.
2.3.1.5.11 Provide the following at rail car loading and unloading stations (Fig. 10):
a) Conduct all loading and unloading operations on level tracks in a private siding on plant property or
equivalent location with permanent piping to storage tanks.
b) Provide stray current protection by bonding the fill pipe (or pipes) to at least one rail and to the rack
structure (if metallic). In areas with excessive stray currents, provide all pipes entering the rack area with
insulating flanges to electrically isolate the rack piping from the pipelines (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Railcar loading/unloading station-bonding arrangement to prevent sparks due to stray currents.
c) Accurately align rail cars with loading/unloading connection points to avoid excessive stress on the
connections.
d) Protect rail cars against other moving railcars by providing derailers at least one car length away at
the open end of the siding. The use of existing railroad switches is acceptable if they can be locked in the
closed position.
e) Set the brakes and block the wheels before connecting to the fixed piping system.
f) Warning signs indicating the rail car is connected to the fixed piping system should be posted until
the rail car is disconnected.
2.3.1.5.12 Vents on rail cars and trucks should be provided with flame arresters for liquids with flash points
below 100F (38C).
2.3.1.5.13 Protect loading and unloading stations against uncontrolled ignition sources in accordance with
Section 2.1.4.
2.3.1.5.14 Label all piping clearly to avoid intermixing materials.
2.3.1.5.15 All loading and unloading operations should be constantly attended.
2.3.1.5.16 Liquids that require heating for transfer purposes should be delivered in rail cars or trucks that
are equipped with heating coils. Use the minimum steam pressure necessary to bring the liquid to a fluid state.
Control the steam with a regulator set to the minimum pressure needed. Install a pressure relief valve
downstream of the regulator set to a slightly higher pressure.
3.1.1 General
A flammable or combustible liquid is defined as any material that in its normal state is a liquid and will burn.
The ability of a liquid to burn is generally tied to the existence of a flash point (closed cup or open cup). How-
ever, a flash point alone will not always indicate if a liquid is capable of sustaining combustion. Some liq-
uid solutions (e.g., 15% ethyl alcohol in water) may have a closed cup flash point but do not have a fire point
(i.e., the liquid solution cannot produce enough flammable vapor to permit sustained combustionthe vapor
mixture produced has a very low heat of combustion and slow heat release rate).
The recommendations in this data sheet (general, piping system, transfer system) are not intended for liquids
or liquid solutions that do not have a fire point (Note: These liquid solutions may be labeled as a flam-
mable or combustible liquid in accordance with state or federal regulations). Materials that are unstable or
very reactive may not be adequately protected by the recommendations in this data sheet.
Flammable liquids are easily ignited (vapors can be present at room temperature) and difficult to extin-
guish. Combustible liquids require heating for ignition and are easier to extinguish by cooling the liquid below
its fire point with sprinkler discharge. Flammable and combustible liquids have a high heat of combustion,
and once ignited will produce a high heat release rate (i.e., fires will produce high temperatures in a short
period of time). They are fluid and can spread rapidly when a leak or rupture involves a tank or piping system.
Vapors from flammable and combustible liquids can form explosive mixtures with air. Some liquids are
unstable or very reactive (e.g., burn when exposed to air without an ignition source, susceptible to sponta-
neous heating, react violently with other materials including water). These characteristics combine to cre-
ate a significant fire and/or explosion hazard.
The actual hazard associated with a particular process containing or using flammable or combustible liquids,
in addition to the characteristics of the particular liquid, also depends on conditions such as:
a) Quantity of liquid.
b) The confinement of the liquid (open or closed containers, piping systems).
c) The potential for leakage or overflow.
d) Separation from important structures or buildings.
e) Control of ignition sources.
f) Available fire protection.
Each process or occupancy should be evaluated separately to determine the actual exposure created by
the flammable or combustible liquid.
stock. If the potential liquid/vapor release amount cannot reach this limit, ignition of the vapor-air mixture
will likely produce a weak explosion as described in Weak Explosion Hazards.
The volume of a stoichiometric vapor-air mixture that can be produced by completely vaporizing one gallon
of flammable/combustible liquid, Vs (ft3/gal), can be calculated using the following equation:
English Units:
Table 4. The volume of a stoichiometric vapor-air mixture that may be produced from either 1 gallon or 1 liter of some
common flammable liquids. (Note: these values are based on complete vaporization of the liquid.)
Material Cst (% by Volume) Vs (cu ft/gal) Vs (cu m/l)
Acetone 5.0 890 6.7
Benzene 2.7 1325 9.9
Ethyl Acetate 4.0 835 6.3
Ethyl Alcohol 7.1 785 5.9
Ethyl Ether 3.4 880 6.6
Heptane 1.9 1170 8.8
Isopropyl Alcohol 4.5 945 7.1
Methyl Alcohol 12.0 675 5.1
Methyl Butyl Ketone 2.4 1060 7.9
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 3.7 965 7.2
Pentane 2.6 1025 7.7
Toluene 2.3 1405 10.5
Vinyl Acetate 4.5 745 5.6
Xylene 2.0 1355 10.1
Loss history has also shown that a severe room explosion hazard can be created with liquids having flash
points between 300F (149C) and 425F (218C) that are heated to their atmospheric boiling point and pres-
surized. These materials have the potential for creating an aerosol mist that can explode. Data Sheet 7-99/
12-19, Heat Transfer by Organic and Synthetic Fluids, provides further discussion about these types of
materials and mist explosions in general.
Weak Explosion Hazards
The following material properties and/or process conditions may produce a weak explosion hazard in
occupancies where flammable/combustible liquids are handled/processed:
1. Liquid with a closed-cup flash point of 20F (-7C) or less.
2. Liquid with a closed-cup flash point of 100F (38C) or less (Class 1B and 1C liquids) which is handled
at or can be heated to more than 60F (33C) above its flash point. Heat sources may include chemical
reactions or poorly controlled heating systems (e.g., electric heater without high temperature shutoff).
3. A small fraction (less than 10%) of the rooms volume occupied by a single piece of equipment that pre-
sents an equipment explosion hazard. This includes equipment that is not properly designed to vent or con-
tain an explosion, equipment designed to vent an explosion into the room or equipment without venting that
is provided with an inert gas system. Equipment that is adequately designed to vent an explosion to an area
outside the room or to contain an explosion does not create a room explosion hazard.
While the above conditions should be expected to cause explosive vapor-air concentrations in the proxim-
ity of the released liquid, they generally will produce vapor-air mixtures with most of the volume near the lean
limit of the explosive range. Only a small percentage (less than 10%) of the rooms volume may contain a sto-
ichiometric mixture. These conditions generally produce easily controlled pressure increases that may not
need damage limiting construction designed in accordance with Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construc-
tion. However, fully enclosed rooms (i.e., no venting-windows or vent panels) and rooms with load-bearing
walls can still experience significant damage (i.e., wall collapse).
4.0 REFERENCES
4.1 FM Global
Data Sheet 1-0, Safeguards During Construction, Alteration and Demolition.
Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes.
Data Sheet 1-20, Protection Against Exterior Fire Exposure.
Data Sheet 1-44, Image-Limiting Construction.
Data Sheet 2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA).
Data Sheet 3-10, Installation/Maintenance of Private Fire Service Mains and their Appurtenances.
Data Sheet 4-1N, Fixed Water Spray Systems for Fire Protection.
Data Sheet 4-5, Portable Extinguishers.
Data Sheet 4-7N, Low Expansion Foam Systems (NFPA).
Data Sheet 5-1, Electrical Equipment in Hazardous (Classified) Locations.
Data Sheet 5-8, Static Electricity.
Data Sheet 5-10, Protective Grounding for Electric Power Systems and Equipment.
Data Sheet 5-49, Gas and Vapor Detectors and Analysis Systems.
Data Sheet 6-9, Industrial Ovens and Dryers.
Data Sheet 7-9, Dip Tanks, Flow/Roll Coaters, and Oil Cookers.
Data Sheet 7-14, Fire & Explosion Protection for Flammable Liquid, Flammable Gas, & Liquefied Flam-
mable Gas Processing Equipment & Supporting Structures.
Data Sheet 7-17, Explosion Protection Systems.
4.3 Others
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Standard B31.3-1990, Chemical Plant and Petroleum
Refinery Piping.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Standard B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
ANSI A13.1, Scheme for Identifications of Piping Systems.
ANSI/ASME B16.25, Butt Welding Ends.
ANSI/ASME B16.5, Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
ASTM A193, Alloy Steel Bolting Materials for High Temperature Service.
ASTM A194, Carbon and Alloy Steel Nuts for Bolts for High Pressure and High Temperature Service.
Class IC liquidsflash points at or above 73F (23C) and below 100F (38C). Examples are styrene,
methyl isobutyl ketone, isobutyl alcohol and turpentine.
Combustible Liquids: liquids having closed-cup flash points at or above 100F (38C). They are referred to
as either Class II or Class III liquids and are subdivided as follows:
Class II liquidsflash points at or above 100F (38C) and below 140F (60C). Examples include Nos. 1-3
fuel oils, kerosene, n-decane, hexyl alcohol, and stoddard solvent.
Class IIIA liquidsflash points at or above 140F (60C) and below 200F (93C). Examples include aniline,
benzaldehyde, butyl cellosolve, nitrobenzene and pine oil.
Class IIIB liquidsflash points at or above 200F (93C). Examples include animal oils; ethylene glycol;
glycerine; lubricating, quenching, and transformer oils; triethanolamine; benzyl alcohol; hydraulic fluids
and vegetable oils.
Flash Point: a liquids flash point is the minimum temperature at which sufficient vapor is liberated to form
a vapor-air mixture that will ignite and propagate a flame away from the ignition source (flash fire not con-
tinuous combustion). Evaporation will take place below the flash point, but the quantity of vapor released is
not sufficient to produce an ignitable vapor-air mixture. A flash point can be determined by using either a
closed or open cup test apparatus. The closed cup test will produce lower flash points than open cup tests
because it provides greater vapor containment (i.e., increases vapor accumulation). The closed cup flash
point is used to classify liquids because it is conservative (i.e., produces lowest flash point for liquid) and it rep-
resents the condition in which most liquids are handled (i.e., most liquids are contained in closed contain-
ers or equipment).
Vapor Pressure: a liquids vapor pressure is a measure of the pressure created by its vapor at a specific tem-
perature. The vapor pressures for flammable or combustible liquids provide a basis for comparing the vola-
tility of the liquids at various temperatures (i.e., provides a measure of the tendency of the liquids to
vaporize). Flammable or combustible liquids with a high vapor pressure at room temperature are more haz-
ardous than liquids with lower vapor pressures because they will produce more flammable vapor without
heating. Vapor pressure data is often not available.
Boiling Point: a liquids boiling point is the temperature at which its vapor pressure is equal to the atmo-
spheric pressure on the liquid. The boiling point is measured at an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia (approxi-
mately 1 bar a). The boiling point of a flammable or combustible liquid permits the comparison of liquid
volatility without knowing the vapor pressures. Liquids with low boiling points are very volatile.
Fire Point: a liquids fire point is the lowest temperature at which a liquid in an open container will give off
enough vapor to ignite and continue to burn. Fire points are generally slightly higher than the open cup flash
point for a particular liquid. Liquids can have flash points without having fire points. A liquid without a fire
point will not burn (e.g., 15% ethanol-water solution: closed cup flash point 107F (42C), no fire point; 15%
acetone-water solution: closed cup flash point 49F (9C), no fire point).
Flammable (Explosive) Limits/Flammable (Explosive) Range: the terms flammable and explosive are used
interchangeably since unconfined vapors mixed in air will burn while confined vapors will produce an
explosion.
Flammable or combustible liquids do not burn, their vapors do. The flammable vapors produced by most liq-
uids require oxygen to burn. Combustion is an oxidation reaction between a fuel and an oxidizernot always
oxygen. Combustion will occur only when an adequate concentration of fuel (flammable vapor) and an oxi-
dizer are present. Combustion in air (approximately 21% oxygen) can take place over a range of vapor con-
centrations (expressed in terms of percentage by volume of vapor in air). The minimum vapor concentration
in air that, when ignited, will propagate a flame is the lower flammable limit. The maximum vapor concen-
tration in air that when ignited will propagate a flame is the upper flammable or explosive limit. The range of
vapor concentrations between the lower and upper flammable limits is the flammable range.
The flammable range for a vapor can be altered by changes in oxygen concentration, pressure changes or
temperature changes. An increase in oxygen concentration or pressure will increase the upper flammable
limit and have a minimal effect on the lower limit. An increase in temperature will increase the upper limit and
reduce the lower limit. Overall, an increase in oxygen concentration, pressure or temperature will increase
the hazard created by a flammable or combustible liquid by increasing its vapors flammable range.
Vapor Density: is the weight of a volume of pure vapor or gas (with no air present) compared to the weight
of an equal volume of dry air at the same temperature and pressure. It is calculated as the ratio of the molecu-
lar weight of the gas to the average molecular weight of air, 29. A vapor density figure less than one indi-
cates the vapor is lighter than air. A figure greater than one indicates the vapor is heavier than air.
Flammable and combustible liquids produce vapors that are heavier than air. The vapors will collect at floor
level and exhibit fluid properties (i.e., they will flow to low points and accumulate). Flammable vapor, if not
removed by ventilation, can flow to an ignition source and flash back to the vapor source.
Specific Gravity: the specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of the substance to the weight
of the same volume of another substance. The specific gravity for flammable and combustible liquids is pro-
vided using water as a basis. Specific gravities less than one indicate the liquid will float on water while spe-
cific gravities greater than one indicate the liquid will sink in water. This information permits a determination
of what effect water will have on a flammable or combustible liquid fire. Liquids heavier than water will sink
indicating water would extinguish a fire involving this liquid (cover liquid and smother fire). Liquids lighter than
water will float indicating the fire would not be extinguished but could be spread by water if adequate drainage
is not provided.
Water Soluble (Miscible) Flammable and Combustible Liquids: when water soluble (miscible) flammable or
combustible liquids are mixed with water a homogeneous solution is formed. The flash point, fire point, heat
of combustion, and heat release rate of the solution will be different from the pure flammable or combus-
tible liquid. The flash point and fire point of the solution will increase as the water concentration increases.
At a certain water concentration (varies for different flammable or combustible liquids) the fire point will no
longer exist and the solution will no longer present a fire hazard (e.g., 15% ethyl alcohol in water, 15%
acetone in water).
However, the solution will still produce a closed cup flash point creating the potential for confusion in decid-
ing the hazard presented by the liquid (e.g., 15% ethyl alcohol in water has a closed cup flash point of approxi-
mately 107F [42C], 15% acetone in water has a closed cup flash point of approximately 44F [7C]). The
heat of combustion and heat release rate for a solution will decrease as the water concentration increases
showing a reduction in the overall fire hazard (i.e., a fire involving the solution will produce less heat at a
slower rate than pure flammable or combustible liquid).
The above factors indicate that fires involving water soluble flammable or combustible liquids can be extin-
guished by diluting the liquid with water (need approximately 4 gal [15 l] of water to dilute 1 gal [4 l] of ethyl
alcohol to extinguishment). Also, solutions of water and a soluble flammable or combustible liquid may present
a significantly reduced fire hazard (or no fire hazard) due to quicker fire extinguishment with water (e.g.,
need approximately 1-12 gal [6 l] of water to dilute 1 gal [4 l] of a 50% ethyl alcohol/water solution to extin-
guishment) and reduced thermal damage potential (e.g., a 20% ethyl alcohol/water solution produces a heat
of combustion that is much less than that produced by paper products, and the heat release rate will be low
indicating this solution presents an insignificant fire hazard).
The severity of a fire is also dependent on the heat release rate. A heat release rate generally depends on
the heat of combustion, arrangement or geometry (e.g., exposed surface area), and combustion effi-
ciency of the material. The heat release rate for a flammable/combustible liquid fire is greater than that of
other combustibles because they have a high heat of combustion, favorable geometry, and a good combus-
tion efficiency. The fluid properties of flammable/combustible liquids tend to create large surface areas when
the liquids are released (e.g., unconfined liquid spill will spread over a large floor area; pressurized liquids
can be released in the form of small drops or a mist). These properties also influence fire spread since a fire
will expand over the full area of a spill or spray.
fire point. Sprinkler protection may not extinguish a fire involving liquids with a flash point below 200F (93C)
but will hold temperatures at levels that will not cause major damage to buildings or equipment. (Fig. 11).
Fires involving water soluble liquids or liquids heavier than water can be extinguished by sprinkler dis-
charge (i.e., dilute liquid to a concentration where it no longer has a fire point or smother fire by water float-
ing on surface of liquid).
Sprinkler protection alone will not ensure control or extinguishment of a flammable or combustible liquid fire.
The fires size must be limited by providing curbing to stop fuel spread, which will limit the number of sprin-
klers that will operate. In addition, the fuel supply must be controlled and drainage provided to limit the fire
duration, which limits the needed water supply duration.
Special protection systems (e.g., water spray, foam, gaseous, and dry chemical) are designed to extinguish
a fire or provide localized cooling of equipment and buildings.
Water spray protection systems deliver large amounts of water to a specific area that allows increased cool-
ing (i.e., larger water droplets delivered at a higher velocity than available from ceiling sprinklers). These sys-
tems can extinguish fires in liquids with flash points above 150F (66C), some viscous liquids with lower
flash points, water soluble liquids and liquids heavier than water. These systems also are suitable for providing
exposure protection for equipment, building or facilities.
Foam protection systems extinguish fires by blanketing the liquid and smothering the fire. The blanket per-
sists for some time, reducing the likelihood of reflashing. The foam used must be compatible with the burn-
ing liquid. Foam may be delivered to a fire manually or automatically. Aqueous film forming foams (AFFF) may
be delivered with open or closed head sprinkler systems.
Gaseous protection systems extinguish flammable/combustible liquid fires by either reducing the oxygen con-
tent over the liquid or by interfering with the combustion reaction. The gaseous agent can be delivered by
direct local application or by total flooding of the room or enclosure. No cleanup of the extinguishing agent is
required after discharge.
Dry chemical protection systems extinguish flammable/combustible liquid fires by coating the liquid surface
and smothering the fire. The dry chemical agent can be delivered by direct local application or by total
flooding of the room or enclosure.
C.5.1 Vent Sizing for a Pred Greater Than 1.5 psig (0.1 bar g) (High Strength Equipment)
The following vent sizing equation (1) (reprinted from NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations1988
edition) should be used to estimate the vent area needed for high strength equipment.
Av = dVf Pred
h
e(gPstat)
(Note: the above equation must only be used with metric units)
With:
Av = Vent Area, m2
Pred = Reduced Explosion Pressure, bar g
Pstat = Static Venting Pressure, bar g
V = Vessel Volume, m3
e = 2.718 (base of natural logarithm)
d,f,g,h = Constants as Defined in Table 6
To convert m2 to ft2 multiply by 10.76 ft2/m2
To convert bar g to psig multiply by 14.5 psig/bar g
Equation (1) is valid only for vessels with a length to diameter ratios of 5 or less and for the following ranges
of Pred and vessel volume (V):
0.1 bar g Pstat 0.5 bar g
Pstat+0.1 bar g Pred 2 bar g
1 cu m V 1000 cu m
Pred is the maximum pressure that will be developed during the vented explosion and is the highest pres-
sure that can be sustained by the equipment being protected. To prevent deformation of cylindrical equip-
ment, Pred should be based on two-thirds of the equipments yield strength (stress). For rectangular or square
equipment, the above criteria may be used, however, some additional bracing may be needed to prevent
deformation. If deformation is acceptable, but not rupture of the equipment, then Pred should be based on two-
thirds of the equipments ultimate strength (stress). (Note: the minimum listed ultimate strength for a mate-
rial should always be used for this type of evaluation or design.)
Determination of Pred based on the above criteria is best left to the equipment designer or a structural engi-
neer. Lacking any data, use of twice the normal vessel design pressure (such as ASME rating) would be
acceptable.
Pstat is the set or relieving pressure of the deflagration vent. It should be at least 0.1 bar below the maximum
desired pressure during venting, Pred.
C.5.2 Vent Sizing for a Pr of 1.5 psig (0.1 bar g) or Less (Low Strength Equipment)
The design criteria provided in Data Sheet 1-44, Damage-Limiting Construction, should be used to estimate
the vent area needed for low strength equipment. The nomenclature listed in the data sheet represent the
following:
Pr = Maximum Vented Explosion Pressure, psf (kPa) (Note: this is equivalent to Pred for high strength
equipment.)
Pv = Vent Release Pressure, psf (kPa)
Av = Vent Area, ft2 (m2)
As = Internal Surface Area, ft2 (m2)
Limitations listed in Data Sheet 1-44 should be strictly followed.
Pr is the maximum pressure that will be developed during the vented explosion and is the highest pressure
that can be sustained by the equipment being protected. To prevent deformation of cylindrical equipment,
Pr should be based on two-thirds of the equipments yield strength (stress). For rectangular or square equip-
ment, the above criteria may be used, however, some additional bracing may be needed to prevent defor-
mation. If deformation is acceptable, but not rupture of the equipment, then Pr should be based on two-
thirds of the equipments ultimate strength (stress). (Note: the minimum listed ultimate strength for a material
should always be used for this type of evaluation or design.)
Determination of Pr based on the above criteria is best left to the equipment designer or a structural engineer.
Lacking any data, use of twice the vessel design pressure would be acceptable.
Pv is the set or relieving pressure of the deflagration vent. It should be at least 50 psf (2.4 kPa) below the
maximum desired pressure during venting, Pr. Ideally Pv should be 20 psf (0.96 kPa) or less.
Vent mass criteria listed in Data Sheet 1-44 are applicable for buildings and rooms only. The criteria listed
in Appendix C, Section C.5.4 should be used for equipment design.
For high or low strength equipment containing gases or vapors that are not listed in Data Sheet 1-44, tests
should be conducted to determine the Kg for the new gas or vapor and compare it with Kg for any of the
standard gases (conducted with the exact same vessel and conditions). Then either use Equation (1) and the
venting constant for the comparable standard gas (high strength equipment) or the appropriate table in Data
Sheet 1-44 for the comparable standard gas (low strength equipment). For additional details of classifying
a particular gas/vapor refer to NFPA 68, Guideline for Venting of Deflagrations, Appendix A.
All mist explosion hazards should be evaluated as follows:
For high strength equipment use Equation (1) and the constants for propane in Table 6.
For low strength equipment use Table 4 in Data Sheet 1-44.
Fig. 12. Maximum Pressure Developed During Venting of Gases, With and Without Vent Ducts.
Vent pipe/ducts should not be provided on low strength equipment. The vent pipe/duct effect will increase Pr
beyond the definition of low strength equipment (i.e., Pr greater than 1.5 psig [0.1 bar g] so design for high
strength equipment). Vent pipe/ducts with a length to diameter ratio (L/D) of 1 or less can be used on any
equipment (high or low strength) without increasing Pr or Pred. Pipe/ducts with a diameter equal to or greater
than its length will not generally produce an increase in the maximum pressure experienced by the
equipment.