Society & Governance
Ecotourism
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Introduction
Tourism has become the world's number one
export earner. It earns more money worldwide
than automotive products, chemicals, petroleum
and food. According to the World Tourism
Organization, 698 million people traveled to a
foreign country in 2000, spending more than US$
478 billion. The number of international travelers
is expected to increase from 698 million to 1.6
billion by 2020, according to the WWF (World
Wildlife Fund).
Where once people travelled to other countries
mindless of the effects of tourism on the
destination country, its people and its
biodiversity, today there is a strong movement
today towards sustainable tourism or
ecotourism.
What is ecotourism?
There are various definitions of ecotourism.
UNESCO describes it as a form of tourism to
relatively undisturbed natural areas for the main
purposes of admiring them and learning more
about the associated habitats. Ecotourism ideally
seeks to reduce its impacts on the area visited. It
contributes to the conservation of natural areas
and the sustainable development of adjacent
areas and communities, generating further
awareness among resident and nearby
populations and visitors.
Other advantages stated for ecotourism include
that it:
Is sensitive to the needs of local residents
Provides long term benefits
Respects the character of an area
Takes account of cultural and social
considerations
The contribution of tourism to Namibia is
enormous, as it occupies third place in the
economy, after mining and agriculture. Border
crossing data obtained from the Ministry of
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Home Affairs shows that the total foreign
arrivals (including permanent residents and day
visitors) to Namibia rose from 693 777 in 1999
to 758 989 in the year 2000. Namibia has a total
of 26 parks and reserves, covering approximately
15% of the total land area. In addition to the 12
government-owned rest camps in these parks,
managed by Namibia Wildlife Resorts (NWR),
the tourism infrastructure throughout the rest of
the country is well developed. Hotels, pensions,
guest farms and rest camps are generally of a
high standard and are managed on a similar basis
as tourist accommodation establishments in
Europe. The Namibia Tourism Board (NTB)
controls the grading and standards of
accommodation establishments, safari companies
and products offered by tour operators.
The current National Development Plan of
Namibia recognises tourism as an important
contributor to the national development strategy.
As tourism develops, it must support the overall
development objectives of the Namibias Second
National Development Plan, namely:
Reviving and sustaining national growth;
Creating employment;
Reducing inequalities in income
distribution;
Eradicating poverty.
The benefits and disadvantages of
tourism
Tourism has positive and negative effects on the
host countrys economy, its people and its
environment. Generally, one hopes that the
positive will outweigh the negative. This topic
explores some of the positive and negative
effects of tourism.
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Socio-cultural effects of tourism
Positive: Tourism can bring the people of the
host country together and increase their national
pride in their festivals, customs and traditions.
Tourism can help to stem the flow of people out
of villages and into the cities, by providing jobs.
For example, in Namibia, there are various
initiatives to train local people as guides,
trackers, and in the hospitality industry in
general. In addition, the income earned is
contributed to the area. It is also a way of
ensuring that local knowledge (for example,
about flora, fauna, customs, geology etc) is not
lost in the community, but is strengthened and
passed on. Facilities that have been developed for
tourism can benefit the residents, for example,
roads, communication systems, water points etc.
Negative: The negative side occurs when
tourism comes into conflict with the culture of
the community. A well-known example of this in
Namibia is the Himba people, once a fairly
isolated people. As tourism to the North has
increased, made possible by charter planes,
overland vehicles and favourable foreign
exchange rates, the Himba have been
increasingly exposed to tourism. Settlements
have arisen around the tourist sites, influencing
some of the Himba to experiment with other
ways of living. Alcohol, never before indulged
in, has entered the culture, and with zero
tolerance to it, some Himba have become
alcoholics. Some women have fallen into
prostitution also previously unheard of among
the Himba as a way of getting money. Tourists
sometimes hand out sweets to the children, with
the best of intentions, not knowing that these
childrens diets have previously consisted of
meat, milk and stamp, and that access to dentists
for tooth decay is very scarce.
In some situations, tourism can become the only
source of income, and if there is a crisis, (for
example, a flood), the whole community may
suffer. The devastation caused by the recent
tsunami in Phuket in Thailand will cost billions,
(and much suffering) as tourism is such a major
source of income in Thailand.
Local cultures risk being turned into
commodities when religious rituals, traditional
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Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism
ethnic rites and festivals are made to conform to
tourist expectations. There is much controversy
over cultural villages, for example, Lesedi
cultural village in South Africa, where the
lifestyle of the different ethnic groups are
portrayed in a staged setting. Some argue that
it is corrupting the authenticity of the ethnic
group; others maintain that it gives outsiders a
sanctioned, non-intrusive glimpse into their lives,
and also earns the people income.
Another very serious issue of how local people
can suffer from tourism development is when
access to certain areas are cut off from the locals
and reserved for tourist use. On Boracay Island
in the Philippines, one quarter of the island has
been bought by outside corporations, generating
a crisis in water supply and only limited
infrastructure benefits for residents. In Namibia,
areas that were once hunting grounds have been
cordoned off for the protection of wildlife.
Communities, such as the San, need continued
access to these areas, or they risk losing their
culture and livelihood.
The economic contribution of tourism
Positive: Tourism can generate valuable
income for the host country. The financial
contributions to the host country through tourism
are collected in two ways: directly (through
spending) and indirectly (through taxes, such as,
for example, airport taxes. Money that is spent
directly reaches the community; money that is
spent indirectly may reach the community if the
local authority or government ploughs it back,
for example, in roads, electricity, public
transport, education and health services.
Apart from services aimed at improving the
lifestyle of people, funds generated through
ecotourism can also be used to protect the
biodiversity of the host country. For example, an
entrance fee charged to enter the Sossuss vlei
area can be used for the protection of this
ecosystem. Monies charged for sustainable
trophy hunting in Namibia can also be used to
ensure the viability of the species or other
species, or game ranger salaries and park
maintenance.
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Negative: Although tourism may appear to be
financially beneficial to the host country, this is
not always not the case. Enclave tourism is the
term used to describe the way some tourism is
structured, with "all-inclusive" packages that are
paid for in the country of origin. This means that
very little money is actually spent locally.
Exclusive lodges, flying in a small number of
guests from overseas, may fall into this group.
Tourism in developing countries also has many
costs. For example, tourists often insist on the
same standards as they are used to in their
country of origin. To meet their demands, the
host country must import food and drinks, for
example. This is called import leakage: when
much of the income from tourism expenditures
leaves the country again to pay for imports. The
same applies to spending on infrastructure to
accommodate tourists demands. In addition, in
peak seasons, there is pressure on infrastructure.
For example, water is a scarce resource in
Namibia and it is under even more stress when
there are a significant number of tourists using
the water resources.
Effects biodiversity
Positive: Tourism can significantly contribute
to environmental protection, conservation and
restoration of biological diversity and sustainable
use of natural resources. Because of their
attractiveness, pristine sites and natural areas are
identified as valuable and the need to keep the
attraction alive can lead to creation of national
parks and wildlife parks.
Where there has been careful planning, tourism
can preserve the environmental assets of a
country. Namibias dunes, for example, are a
unique asset, but have to be protected against
vehicle tracks, which remain imprinted forever.
Whale and other mammal watching in south
Africa has become very controversial, as boats
go ever-closer to get a glimpse of the Southern
Right Whales that come to mate and nurture off
the cape Coast. However, venturing too close to
the whales may disturb their natural tendencies
and prevent them from returning. South Africa is
in the process of enacting legislation regarding
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Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism
the proximity within which whales can be
watched. The same may apply to Walvis Bay.
Ecotourism initiatives in Namibia
CBNRM
The Ministry of Environment and Tourism
started the Community Based Natural
Resource Management (CBNRM)
programme 1996, in co-operation with
NGOs, donors and local communities (see info
sheet on CBNRM). The CBNRM programme
fosters:
Natural Resource Management: A natural
resource management and conservation
programme - it promotes wise and
sustainable management of natural
resources, and encourages biodiversity
conservation by creating the necessary
conditions for sustainable use
Enterprise Development: A rural
development programme - it seeks to
devolve rights and responsibilities over
wildlife and tourism to rural communities,
thereby creating opportunities for
enterprise development and income
generation
Institutional Development: An
empowerment and capacity-building
programme- it encourages and assists
communities and their local institutions to
develop the skills and experience to
sustainable develop and pro-actively pilot
their own futures.
The programme took the shape of the creation of
conservancies, which are large tracts of
communal land legislated for management by
communities. Tourism in conservancy areas is
making a major contribution to tourism in
Namibia generally. For example, a number of
communities own and manage their own tourism
enterprises. These include campsites, craft
businesses, paying attractions particularly
traditional villages and guided tours around
prime tourist attractions, examples of which
include, the bushman rock engravings at
Twyfelfontein and the famous White Lady rock
painting at Brandberg Mountain. Some
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enterprises are communally-owned and managed,
that is by conservancies (e.g. Okarohombe
Campsite in the Marienflss Conservancy and
Salambala Campsite by the Salambala
Conservancy); by villages (e.g. Khowarib
Campsite and Lizauli Traditional Village); or
through cooperatives (e.g. Mashi Craft Market);
while others are owned by individual
entrepreneurs from within local communities
(e.g. Aba Huab Campsite and the Anmire
Traditional Village). In other cases, communities
have entered into joint ventures (for example,
Damaraland Camp, in Torra Conservancy). In
still other cases, private businesses (for example
a hunting company) lease a concession from the
local community, or periodically pays a bed-
night levy as a goodwill gesture.
Conservancies
A conservancy is set up to encourage good
relations between conservation and farming. A
group of land owners come together to conserve
and use wildlife sustainably in their area. The
land is to be used by both wildlife and by
livestock and so is used in a way which is
sensitive to the needs of both of these groups.
Conservancies are community-run and the
benefits go to the people who live in the
conservancies. Once a conservancy is running its
members, the local inhabitants, can harvest an
appropriate amount of game for their own
consumption. Conservancies can also invite
professional hunters who will pay for trophy
hunting and as well as selling live animals.
Money can also be made from tourism in other
ways such as game drives and lodges .
Conservancies were made possible by the
creation of new legislation that allowed land
owners and conservancies certain powers which
they did not previously have. The new legislation
allowed conservancies to use, manage and
benefit from wildlife on communal land. They
are also permitted to propose recommendations
for quotas for wildlife utilisation and to decide
the form of utilisation. They are now allowed to
enter into agreements with private companies and
to establish tourism facilities within the
conservancy boundaries. Under the legislation
registered conservancies are given ownership
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Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism
over huntable game and game birds such as
warthog, kudu, springbok and oryx.
Conservancies can help communities to improve
their social, economic and environmental
conditions by benefiting from the natural
resources in their area. Often people have only
experienced the damage caused by animals who
come on to their land, but through conservancies
and giving people the rights over the natural
resource on their land they can start benefit from
them.
If people can benefit directly from the natural
resources in their region they are more likely to
manage them more carefully because they have a
stake in them. The government has also realised
that jobs can be created out of wildlife in the
rural areas and this can help towards the
development and towards the economy of these
areas.
Conservancies decide how to spend income from
wildlife and tourism. They can pay dividends to
individual households or use income for
community development projects. Conservancies
give communities new economic opportunities
which can help them in times of drought. All
conservancy members have equitable shares and
the benefits provide incentives for people to
manage the wildlife for the future.
Conservancies can help lead to improved
numbers and variety of wildlife through certain
species being reintroduced into areas where they
had previously dwindled or been eliminated.
They can also help to protect habitats for the
local species and conserve biodiversity.
There are many conservancies springing up all
over Namibia. The main concern with
conservancies is when there are many different
economic interests in an area and this makes it
difficult to decided how a communal resource
can be used for the benefit of everyone involved.
The economic benefits to be derived from
conservancies also have to be substantial if they
are to compete with other land practices.
Apart from the income-earning aspect of tourism
through conservancies, communities also benefit
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 Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism

through capacity training. The Integrated Rural

Development and Nature Conservation
(IRDNC), for example, is an NGO in Namibia
that evolved out of the Community Game Guards
project. IRDNC works with a community game
guard network in the Kunene and Caprivi
regions. It consolidates and expands community-
based ecotourism initiatives in the programme
area, trains local community members as game
guards; and encourages the involvement of local
communities in other income-generating
activities associated with wildlife and tourism.

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 Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism

Important ideas to stress in your teaching and learning

Tourism is now the worlds number one export earner, earning more than automobiles, chemicals,
petroleum or food.
Ecotourism or people visiting undisturbed natural areas to admire and learn about them, is
increasing rapidly.
Tourism is Namibias third major economic activity. Much of it is ecotourist based.
Ecotourism can have positive and negative effects On the one hand it may increase national pride,
contribute to environmental conservation, provide employment and training and earn valuable
taxes and foreign exchange. On the other, it may conflict with the local culture, limit local peoples
access to their land and resources and lead to social problems such as alcoholism, theft and
violence.
Ecotourism initiatives in Namibia include Community Based Natural Resource Management
(CBNRM) projects, and Conservancies.

Glossary
Biodiversity The variety and range of living organisms.
Conservation The preservation, management, and care of natural and cultural resources by
protecting them from change, loss or damage.
Ecosystem A group of interdependent organisms in an environment they inhabit and
depend on.
Ethnic Belonging to a group in society by descent or culture rather that by nationality.
Flora and fauna Plant life and animal life.
Geology The rocks, minerals, and physical structure of a particular area.
Habitat an environment for example a forest where a human, plant, or animal lives or is
usually found.
Infrastructure The basic organisation of anything, for example a company, a country or a
body.
Legislation A law or laws passed by an official body such as government.
NGO Non-governmental organisation.
Sustainable Something which is able to be maintained. Environmentally it refers to the
exploitation of natural resources without the destruction of the ecological
balance of a particular area.
Utilisation The making use of something.

Sources/Further Reading
Sustainable Wildlife Management, WWF.
Planeta.com
Understanding the Market for Sustainable Tourism by Paul F. J. Eagles
The Northern Namibia Environment project
WILD Project (Wildlife Integration for Livelihood Diversification)

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 Theme: Society & Governance
Topic No 3: Ecotourism

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