EE4532, POWER ELECTRONICS & DRIVES

Weeks 1-7: Power Electronic Systems & Devices

Section 1: Power Electronic Systems

Section 2: Power Devices
Section 3: Uncontrolled & Controlled Rectifiers
Section 4: Motor Drives

Total Lecture Hours: 13+ CA

Tutorial Hours: 6+1 Review

Instructor:
Dr. Ali I. Maswood
Associate Professor, EAMASWOOD@NTU.EDU.SG

1
 TYPES OF POWER ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

The conversion of electric power from one form to another is

necessary and the switching characteristics of the power devices
permit these conversions.
The static power converters perform these functions of power
conversions.
A converter may be considered as a switching matrix. The power
electronics circuits can be classified into 5 types:

1. Diode rectifiers
2. Ac-dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
3. Ac-ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
4. Dc-dc converters (choppers)
5. Dc-ac converters (inverters)

Diode Rectifiers:
Converts ac voltage into a fixed dc voltage.
The input voltage to the rectifier VS could be either single or three
phase.

RMS
Average
 Thyristor (controlled) rectifier:
A single-phase converter with two natural commutated thyristors
is shown.
The average value of the output voltage vo can be controlled by
varying the conduction time of thyristors or delay angle .

Lower
Average

AC-AC converters:
Used to obtain a variable ac output voltage vo from a fixed ac
source and a single-phase converter with a TRIAC.
The output voltage is controlled by varying the conduction time of
TRIAC.

Lower RMS

3 3
 DC-DC converters:
Also known as a chopper.
The average output vo voltage is controlled by varying the
conduction time t1, of transistor Q1. If T is the chopping period,
then t1 = T. Where; - duty cycle of the chopper.

Average

DC-DC converters:
Also known as an inverter. If transistors M1, and M2 conduct for
positive half (in Red) of a period and M3 and M4 conduct for the
Negative half, the output voltage is of alternating form.
The RMS output voltage can be controlled by varying the
conduction time of transistors.

RM
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF POWER ELECTRONIC -
EQUIPMENT

The design of a Power electronic equipment can be divided into four

parts:
3. Design of power circuits 1. Control strategy.
4. Protection of power devices 2. Logic and gating circuits

PERIPHERAL EFFECTS
The operations of the power converters are based mainly on the
switching of power semiconductor devices;
Converters introduce current and voltage harmonics into the
supply system and on the output of the converters.
Problems of distortion of the output voltage, harmonic generation
into the supply system.
It is normally necessary to introduce filters on the input and
output of a converter system to reduce the harmonic.

5 5
MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF POWER ELECTRONICS
POWER MODULES

Power devices are available as a single unit or in a module. A

power converter often requires two, four, or six devices.

Power modules with dual (in half-bridge configuration) or quad

(in full bridge) or six (in three phase) are available for almost all
types of power devices.

SWITCHING IN POWER ELECTRONICS & LOSSES

3 3
 VA RANGES OF POWER DEVICES & APPLICATIONS
High
Power

High
Your Notes:
Frequency
 CLASSIFICATION OF POWER DEVICES (L2)

1. Uncontrolled turn on and off (e.g., diode) ;

9. Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off (e.g., SCR);

8. Controlled turn-on and -off characteristics (e.g., BJT, MOSFET,

GTO);

2. Continuous gate signal requirement (BJT, MOSFET, IGBT, SIT);

3. Pulse gate requirement (e.g., SCR, GTO, MCT);

4. Bipolar voltage-withstanding capability (SCR, GTO);

5. Unipolar voltage-withstanding capability (BJT, MOSFET, GTO,

IGBT);

6. Bidirectional current capability (TRIAC);

7.Unidirectional current capability (SCR, BJT, MOSFET,IGBT,

diode)

Figure below shows the applications and frequency range of power

devices. A super (ideal) power device should:

(1) have a zero on-state voltage,

(2)withstand an infinite off-state voltage,
(3)handle an infinite current, and
(4)turn on and off in zero time, thereby having infinite switching
speed.

Your Notes:

5 5
 Thyristor
SOA

IGBT
SOA

MOSFET
SOA

Fig. V-I Characteristics (SOA) of various power Devices

CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF POWER DEVICES

Power semiconductor devices can be operated as switches by applying

control signals to the gate terminal of thyristors, and to the base of bipolar
transistors.
The required output is obtained by varying the conduction time of these
switching devices.
Figure below shows the output voltages and control characteristics of
commonly used power switching devices
.
Fig. Control Characteristics of Power devices
7 7
 High. IBHigh Ic
Current Controlled

High. VGSHigh Ic
Voltage Controlled

Fig. Device Symbols & their V/I Characteristics

POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES AND CIRCUITS

A diode acts as a switch to perform various functions such as:

switches in rectifiers,
freewheeling in switching regulators,
charge reversal of capacitor and energy transfer between components,

Power diodes can be assumed as ideal switches for most applications, but
practical diodes differ from the ideal characteristics and have certain limitations.
The power diodes are similar to pn-junction signal diodes. However, the power
diodes have larger power, voltage, and current-handling capabilities than those
of ordinary signal diodes. The frequency response (or switching speed) is low
compared with that of signal diodes.

Semiconductor basics

Power semiconductor devices are based on high-purity, single-crystal silicon.

A pure silicon material is known as an intrinsic semiconductor with resistivity
that is too low to be an insulator and too high to be a conductor. It has high
resistivity and very high dielectric strength (over 200 kV/cm).

n-Type silicon material: If pure silicon is doped with a small amount of a

Group V element, such as phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony, each atom of the
dopant forms a covalent bond within the silicon lattice, leaving a loose electron.
These loose electrons greatly increase the conductivity of the material.

p-Type material: If pure silicon is doped with a small amount of a Group III
element, such as boron, gallium, or indium, a vacant location called a hole is
introduced into the silicon lattice. These holes greatly increase the conductivity
of the material.

In a p-type material the holes are called the majority carriers and electrons are
called the minority carriers.

In the n-type material, the electrons are called the majority carriers, and holes
are called the minority carriers.

9 9
DIODE
REVERSE
CHARACTERISTICS
RECOVERY CHARACTERISTICS

AOnce
powera diode
diodeisisina atwo-terminal
forward conduction mode and
pn-j unction thenand
device its aforward current
pn-j unction is is
reduced formed
normally to zero bydue to the natural
alloying, behavior of the diode circuit or application
diffusion.
of a reverse voltage, the diode continues to conduct due to charges that remain
When
stored in thethe anode potential
pn-junction and theisbulk
positive with respectmaterial.
semiconductor to the cathode, the diode
is said to
The charges be forward
require a certainbiased
time toand the diodewith
recombine conducts.
opposite charges and to be
neutralized. This time is called the reverse recovery time of the diode.
When the cathode potential is positive with respect to the anode, the diode
is said to be reverse biased.

Under reverse-biased conditions, a small reverse current (also known as leakage

current) in the range of micro or milliampere flows.

The v-i characteristics shown in following figure can be expressed by an

equation known as Schockley diode equation, and it is given under dc steady-
state operation by

Fig. Reverse Recovery (RR) Characteristic

The reverse recovery time is denoted as trr and is measured from the initial zero
crossing of the diode current to 25% of maximum (or peak) reverse current IRR.

trr ta tb

trr consists of two components, ta and tb.

The ratio tb/ta, is known as the softness factor (SF).

The peak reverse current can be expressed in reverse di/dt as

d
Irr ta
d

Reverse recoveryFig.charge
DiodeQRR, is the &
Practical amount of charge
Ideal V/I carriers that flows across
Characteristics
the diode in the reverse direction due to changeover from forward conduction to
Vreverse blocking condition.
D >0...Forward biased, VD <0...Reverse biased, VD <-VBR...Breakdown

1
RR charge:
1 1 1
Qrr irrt a irrt b 2 rri trr

If tb is negligible compared ta as usually is the case, then the following eqns. Are
valid:

2Qr d
Irr 2Qr
RR time, tr di dt

, RR current
r d

Example: Reverse Recovery Current

Your Notes: FIN

1
 POWER DIODE TYPES (L3)

Depending on the recovery characteristics and manufacturing techniques, the

power diodes can be classified into the following three categories:

1. Standard or general-purpose diodes

2. Fast-recovery diodes
3. Schottky diodes

___ General-Purpose Diodes

The general-purpose rectifier diodes have relatively high reverse recovery
time, typically 25 s; and are used in low-speed applications, where recovery
time is not critical, e.g., diode rectifiers and converters for a low-input
frequency up to 1-kHz applications and line-commutated converters.

current ratings from less than 1 A to several thousands of amperes, with

voltage ratings from 50 V to around 5 kv

Following Figure shows various configurations of general-purpose diodes,

which basically fall into two types.
o One is called a stud, or stud-mounted type;
o Other one is called a disk, or hockey-puck type.

Fast-Recovery Diodes

The fast-recovery diodes have low

recovery time, normally less than 5
s.
They are used in dc-dc and dc-ac
converter circuits, where the speed
of recovery is often of critical
importance.
Ratings of voltage from 50 V to
around 3 kV, and current from less
than 1 A to hundreds of amperes.
Fig. Stud & Hockey Puck
configuration of power diodes.
 Schottky Diodes
Th charge storage problem of a pn-j unction can be eliminated (or
Example:
Find the voltageinvaz Schottky
minimized) across thediode.
Zener diode of above Fig. if iz = 10 mA and it is
known that Vz(Rated) = 5.6 V, Iz(rated) = 25 mA, and Rz = 10 .
A Schottky diode has a relatively low forward voltage drop.
Since 0.1 *Iz< iz< Iz, operation is along the safe and predictable region of Zener
operation.
The leakage current of a Schottky diode is higher than that of a pn-junction
diode. The maximum allowable voltage of this diode is generally limited to
-3
100 V The current vz Vz + iz*ofRSchottky
ratings z =5.6+(10x10
diodes )(10)=5.7V
vary from 1 to 400 A.

Rz isThe
frequently neglected
Schottky diodes inaretheideal
design
forofhigh-current
Zener regulators.
and low-voltage dc power
supplies. However, these diodes are also used in low-current power supplies
for increased efficiency.
SERIES-CONNECTED DIODES
InThe zener
many diode
high-voltage applications, e.g., high-voltage direct current HVDC
transmission lines, one commercially available diode cannot meet the required
voltage rating,
The Zenerand diode
diodesorare connected
reference in series
diode, whosetosymbol
increaseisthe reverse
shown in
blocking following
capabilities.
Fig., finds primary usage voltage regulator or reference.
The forward conduction characteristic of a Zener diode is much the as
that of aFig.,
In the following rectifier diode;
iD and VD are the current and voltage, respectively.

Sharp
Different Voltages
Reverse V
Breakdown

Same
Current

2. The reverse voltage breakdown is rather sharp. The breakdown voltage

can be controlled through the manufacturing process so it has a reasonably
predictable value.

1. When a ZenerFig. diode is connection

Series in reverse of
breakdown,
diodes its voltage remains
extremely close to the breakdown value while the current varies from rated
current to 10 percent or less of rated current.
Rated
Zener regulator is designed so that iz O.l*I Z to ensure the constancy of vz.

1
In the forward direction; vD1, and vD2 are the sharing reverse voltages of diodes D1,
and D2, respectively. In practice, the v-i characteristics for the same type of
diodes differ due to tolerances in their production process.

In the forward-biased condition, both diodes conduct the same amount of

current, and the forward voltage drop of each diode would be almost equal.
However, in the reverse blocking condition, each diode has to carry the same
leakage current, and as a result the blocking voltages may differ significantly.
From the Fig. above:
A simple solution to this problem is shown in following Figure:
I I I I I
S S R S R
1 1 2 2

1
V D1 VD 1
IS

I S2

R R
If R1=R2, two diode voltages can be slightly different because of their V-I
characteristic.

Same Voltage

Is
Different Currents- 1
Different R1, R2
Is

Fig. Equal voltage sharing among series diodes

Force equal voltage sharing by connecting a resistor across each diode.

Due to equal voltage sharing the leakage current of each diode would be
different. The total leakage current must be shared by a diode and its resistor,
Values of VD1 and VD2 can be determined from:

2
 IS1 VD1 VD1

I S2

R R ; assuming R1=R2

VD1+ VD2 =

Voltage sharing under transient condition

PARALLEL-CONNECTED DIODES

In high-power applications, diodes are connected in parallel to increase

the current carrying capability
The current sharings of diodes would be in accord with their respective
forward voltage drops.
Uniform current sharing can be achieved by providing equal inductances
(e.g., in the leads) or by connecting current-sharing resistors (not practical due
to power losses);

16
 It is possible to minimize this problem by selecting diodes with equal
forward voltage drops or diodes of the same type. Because the diodes are
connected in parallel, the reverse blocking voltages of each diode would be
the same.

The resistors R1, R2 help current sharing under steady-state conditions.

Current sharing under dynamic conditions can be accomplished by
connecting coupled inductors as shown in Figure b. If the current through
D1, rises, the L*di/dt across L1, increases, and a corresponding voltage of
opposite polarity is induced across inductor L2. The result is a low-impedance
path through diode D2 and the, current is shifted to D2.

Fig. Parallel Diode Connection (current Sharing)

Your Notes:

2
 DIODES WITH RC AND RL LOADS

Following figure shows a diode circuit with an RC load. For the sake of
simplicity the diodes are considered to be ideal. By ideal we mean that the
reverse recovery time and the forward voltage drop VD are negligible. The
source voltage Vs is a dc constant voltage. When the switch S1, is closed at t=0,
the charging current i that flows through the capacitor can be found from:

Observation:
In a RC circuit, voltage rises exponentially
In a RC circuit, current falls exponentially

On the other hand:

In a RL circuit, ??? rises exponentially
In a RL circuit, ??? falls exponentially

18
 FREEWHEELING DIODE

If switch S1, in following Fig. is closed for time t1, a current is

established through the load, and then if the switch is opened, a path must be
provided for the current in the inductive load.
This is normally done by connecting a diode Dm, as shown in Fig. a, and
this diode is usually called a freewheeling diode.

Operation in two modes:

Mode 1 begins when the switch is closed at t = 0, and mode 2 begins
when the switch is then opened.
The equivalent circuits for the modes are shown in b. i1 and if are defined
as the instantaneous currents for mode 1 and mode 2, respectively. t1 and t2
are the corresponding durations of these modes.

No Current

FIN

2
UNCONTROLLED DIODE RECTIFIERS (L4)

A rectifier is a circuit that converts an ac signal into a unidirectional

(DC) signal. the rectifiers are classified into two types:
single phase and
three phase.

Diodes are considered to be ideal. By ideal we mean that the reverse

recovery time trr and the forward voltage drop VD are negligible. That
is, trr, = 0 and VD = 0.

Single-phase half-wave rectifiers

During the positive half-cycle of the input voltage, diode D, conducts

and the input voltage appears across the load.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is in a
blocking condition and the output voltage is zero.

Peak
Value rms value

DC value

Fig. Rectifier with resistive load

20
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS

The output voltage is discontinuous and contains harmonics.

A rectifier is a power processor that should give a dc output voltage with
a minimum amount of harmonic contents.
At the same time, it should maintain the input current as sinusoidal as
possible and in phase with the input voltage so that the power factor is
near unity.
The power-processing quality of a rectifier requires the determination of
harmonic contents of the input current, the output voltage and
current.
We can use Fourier series expansions to find the harmonic contents of
voltages and currents,

The average value of the output (load) voltage Vdc. The average value of the
output (load) current, Idc.
The output dc power,
Pdc =Vdc*Idc

Output rms power (sometimes referred as Pac):

Pd(rms) = Vd(rms) * Id(rms)

Rectifier Efficiency:


Pd
PD (rms )
Ripple factor (RF) measuring the DC ripple content (for DC side only):
2

RF

V (
rms
)

DC

Transformer utilization factor (TUF):

PDC
TUF

V IS S
Where VS and IS are the transformer secondary (input ac) rms voltage &
current respectively.

2
Displacement factor (DF) is defined as:
D F C o s ( );

where: is the phase angle between voltage and fundamental current.

Total harmonic distortion (THD) on the AC side:

2 1/2

TH S
I 1

Where: is the rms fundamental input current

I1

& IS is the
net (fundamental+harmonics) rms input
Rectifier input power factor (PF) is defined as:
1
V IS S 1Cos () Cos (
P

IS ) (Using FOURIER Series)

V IS S IS
Pdrms output rms
PF ( _ )
Input volt ampere input rms

(No Fourier)
_ _ ( _ )

THD is a measure of the distortion of an AC waveform.

If the input current is purely sinusoidal, IS = IS1, and the power factor
(PF) equals the displacement factor (DF) '

Displacement factor DF is often known as displacement power factor

(DPF).

An ideal rectifier should have: Possible?

= 100%, RF = 0, TUF = 1, THD = 0, PF = DPF = 1.

22
 WAVEFORMS AND THEIR HARMONICS

Waveforms Harmonics (FFT)

Pure ac Fundamental

H
5

Square wave ac
3rd Harmonic

5 5
0

Pure dc

DC Component

0
H
z

Pulsating dc

2
*
5

2
 Rms Current Fundamental Current
Always Sinusoida

Input (ac) voltage, current and its fundamental component (IS1) of a 1

-phsae full rectifier under highly inductive load.

Example: Performance Parameters of a 1-P half-wave rectifier

Note: In examples, reference to certain equations, pls see Text book

by M. H. Rashid, Power Electronics Circuits Devices & Aplications

A Half Wave Rectifier

24
DC Side
RMS VALUES
RMS output Power, Pd rms

V
2
( )
Efficiency=PDC/PAC=40 %, R 1

D rmS

= 1.21

Pdc

Pdrms

3
Half Wave Rectifier with R-L load and Battery

Without
FHD, Dm

With FHD
D

26
 Battery

Net Voltage Pushed Down

Fig. Half wave rectifier with a battery at the load.

E
Diode Conduction from: V m Sin E , Hence,


Sin
()
1

Vm
1

V m S i (n ) t E


d t FIN

3
SINGLE-PHASE FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS (L5)

Each half of the transformer with its associated diode acts as a half-wave
rectifier and the output of a full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure b.
Because there is no dc current flowing through the transformer, there is
no dc saturation problem of transformer core. The average output voltage is:

2 T/2
2
V
V

v m

sin( )
Where: Vm Input peak voltage

PIV

28
 Instead of using a center-tapped transformer, we could use four diodes
This is known as BRIDGE TOPOLOGY

FOURIER

Next
As shown in the following Fig.
TH

following Fig.

3
 Rectifier input Power
Factor (PF)=

30
THREE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

Used in high-power applications

Can operate with or without a transformer and gives six-pulse ripples on
the output voltage
The diodes are numbered in order of conduction sequences and each one
conducts for 1200
The pair of diodes which are connected between that pair of supply lines
having the highest amount of instantaneous line-to-line voltage wi l
conduct

The average output voltage (DC):

V 12
/6
3V cos( ) 33 m
V

tdt

dc m
2

Where: Vm Input lineneutral peak voltage

The rms output voltage:

/6 1/
12 3 cos ( ) d
V

rms 2 2
t

1/
3 9 3

=
m
2 4

3
 Current for Highly
Inductive Load

Rms diode current:

4 1/2
2 2

I I I

Where: Im- peak value of the input/load/diode current

Rms input (transformer secondary) current=

1/2 1/
8 / 6 2

1 2

2 2

I I I I

32
 VD
VDRM

RF = SQRT(VDRMS/VD)2-1=4%

TUF= PDC
/3 VS IS
*

3
Diode/Thyristor Protection (snubber)
below

VAK Step Voltage

T charging < T discharging Load in Series with snubber

Lower Ireverse

34
 Above.

d Above.

EXAMPLE
R=5 Ohm

4
Your Notes: FIN

36
 RECTIFIER CIRCUIT DESIGN (L6)

Design of a rectifier involves:

Determining the ratings of semiconductor diodes.
Ratings of diodes are normally in terms of:
average current, rms current, peak current, peak inverse voltage.

Other parameters involve:

Supply transformer ratings (kVA),
Input/output filters
Switch protection circuit (snubbers)
Thyristor gating signal generator

Diode/Thyristor Converter Topology & Their Key Ratings

4
 Input Line-Line Peak voltage

FILTERS

Input (top) & Output (bottom) filter Topologies

38
 As shown in the following

Your Notes:

4
 Output Voltage
Output bef. Filtering
Voltage aft.
Filtering

From the above eqn.

2nd harmonic, 2X2=4. For 3 phase . 2X6=12

40
EFFECTS OF SOURCE AND LOAD INDUCTANCES
In a practical circuit due to transformer leakage and supply inductances
(source) inductances are always present and the performances of rectifiers
are changed
Consider point t = where voltages vac and vbc are equal.
Due to L1, the current cannot fall to zero immediately and the transfer of
current cannot be instantaneous
Current through D1 id1 decreases resulting in an induced voltage across L1
Current through D3, id3 increases from zero, inducing an equal negative
voltage across L2

Actual
Voltage

- Commutation angle
Voltage across L2 is:
d
VL2 L2
d , with a linear rise of current, V L2 t L2 i

4
 Average DC voltage drop:
VX 1 vL
vL vL L SI d c
2 6
1 2 3

VL-L-- VL-N

Theoretical,

Your Notes: FIN

42
THYRISTORS (L7)
Its a bistable switch, operating from non-conducting state to conducting state
Compared to transistors, thyristors have lower on-state conduction losses and
higher power handling capability.
On the other hand, transistors generally have superior switching performances
in terms of faster switching speed and lower switching losses.

A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device of pn-pn structure.

When the anode voltage is made positive with respect to the cathode, the
junctions J1, and J3 are forward biased.
The junction J2 is reverse biased, and only a small leakage current flows from
anode to cathode.
The thyristor is then said to be in the forward blocking or off-state condition
If the anode-to-cathode voltage VAK is increased to a sufficiently large value,
the reverse-biased junction J2 breaks. This is known as avalanche breakdown and
the corresponding voltage is called forward breakdown voltage VBO. Because the
other junctions J1, and J3 are already forward biased, there is free movement of
carriers across all three junctions, resulting in a large forward anode current. The
device is then in a conducting state, or on-state.
The voltage drop would be due to the Ohmic drop in the four layers and it is
small, typically 1 V In the on-state, the anode current is limited by an external
impedance.
The anode current must be more than a value known as latching current I L to
maintain the required amount of carrier flow across the junction; otherwise, the
device reverts to the blocking.

4
 Once a thyristor conducts, it behaves like a conducting diode and there is no
control over the device.
If the forward anode current is reduced below a level known as the holding
current IH, a depletion region develops around junction J2 due to the reduced
number of carriers and the thyristor is in the blocking state.
The holding current is on the order of milli amperes and is less than the
latching current IL. That is, 'L > 'H.
Holding current IH is the minimum anode current to maintain the thyristor in
the on-state.

In practice, the forward voltage is maintained below VBO and the thyristor is
turned on by applying a positive voltage between its gate and cathode

Switching Characteristics

Thyristor latches into conduction when its anode is positive with respect to
the cathode and only when a voltage pulse is applied to its gate terminal.
The forward anode current of a thyristor must be more than its latching
current to latch into the conduction state

44
TWO-TRANSISTOR MODEL OF THYRISTOR

The latching action can be demonstrated by using a two-transistor model of

thyristor. A thyristor can be considered as two complementary transistors, one pnp-
transistor Q1, and other npn-transistor Q2, as shown. Equivalent circuit model is
shown in Figure b.

The thyristor load (anode current) is -Current Gain, =1+2 <1

linked to the gate current, the gains of the
two transistors (1, 2) and the leakage
currents of the collector-base junctions of
respective transistors ICBO, as:
2 1
II 2 I

IA

1 (1 2
)
IE,
If (1+2) 1, anode current can be very
large, thyristor can be turned on with a
small gate current.

5
THYRISTOR TURN-ON
During the turn-on process of a thyristor, there is a regenerative or positive
feedback effect. As a result, a thyristor can turn on with a small gate current and
latch into conduction carrying a large value of anode current.
In the blocking mode, the applied dv/dt must be less than the rated voltage

A thyristor is turned on by increasing the anode current. This can be accomplished

in one of the following ways:
Light: The light-activated thyristors are turned on by allowing light to strike
the silicon wafers.

dv/dt: The manufacturers specify the maximum allowable dv/dt of thyristors.

Gate current: If a thyristor is forward biased, the injection of gate current by
applying positive gate voltage between the gate and cathode terminals turns
on the thyristor.
As the gate current is increased, the forward blocking voltage is decreased, as
shown following figure.

46
 Designing gate circuit:
1. The gate signal should be removed after the thyristor is turned on. A continuous
gating signal would increase the power loss in the gate junction.
2. A gating signal must be wide enough so that IT > IL.

Where: td delay time to

tr Rise time

On time, tON = td + tr

THYRISTOR TURN-OFF

Turn-off time tq is the minimum value of time interval between the instant
when the on-state current has decreased to zero and the instant when the thyristor
is capable of withstanding forward voltage without turning on.
Reverse recovered charge QRR is the amount of charge that has to be
recovered during the turn-off process.

5
A thyristor that is in the on-state can be turned off by reducing the forward current
to a level below the holding current IH.

NATURAL
COMMUTATION

FORCED
COMMUTATION

Charged Separately

Turn off time, tq = trr + tr

48
THYRISTOR TYPES

Manufacturers use various gate structures to control the dildt, turn-on time,
and turn-off time.

Thyristors can easily be turned on with a short pulse

Fo turning off, they require special drive circuitry or special internal
structures to aid in the turning-off process.
There are several versions of thyristors with turn-off capability

Depending on the physical construction, and turn-on and turn-off behavior,

thyristors can be broadly classified into many categories:

Phase-controlled thyristors (or SCRs)

Fast switching thyristors (or SCRs) ,
Light-activated silicon-controlled rectifiers (LASCRs)
Bidirectional triode thyristors (TRIACs)
Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs)
Your Notes: FIN

54
CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (L8)

Diode rectifiers provide a fixed output voltage only

For controlled output voltages, thyristors are used instead of diodes.
The output voltage of thyristor rectifiersis varied by controlling the delay o
firing angle of thyristors.

Used in variable-speed drives, ranging from fractional horsepower to megawatt

power level.

Phase-control converters can be classified into two types:

(1) single-phase converters, and (2) three-phase converters
Each type can be a:
(a) semiconverter, (b) full converter, and (c) dual converter.

A semiconverter is a one-quadrant converter and it has one polarity of output

voltage and current.
A full converter is a two-quadrant converter
A dual converter can operate in four quadrants ; and both the output voltage
and current can be either positive or negative

In the converter of the following Fig., during the positive half-cycle of input
voltage, the thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the
thyristor is said to be forward biased

When thyristor T1 is fired at t = , T1, conducts and the input voltage

appears across the load.
When the input voltage starts to be negative at t =, the thyristor anode is
negative with respect to its cathode and thyristor T, is said to be reverse
biased; and it is turned off.

50
SINGLE-PHASE SEMICONVERTER

RM
S

One
Quadrant

The average output voltage (Vm is the peak input voltage):

V 1 v

sin t *d( t)

2 V

m
dc m

V
(1 cos )

Rms output voltage:

1 2
1/2
Vm
2 1/2
V v sin 2
* ( )

t d t t d t
1/

V 1

sin 2

2 2

5
SINGLE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS

Converter is shown in Figure with a highly inductive load so that the load
current is continuous and ripple free

During the positive half-cycle, thyristors T1, and T2 are forward biased
Due to the inductive load, thyristors T1, and T2 continue to conduct beyond
t=, even though the input voltage is already negative.
During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, thyristors T3 and T4 are
forward biased; and firing of thyristors T3 and T4 applies the supply voltage
across thyristors T1, and T2 as reverse voltage

Two
Quadrant

Output
Current
Positive

Current Phase
Shifted by

Provides two quadrant operation, vo= + or

However, io is always positive
With a resistive load, vo is positive only

52
 The average output voltage (Vm is the peak input voltage):
V 2 v

2
sin * ( )

t d t
Vm
cos

dc m

2V

co

Rms output voltage:

1/2 1/2
2

22
V V
m m
V v

tdt tdt

5
In Previous Fig.

Previous Fig.

Not Zero anymore

Because of phase shifting

54
THD for any

Not 1 anymore
Because of
 DUAL CONVERTER
If two full converters are connected back to back, as shown, both the output
voltage and the load current flow can be reversed
The system provides a four-quadrant operation and is called a dual
converter. Dual converters are normally used in high-power variable- speed
drives
If 1 and 2 are the delay angles of converters 1 and 2, respectively, the
corresponding average output voltages are Vdc1 and Vdc2
The delay angles are controlled such that one converter operates as a rectifier
and the other converter operates as an inverter (Negative output voltage),
but both converters produce the same average output voltage.
 1
2 Vm ) V dc
2V m
Vd

cos(

2 2


Where:

58
 Four
Quadrant

6
3-phase half wave Controlled Rectifiers (L9)

Higher average output voltage compared to a 1-phase

Higher DC side pulses resulting in higher harmonic orders
Lower filtering requirement

Two
Quadrant

DC Input
Current

60
For Continuous V

If the input L-N peak voltage is Vm, then the:

Vdc 3 mv t d t 33
co

5/6
sin * ( )

Average output voltage: 2

/6

Rms output voltage;

1/2 1/2
3 5 / 6
2 2 1 3

sin *() 3

V v

drms

For Discontinuous Voltage

DC output voltage:
V v

FI XED

3 ________________3 V 1 cos

Rms output voltage:

1/ 2
3 2
sin 2
V v t *d ( t)

drms m

1/
5

3V m
2 4 41

sin 2

Disadvantages:
Input currents are pulsating DC, can saturate the transformer

Only limited to low power applications

6
THREE-PHASE FULL CONVERTERS

Extensively used in industrial applications up to the 120-kW level

where a two-quadrant operation is required.
The thyristors are fired at an interval of 600
The frequency of output ripple voltage is 6f, and the filtering
requirement is less than that of half-wave converters
When thyristors T1 and T2 conduct, the line-to-line voltage va
appears across the load
If the thyristors are numbered, as shown in Figure, the firing
sequence is 12, 23, 34, 45, 56, and 61

If the line-to-neutral voltages are defined as:

Corresponding line-to-line voltages are:

62
T1 Ready
To Fire T1 actually
Fired

RM
S

Thyristor Current

Input Current

6
 Average output voltage:
6/ 2

3 /2

V v *()

2 dt t dt
33 m

co

Rms output voltage:

1/2

/2

1/2

1 3 3 cos

3 m

2 4

Finding the Performances of a three-phase Full-wave Converter (R load)

A three-phase full-wave converter is operated from a three-phase Y-connected,
(Vab(rms))208-V, 60-Hz supply and the load resistance is R=1 0. If it is required
to obtain an output voltage of 50% of the maximum possible output voltage,
calculate:
(a) the delay (), (b) the rms and average output currents, (c) the average and rm
s
thyristor currents. (e) the TUF, and (f) the input PF
Solution

From Current
Waveform

64
 Highly Inductive load

an= -4Ia/n* Sin(n/3)*Sin(n)

6
 0.9 Ia for 1-
Phase Rectifier

TH

48% for 1-
Phase Rectifier

PF Lower Compared to
R load for same

Previous example
The load type, i.e. R or L.

For Highly Inductive Load and for the same delay angle, PF is Lower. FIN

66
Twelve-pulse Rectifiers (L10)
A

LOWEST
12-pulses HARMONIC
12
Vo

Voy, Vo 6-pulses

7
 One of the bridges is supplied through a Y-Y connected transformer,
The other is supplied through a Y- (or -Y) transformer
The purpose of the Y- transformer connection is to introduce a 300
phase shift between the source and the bridge.
This results in input voltage-current phase shift, which are 300 apart.
The two bridge outputs are similar, but also shifted by 300.
The dc output is the sum of the dc output of each bridge:

Net output voltage:

3V V V
V0

V o m
( L L) mLL mLL co

Since a transition between conducting SCRs occurs every300, there are a

total of 12 such transitions for each period of the ac source.
The output has harmonic frequencies which are multiples of 12 times the
source frequency (12k, where: k = 1, 2,3 ... ).
Filtering to produce a relatively pure dc output is less costly than that
required for the six-pulse rectifier.

Another advantage of using a twelve-pulse converter rather than a six-

pulse converter is the reduced harmonics that occur in the ac system.

The current in the ac lines supplying the Y- Y transformer in Fourier series:

i Y( ) 2 3 Io 1 1 1 1

..

o o o o o
t t t t t

The current in the ac lines supplying the Y- transformer is in Fourier series:

i 23 Io o
1 o
1 o
1 o
1 o

()

t t t t t t

68
The ac system current , which is the sum of 2 transformer currents in Fourier
series:

i ac 43 1 1

() i i I

11 13
Iac
(No 5th and 7th harmonics. Lowest harmonic 11)

Some of the harmonics (5th & 7th) on the ac side are canceled by using the
twelve-pulse scheme.
The harmonics that remain in the ac system are of order l2k1.

This principle can be expanded to an-arrangements of higher pulse numbers by

incorporating increased pulse Nos. of six/pulse converters with transformers with
appropriate phase shifts.
lower-voltage industrial systems commonly have converters with up to 48
pulses.

POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENTS

The PF of phase-controlled converters depends on delay angle , and is in

general low, especially at the low output voltage range. These converters
generate harmonics into the supply.
Forced commutations can improve the input PF and reduce the harmonics
levels.

3. Extinction angle control

4. Symmetric angle control
5. Pulse-width modulation (PWM)
1. Single-phase sinusoidal PWM
2. Three-phase PWM control

7
Extinction Angle Control
The switching actions of S 1, and S2 can be performed by GTO or IGBT.
An IGBT remains on as long as a gate voltage is applied to its gate
terminal.
The output voltage is controlled by varying the extinction angle .
The fundamental component of input current leads the input voltage, and
the displacement factor (and PF) is leading.
In some applications, this feature may be desirable to simulate a capacitive
load and to compensate for line voltage drops.

Forced
Commutated
Switch

70
Average output voltage:
Vdc 2

vm t d t Vm
1 cos

sin * ( )

Vdc can be varied from 2Vm / to 0 by varying from 0 to .

The rms output voltage:

1/2
2



1/2
v 1 sin 2

22
Vd

m
v sin
()
t d*t ( )

Symmetric Angle control

Provides an unity Displacement factor

Average and rms output voltage can be controlled by non-conduction angle .

The average output voltage:

2 2 m

( )/2
2 V

)/2

The rms output voltage:

1/2 1/2
( )/2
2 1

2 2 m

V v sin * ( )

Where; = non-Conduction Angle

7
i3S

72
7
 From Integration of Is

TH

TH

Thyristor .
Rect. @ =600

PF=0.45
Fi

74
 PWM CONTROL (L11)
In PWM control, the converter switches are turned on and off several times
during a half-cycle and the output voltage is controlled by varying the width of
pulses.

Fundamental
Current

The gate signals are generated by

comparing a triangular wave with a
dc signal
PWM Can reduce lower order
harmonics. Reduce THD, Increase PF

7
 The average output voltage due to p number of pulses per half cycle:

p 2
mm

v



p
cos cos( )

V v sin * ( )

m1
m mm

PWM shifts
Harmonics to High
Order. For Exam.
Lower 3rd or 5th
Input Current

78
Single-Phase Sinusoidal PWM

It is possible to choose the widths of pulses in such a way that certain

harmonics could be eliminated

Most common one is the sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM)
Pulse widths are generated by comparing a triangular reference vr with a
carrier half-sinusoidal voltage vc of variable amplitude and fixed
frequency 2fs

The widths of the pulses (and the average/rms output voltage) are varied
by changing the amplitude of vc, or the modulation index M from 0 to 1.
The modulation index is defined as:
A
M

7
 In a sinusoidal PWM control, the DF is unity and the PF is improved
The lower order harmonics are eliminated or reduced
For example, with four pulses per half-cycle the lowest order
harmonic is the fifth; and
with six pulses per half-cycle, the lowest order harmonic is the
seventh.

Your Notes:

80
 PF IMPROVEMENT BY FILETRS

Sharply Tuned
Eliminates 5th

Broadly Tuned
Eliminates 5th &
AC 7th harmonic

5*50 Hz

8
 Choose C

L chosen
based on C

XL

82
 Both Fundamental &
Harmonic V/I Contents
need to be considered

Your Notes: