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IN STRUCTURAL CALCULATION
By W. F. Lam 1 and C. T. Morley 2
for passing limit points (load or displacement peaks) in nonlinear finite element
analysis of structures. In addition to the usual equilibrium equations, a quadratic
arc-length constraint equation is specified so that the nonlinear solution is sought
on a small ellipsoidal surface in load-deflection space. The main new feature of
the proposed procedure is the resolution of the out-of-balance loads into a parallel
and an orthogonal component with respect to the vector of applied external loads.
Methods for avoiding complex roots to the quadratic constraint equation, and for
selecting the appropriate root, are presented. Applications of the proposed pro-
cedure to two reinforced concrete problems give satisfactory results. The method
is effective and versatile in handling both snap-through and snap-back problems.
INTRODUCTION
Basic Formulation
A static finite element problem is considered, with n unknown nodal
displacements p. Nodal loads q, of dimension n, are applied with load factor
A., and for each new value of X starting from zero, the solution p is sought.
171
the displacement (p0 + Ap,), the program with nonlinear properties com-
putes the corresponding nodal loads F in equilibrium with the internal
forces, but in general not in agreement with E, nor in the specified load
direction q (see the left half of Fig. 1).
The out-of-balance loads e, = E,- - F, may be resolved into a component
g,-q in the specified applied load direction, where
e?q
gt (6)
qrq
and a component h, orthogonal to q, where
h, = e, &q (7)
If the out-of-balance loads e, or the orthogonal component h, satisfy the
convergence criterion, the solution is accepted, otherwise further iteration
is required.
To achieve convergence, elimination of at least the orthogonal component
h, must be attempted by amending the trial displacements in the next it-
eration, but the term g,q is not so important since the load intensity has not
been specified and may be recomputed. In the proposed arc-length method,
further load h, is applied, plus x,q in the load direction, where xt is a scalar
multiplier to arrange that the point C in Fig. 1 is always at a chosen fixed
arc length A/ from the last converged point. In this way, it is hoped that
difficulties due to snap-through or snap-back limit points will be overcome.
Supposing that the current stiffness matrix K, or an estimate of it, is
known or has been formulated, the next displacement increment is chosen
with
Load in specified
'direction'
Xq Xq
,
--.
X
Ef N C
Aj^
/-V
-th iteration \
AXiq Ay | * " " - i - t h iteration
1 "\
F 4 -,
\ X 0 ql Ap,
I
E / + 1 = F, + Xiq + h, (9a)
E / + 1 = E,- - g,q + x,q (9b)
i.e.
AX,-+1 = AX; - g, + x, (9c)
where xt is to be governed by the arc-length constraint equation
A/2 = Apr,.+ 1 Ap ;+1 + A0 AX?+1 (10)
The scalar A0 converts everything to the same dimensions and order of
magnitude. Many analysts set A0 = 0, but we take
A0 = ^ (11)
X" = ^ (14)
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Using changes Apcr and AXcr, where AXcr = Xcr XQ, the actual arc length
is given by
|x = - ^ - (16)
Convergence Criterion
In this work, the convergence criterion is expressed as a ratio of the norm
of the out-of-balance force e; to the norm of the total applied load X,q, in
each case expressed in consistent units. So the solution is taken to have
converged if
r= =S 8 (20)
x,-M,
174
A/
= J-ZTr Al"r (25)
where Ide = the desired number of iterations to each converged point; Ipr
and bdpr = the actual number of iterations required and the arc length used
in the previous increment, respectively.
Normally, the tangent stiffness matrix K or an estimate of it is computed
every five iterations. Also, if convergence is not achieved in, say 20 itera-
tions, the practice here is to return to (X0q, p 0 ), recompute K, and proceed
again with a smaller arc length.
When applying the arc-length method proposed thus far, results showed
that, in many cases, the steps of (13)(17) do enable the analysis to proceed
and subsequently to find further converged points, in the event of complex
roots to the quadratic equation (12a). Yet occasionally, particularly in some
reinforced concrete analysis problems when there is severe strain localization
and unloading of adjacent elements on cracking, difficulties in solution
convergence still persist, while the procedure repeatedly gives complex roots.
This was also the experience of Crisfield (1983, 1984) who obtained con-
siderable improvement when he introduced line searches, by multiplying
the second and third terms on the right of (4) by a factor y\ + 1.0 and
determining T| by minimization of potential energy.
Because of the difficulties encountered, further work was necessary to
develop a solution procedure to tackle the problem of complex roots. Here,
a pseudo line-search technique is introduced, with a similar factor r\ that
is, however, computed without introducing energy considerations.
175
(i) T|,<K)
~<1-0<T1 2
b'
(Hi) I|,<1-0 <--^
176
b
%= % - if TU < 1.0 < - -, (28c)
Compute Ao & Al
(Eqs 22 & 24
Compute Ap
(Eg. 231
Store A\ pr = AX
and Ap'"'- Ap
Store AX pr = AX
and Ap pr = Ap
IINCS=IINCStl
IITER = 1
Compute new A!
(Eq. 25)
Optional
Recompute K and 6q
_,_ Reset p 0 & X0
Compute AolEq.111
Compute X (Eq. I/, I
and AX = X - X 0
APPLICATIONS
10 kN
jm
>//}/
1m 1m
63-0
A s = 56-5mm2 o o
66'5mm
A1-5
reference
axis
41-5
A s = 56-5 mm2 O 0 66-5
Gauss points _ 1 2 3 4 5 6 t
Nodes 1 2 3 4
I 350 I 350 I 300 I
179
1-2
r
I 0-8
| 06
jo,
10-2
0-0 _L 1_
0000 0-002 0-004 0-006 0-008
Steel strain e s
(b) Apparent steel lever arm ratio-strain relation
180
10,-
10 15 20
Central deflection {mmf
181
2-28
kNm
1200
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Gauss points 1 2 3 4 5
x * x -)( 0 X-
Nodes 1 2 3
L 400 __L 40^_ . I . 400
J 1-51
0010
End rotation (radians)
0-10 0-15
End rotation (radians)
zero stress at the ultimate strain. This snap-back is not predicted if a more
prolonged falling branch is specified for the concrete in compression.
The result of using bare steel behavior for tension steel in the analysis is
also shown in Fig. 9. As expected, the two curves converge at high loads.
Remarks on Examples
Nonlinear solutions can be affected by the assumptions about shape func-
tions for the finite elements. In the second example, Gauss points in each
element were found to crack simultaneously instead of successively. This is
because a linear distribution of axial displacement, i.e., uniform axial strain,
was assumed for each element. With a fairly uniform bending moment along
the cantilever, cracking at one Gauss point often implies cracking at the
other, within the same solution increment. This can be rectified by using a
shorter arc length, or by introducing a midlength third node with extra
freedom in the axial direction, thereby allowing different axial strains at the
two Gauss points.
The examples clearly demonstrate the occurrence of strain localization as
a result of using strain-softening constitutive relations. In Figs. 6 and 9, the
localizations were caused by the assumed short and steep falling branch for
concrete in compression, particularly the sudden drop to zero of the concrete
stress at the specified ultimate compressive strain. In Fig. 8, strain locali-
zation was also obtained on cracking, in this case related to the initial dip
on the apparent steel stress-strain curve [Fig. 5(a)] used to represent the
properties of the tension zone.
These rather simple examples were chosen to show the method working
in cases where other methods would faile.g., load control would probably
not cope with the peaks in Fig. 8, and deflection control would miss a snap-
back such as that in Fig. 9. It is quite possible that unmodified arc-length
methods would cope in these simple casesbut our experience with
more complicated structures (Lam 1987) is that complex roots to the con-
straint equation do regularly occur, so that a method of avoiding them is
advantageous.
183
the complex root problem, and can be formulated easily without involving
the concept of potential energy.
The examples demonstrate the feasibility and versatility of the arc-length
solution procedure in finite element analysis of reinforced concrete struc-
tures, especially its ability to proceed automatically past load peaks of the
snap-through or snap-back variety.
Although the two examples presented are on reinforced concrete struc-
tures, the proposed modified arc-length method is fairly general, and could
be applied in nonlinear structural calculations for other materials.
APPENDIX I. REFERENCES
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linear problems. Int. J. Numer. Meth. Engrg., 14(8), 1262-1267.
Bergan, P. G. (1980). "Automated incremental-iterative solution schemes." Nu-
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Owen, (eds.), Pineridge Press, Swansea, U.K., 291-305.
Bergan, P. G., and Holand, I. (1979). "Nonlinear finite element analysis of concrete
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Bergan, P. G., Horrigmoe, G., Krakeland, B., and Soreide, T. H. (1978). "Solution
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Cope, R. J., and Rao, P. V. (1981). "Non-linear finite element strategies for bridge
slabs." Advanced mechanics of reinforced concrete, IABSE, Delft, 275-290.
Crisfield, M. A. (1981). "A fast incremental/iterative solution procedure that handles
'snap-through'," Comput. Struct., 13(1-3), 55-62.
Crisfield, M. A. (1982a). "Accelerated solution techniques and concrete cracking."
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Crisfield, M. A. (19826). "Local instabilities in the non-linear analysis of reinforced
concrete beams and slabs. Proc. Inst. Civ. Engrs., 73(2), 135-145.
Crisfield, M. A. (1983). "An arc-length method including line searches and accel-
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Crisfield, M. A. (1984). "Overcoming limit points with material softening and strain
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Kupfer, H., Hilsdorf, H. K., and Rusch, H. (1969). "Behaviour of concrete under
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Lam, W. F. (1987). "Constitutive relations for finite element analysis of tension
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Doctor of Philosophy.
Morley, C. T., and Lam, W. F. (1986). "Passing load peaks in finite element cal-
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Phillips, D. V., and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1976). "Finite element non-linear analysis
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