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Heat transfer:
Heat transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference. According
to the 2nd law of thermodynamics heat is transferred from a higher temperature body to a
lower temperature body.
Forced convection:
In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external means
such as a pump, blower, or a fan.
Convection heat transfer coefficient strongly depends on the following fluid properties:
(i) By decreasing dynamic viscosity, convection heat transfer coefficient can be
increased.
(ii) By increasing thermal conduction, K convection heat transfer coefficient can be
increased.
(iii) By increasing specific heat, Cp convection heat transfer coefficient can be increased.
(iv) By increasing fluid velocity, V convection heat transfer coefficient can be increased.
Convection heat transfer coefficient also depends on:
(v) Surface geometry;
(vi) Surface roughness;
(vii) Type of fluid flow.
Laminar flow:
In the laminar flow, fluid motion is highly ordered and it is possible to identify streamlines
along which particles move.
Fluid motion along a streamline is characterized by velocity components in both the x and y
directions.
Turbulent flow: Fluid motion in the turbulent flow is highly irregular and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations. These fluctuations enhance the transfer of momentum, energy and
species, and hence increase surface friction as well as convection transfer rates.
Fluid mixing resulting from the fluctuations makes turbulent boundary layer thickness larger
and boundary layer profiles (velocity, temperature) flatter than in laminar flow.
Transition flow: Transition flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow. The transition
from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in
which the flow hesitates between laminar and turbulent flows before it becomes fully
turbulent.
Effect of turbulence:
(i) Intense mixing of the fluid.
(ii) Enhance heat and momentum transfer between fluid particles.
(iii) Increase conduction heat transfer rate.
Types of flow:
(i) Internal flow: The fluid is completely confined by the inner surfaces of the tube
and there is limit on how much the boundary layer grows.
(ii) External flow: The fluid has a free surface and thus the boundary layer over the
surface is free to grow indefinitely.
Velocity Boundary layer:
The region of flow that develops from the leading edge of the plate in which the effects of
viscosity are observed is called the boundary layer. Some arbitrary point is used to designate
the y position where the boundary layer ends; this point is usually chosen as the y coordinate
where the velocity becomes 99 percent of the free stream velocity.
Fluid velocity at the surface of the plate is zero (because of no-slip condition), and gradually
increases with distance from the plate. At a sufficiently large distance from the plate, the fluid
velocity becomes equal to the free stream velocity V. The region above the plate surface
within which this change of velocity from zero to the free stream value occurs is called the
boundary layer (velocity boundary layer) also called the hydrodynamic boundary layer. The
thickness of this region is called the boundary layer thickness and is denoted by . The
boundary layer thickness increases with the distance x from the leading edge of the plate, i.e.
= (x).
Initially, the boundary-layer development is laminar, but at some critical distance from the
leading edge, depending on the flow field and fluid properties, small disturbances in the flow
begin to become amplified, and a transition process takes place until the flow becomes
turbulent. The turbulent-flow region may be pictured as a random churning action with
chunks of fluid moving to and fro in all directions.
A velocity boundary layer develops when there is fluid flow over a surface; a thermal
boundary layer must develop if the fluid free stream and surface temperatures differ.
Consider flow over an isothermal flat plate. At the leading edge the temperature profile is
uniform, with T(y) = T. However, fluid particles that come into contact with the plate
achieve thermal equilibrium at the plates surface temperature. In turn, these particles
exchange energy with those in the adjoining fluid layer, and temperature gradients develop in
the fluid. The region of the fluid in which these temperature gradients exist is the thermal
boundary layer, and its thickness is defined as t . With increasing distance from the leading
edge, the effects of heat transfer penetrate further into the free stream and the thermal
boundary layer grows.
Significance of the boundary layers:
The velocity boundary layer is of extent x and is characterized by the presence of velocity
gradient and shear stresses. The thermal boundary is of extent t (x) and is characterized by
temperature gradients and heat transfer. The principle manifestations of the two boundary
layers are, respectively, surface friction, convection heat transfer. The key boundary layer
parameters are then the friction coefficient Cf and the heat transfer convection coefficient h,
respectively.
For flow over any surface, there will always exist a velocity boundary layer, and hence
surface friction. However, a thermal boundary, and hence convection heat transfer, exists
only if the surface and free stream temperatures differ.
Flow in tubes:
The fluid velocity in a tube changes from zero at the surface to a maximum velocity at the
tube centre. A boundary layer develops at the entrance. Eventually the boundary layer fills
the entire tube, and the flow is said to be fully developed. If the flow is laminar, a parabolic
velocity profile is experienced. When the flow is turbulent, a blunter profile is observed. In a
tube, the Reynolds number is again used as a criterion for laminar and turbulent flow.
For
um d
Re d 2300. The flow is usually observed to be turbulent and where d is the tube
diameter.
Again, a range of Reynolds numbers for transition may be observed, depending on the
surface roughness and smoothness of the flow. The generally accepted range for transition is
2000 Re d 4000.
The flow in a tube is completely enclosed, an energy balance may be applied to determine
how the mean temperature Tm x various with position along the tube and how the total
convection heat transfer qconv is related to the difference in temperature at the tube inlet and
outlet.
The rate of convection heat transfer to the fluid must equal the rate at which the fluid thermal
energy increases plus the net rate at which work is done in moving the fluid through the
control volume.
m
50kPa
35 kPa
Entry region
Ts
Te
Tm
T=Ts-Tm=qs/h
Ti
The variation of the mean fluid temperature along the tube for the case of constant surface
Temperature:
Ts=costant
Ts
T=Ts-Tm
Ti
Ti
Ts=costant
Hydrodynamic entry region, length and hydrodynamically developed region:
The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the
centerline is called the hydrodynamic entry region, and the length of this region is called the
hydrodynamic entry length. The region beyond the hydrodynamic entry region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged is called the hydrodynamically
developed region.
Lh 10 d Turbulent flow
Velocity profile in the fully developed region:
Thermal entry region, length and thermally developed region:
The region of flow over which the thermal boundary layer develops and reaches the tube
centre is called the thermal entry region and the length of this region is called the thermal
entry length. The region beyond the thermal entry region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile remains unchanged is called thermally developed region.
The region in which the flow is both hydrodynamically and thermally developed is called the
fully developed flow.
u 2 v 2 v u 2
2
x y x y
The left hand side represents the net energy transfer due to mass transfer; on the right hand
side the first term represent the conductive heat transfer, and the last term on the right hand
side is the viscous-energy dissipation in the fluid due to internal fluid friction.
where:
Nusselt number:
The Nusselt number is a dimensionless number that measures the enhancement of heat
transfer from a surface that occurs in a real situation, compared to the heat transferred if just
conduction occurred. Typically it is used to measure the enhancement of heat transfer when
convection takes place.
where
L = characteristic length, which is simply Volume of the body divided by the Area of
the body (useful for more complex shapes)
kf = thermal conductivity of the "fluid"
h = convection heat transfer coefficient
Thus the Nusselt number may be interpreted as the ratio of heat transfer by convection to
conduction across the fluid layer of thickness L. Based on this interpretation, the value of the
Nusselt number equal to unity implies that there is no convection-the heat transfer is by pure
conduction. A large value of the Nusselt number implies enhanced heat transfer by
convection.
In heat transfer problems, the Prandtl number controls the relative thickness of the
momentum and thermal boundary layers.
where;
It can also be represented in terms of the fluid's Nusselt, Reynolds, and Prandtl numbers:
where;