UNIT 1

1. BUILDINGS, BUILDING MATERIALS

1.1 BUILDING
National Building Code of India has defined building as any structure constructed for any purpose with
any materials, used for human habitation or not.
It includes foundation, plinth, floors, walls, roofs, chimneys, fixed platform, verandah, balconies,
plumbing and building services, etc.

1.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE BUILDINGS ACCORDING TO THE NATIONAL BUILDING

CODE
National Building Code of India has classified building as Residential Buildings, Educational Buildings,
Institutional Buildings, Assembly Buildings, Business Buildings, Mercantile Buildings, Industrial
Buildings, Storage Buildings and Hazardous Buildings.
1. Residential Buildings: Sleeping accommodation for normal residential purpose is provided with or
without cooking or dining or both.
Example: houses, apartments, hostels, lodge, etc.
2. Educational Buildings: Assembly facilities for instruction or education are provided.
Example: schools, colleges, etc.
3. Institutional Buildings: Medical or other treatment or special care is provided.
Example: hospital, asylums, prisons, old age homes, school for special children, etc.
4. Assembly Buildings: Gathering of people for amusement, recreation, social, religious, civil, travel, etc.
Example: theatre, cinema halls, assembly houses, auditorium, museum, restaurants, places of worship,
terminals for road, rail, air and sea transport (railway station, airports, etc), play grounds, stadiums, etc.
5. Business Buildings: Business transactions, keeping of records, service facilities are provided.
Example: court houses, libraries, offices, banks, etc.
6. Mercantile Buildings: Display and sale of merchandise - either wholesale or retail takes place.
Examples: shops, stores, markets, show rooms, etc.
7. Industrial Buildings: Products or materials are fabricated, assembled, processed or manufactured.
Example: factories, laboratories, power plants, refineries, dairies, saw mills, assembly plants, etc.
8. Storage Buildings:Storage or sheltering of goods, vehicles, animals, wares or merchandise except
which are combustible or explosive material.
Example: warehouse, cold storage house, truck and marine terminal garages, hangar, grain silos, barns,
stable, etc.
9. Hazardous Buildings: Storage, handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible or
explosive materials.
Example: hazardous chemical factories, explosive factories and godowns, arms and ammunition factories
for army, etc

1.1.2 PLINTH AREA

Plinth area is defined as the total covered built-up area of a building, measured at floor level or any storey.
It is calculated by measuring the external dimensions of a building. It includes supported porches (non-
cantilever) and excludes courtyards, open areas, balconies, and cantilever projections.

1.1.3 FLOOR AREA

Floor Area of any floor is the total floor area between walls for all rooms in that floor. It includes area of
verandas, passages, corridors, stair rooms, entrance halls, kitchens, stores and toilets. It excludes area of
all walls, columns / pillars and intermediate supports.
Mathematically, Floor Area = Plinth Area - Area of all walls.

1.1.4 CARPET AREA

Carpet Area of any floor is the useful or livable area of that floor. Or it is the area where floor carpet is
laid. It excludes toilets, passages, verandahs, corridors, stairs, lifts, entrance hall, etc.
1.1.5 CIRCULATION AREA
Circulation Area is defined as the area of building that is used for the movement of people inside the
building.
It includes verandahs, passages, corridors, balconies, entrance halls, porches, stairs, etc.

1.1.6 FLOOR AREA RATIO

Ratio of total built-up covered area to the area of the plot.
Mathe

1.1.7 CALCULATION OF PLINTH AREA, FLOOR AREA, CARPET AREA, CIRCULATION

AREA AND FLOOR AREA RATIO:

12 m

BUILDING - GROUND + FIRST FLOOR

GIVEN DATA
Area
Item
m2
Plot Area 216
TOILET Building 150
Living 30
KITCHEN BED ROOM Bed Room 25
Kitchen 22
UTILITYOILET Dining 8
Toilet 6
15 m
Utility 6
18 m
Stair Room 18
ENTRANCE HALL
DINING
Entrance Hall 5
Wall Area 30
LIVING

STAIR ROOM

WALL AREA
PLOT

10 m

Fig 1.1 Plan

Ground Floor Plinth Area = First Floor Plinth Area= Building Area =150m2
Ground Floor Area = First Floor Area = Plinth Area Area of Walls = 150 30 = 120 m2
Carpet Area = Areas of Living + Bed Room =30+25 = 55 m2
Circulation Area = Stair Room + Entrance Hall = 18 + 5 = 23 m2
Floor Area Ratio = Plinth Area of all Floors / Plot Area =(150+150) / (12x18)
=300/216 = 1.389
1.2 BUILDING MATERIAL
Building material or construction material is the material used for building or constructing the structures
like building, dams, roads, etc.
Example:
Solid materials like stone, sand, timber, steel
Binding materials like cement, lime, mortar
Protective materials like paint, varnish, plaster

1.3 STONE
Stone is naturally available building material, which has been used from the early age of
civilization.
It is available in the form of rocks and is cut to required size and shape and used as
building block.
It is used to construct residential buildings of small size to large forts and huge dams.

1.3.1 TYPES OF STONES

Stones are obtained from rocks. Based on their origin of formation, rocks are classified into three main
groups -igneous rocks (granite and basalt), sedimentary rocks (sand stone and lime stone) and
metamorphic rocks (marble and slate).

1.3.2USES OF STONE
Stones are used in construction of buildings from ancient times. The parts of buildings like
foundations, walls, columns, lintels, roofs and arches are built with stones.
Stone blocks are used in construction of bridge piers and abutments.
Stone blocks are used in construction of big dams.
Stones slabs are used for flooring
Stone panels are used for face works of buildings
Stone blocks are used in paving of roads and footpaths
Stone aggregates are used as railway ballast
Stones are used as basic inert material in concrete.
Stones are used as flux in blast furnace

1.3.3 PROPERTIES OR CHARACTERISTICS OF STONE

Strength, hardness, porosity and water absorption, toughness, resistance to fire and ease in dressing, etc.

1.3.4 QUALITIES (REQUIREMENTS) OF A GOOD BUILDING STONE

It should be hard and its crushing strength value should be > 100 N/mm2
Its color should be uniform & not affected by weathering
It should be durable, i.e. its properties should not be affected by weathering
It should have acid resistance and it should be free from soluble matter
It should be easily dress-able, i.e. it can be easily or with less effort, moulded, cut, carved
and smoothened
It should have compact and fine crystalline structure
Its surface should be free from cavities & cracks
Its fracture should be sharp, even and clear
It should not be easily affected by fire
Its surface should be dry (free from moisture)
Its specific gravity value should be greater than 2.7
Its total water absorption value by weight should be < 0.6 %

1.3.5 TESTS CONDUCTED ON STONES.

1. Crushing Strength Test: This test is conducted to know the static load at which the stone fails or is
crushed. For conducting this test, specimen is prepared from parent stone and tested under the
compression testing machine. The crushing load is noted. Then crushing strength is equal to the crushing
load divided by the area of specimen over which the load is applied.
2. Water Absorption Test: This test is conducted to know the amount of water absorbed by the stone.
The specimen is weighed when it is completely dry and free from moisture. Then it is immersed in water
for 24 hours and surface cleaned and the wet weight is taken. The difference between these 2 readings
gives the weight of water absorbed by stone.
3. Abrasion Test: This test is carried out on stones which are used as aggregates for road construction.
The test result indicates the suitability of stones against the grinding action under traffic. Any one of Los
Angeles abrasion test, Devals abrasion test or Dorrys abrasion test may be conducted to find out the
suitability of aggregates.
Los Angeles abrasion test is commonly followed as it gives near accurate results. Steel balls of specified
dimensions are mixed with test specimen in a big motorized steel drum which recreates the effect of
grinding effect by traffic. The abrasion value is the percentage of fines. For bituminous mixes
recommended value is 30% and for base course it is 50%
4. Impact Test: Impact strength of stones means their resistance to falling load. It is found by using
impact testing machine. A specified weight is made fall freely over the given specimen for specified
times. The fines are weighed and impact strength of total sample is expressed as the percent of fines and it
is known as impact value. For wearing course recommended value of impact value is 30%, for
bituminous macadam 35% and for water bound macadam 40%.
5. Acid Test: This test is normally carried out on sand stones to check the presence of calcium carbonate,
which weakens the weather resisting quality. In this test, a sample of stone is kept in a solution of one per
cent hydrochloric acid for seven days. A good building stone maintains its sharp edges and keeps its
surface intact. If edges are broken and powder is formed on the surface, it indicates the presence of
calcium carbonate. Such stones will have poor weather resistance.

1.4 BRICK
Brick is a building block like stone and after stone it is the oldest building block being used. Brick is
obtained by moulding good clay into a block of required dimensions, which is dried and then burnt.

1.4.1 MANUFACTURE OF THE BURNT CLAY BRICKS

The steps in the manufacture of the burnt clay bricks are
1) Preparation of earth:
It consists of the following steps,
Removal of loose soil of about 20 cm is done as it contains lot of impurities
Digging, spreading and cleaning of the soil is done to remove all undesirable matters like
stones, vegetable matter, etc.
Weathering of soil is permitted for weeks to full season for its softening
Blending of soil with its ingredients is done by taking a small portion of clay and turning it
up and down in vertical direction.
Tempering is done by adding water to soil-clay mixture and kneading by men or cattle or
pug mill to make it homogeneous and plastic.
2) Moulding: The tempered mixture is moulded into wooden or steel moulds of required dimensions over
ground or table either by men or machines. Table moulded bricks have plane surfaces than ground
moulded bricks. Machine moulded bricks have smooth surfaces, sharp edges and corners and hence are of
high quality.
3) Drying: Bricks are dried for about 5 to 12 days in drying yards before burning, else they will wrap
due to sudden evaporation of moisture.
4) Burning: Dried bricks are burnt to impart strength into them. Since both under burnt and over burnt
bricks dont posses required strength, bricks need to be burnt for specified time only. Burning of bricks is
done in kilns or clamps.
1.4.2 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD QUALITY BRICK The
requirements of a good quality brick that is to be used for construction are:
Color should be uniform and bright copper colour or brick red colour
Size should be standard and uniform
They should have shape with flat surface faces and perfect right angled edges
They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture and they should not possess fissures,
voids, loose grit and un-burnt lime.
When struck with each other clear ringing sound should be produced
Water absorption should not be greater than 20 % when immersed in water for 24 hours
Weight of each brick should be from 3 to 3.5 kg
Crushing strength should be > 3.5 N/mm2
Thermal conductivity should be less and should be soundproof
No efflorescence (deposits of salts when immersed in water) should appear
They should posses hard, cracks-free surface and show no impression when scratched with
nail
Should not break when dropped flat from height of 1 m
Fire resistance of bricks is usually high.

1.4.3 VARIOUS CLASSES OF BRICKS

First Class: They are table moulded, with uniform crimson red colour and size, perfect edges and are
properly burnt
Second Class: They are ground moulded, with slightly dark red colour, non perfect edges and are slightly
over burnt
Third Class: They are ground moulded, with light colour, uneven edges and surface and are under burnt
Fourth Class: They are ground moulded, with dark red colour, broken edges and surface and are over
burnt

1.4.4 TYPES OF BRICKS.

Building Bricks
Paving Bricks and Fire Bricks
Special Bricks like specially shaped bricks, facing bricks, perforated building bricks, burnt
clay hollow bricks, sewer bricks and acid resistant bricks

1.4.5 USES OF BRICKS.

Bricks are used in masonry as building blocks to be used in walls, columns, foundations,
arches, etc.
They are used to build dams, bridges, etc.
They are used as building blocks in laying drains, sewers and floor.
They are used as refractory material in constructing ovens, furnace and chimneys, etc.
High quality bricks are used for ornamental works
First quality bricks are used for facing of walls without plastering
Bricks are used to protect steel columns from fire.
Brick bats or broken pieces of bricks are used as aggregates in concrete

1.4.6 ADVANTAGES OF BRICKS

Bricks can be easily manufactured from locally available cheap raw materials
The manufacturing process of bricks can be mechanised and hence more labour is not
required
The bricks can be manufactured of required uniform shape and size
Bricks have less unit weight than stone and hence it has less self weight
Due to their lesser weight than stone, bricks are easier to handle and cheaper to transport
 Bricks are more sound proof than stone

1.4.7 DISADVANTAGES OF BRICKS

Manufacture of bricks require burning which consumes lot of fuel and causes air pollution
Bricks cannot be dried during rainy season and hence manufacturing process is hindered
Bricks are more brittle than stone and their edges gets damaged easily during handling and
transporting
Bricks are less harder and less durable than stone
Generally brick masonry requires plastering as they are less resistant to weathering and
absorb water
Its life is less and hence maintenance cost is more

1.4.8 CONSTITUENTS OF BRICKS

The constituents of bricks:
Silica : It forms 50 % - 60 % of bricks and gives shape, prevents cracking, shrinkage and wrapping
Alumina : It constitutes 20 % - 30 % and gives plasticity to bricks
Lime : It is added up to 5% and used to prevents shrinkage and melts bricks
Iron oxide: It is added from 5 % - 6% to give red colour to bricks
Magnesia : It is added in small quantity to give yellow tint and to decrease shrinkage

1.5 CEMENT
Cement is a commonly used binding material in construction. It is in powdery form and mixed with water
to undergo hydration to form a hard and strong building material. It can be used in mortar as a covering
and bonding material and in concrete as building material.

1.5.1CONSTITUENTS OF CEMENT
The Basic constituents of cement are
Lime : 62 % is added to cement to give its binding property
Silica : 22 % is added to give strength to cement
Alumina : 5% is added to help in hydration of cement
Calcium sulphate: 4% retards setting time of cement gypsum
Iron oxide : 3% is added to give colour and to help in hydration of cement
Magnesia : 2% is added to help in hydration of cement
Sulphur : 1% is present as impurity
Alkalis : 1% is added to help in hydration of cement

1.5.2 TYPES OF CEMENT AND THEIR USES

Table 1.1 Types of cement and their uses
Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is used in all common cement works as mortar and
concrete
Portland Pozzolanic Cement (PPC) is used where sulphate resistance is required
White Cement is used for ornamental purposes and for fixing
marbles and glazed tiles
Coloured Cement is used for finishing touches to floors, walls, etc.
Expanding Cement is used in repair works
Low Heat Cement is used in construction of dams and other massive
structures
Quick Setting Cement is used in under water construction
Rapid Hardening Cement is used in rapid construction works
Acid Resistant Cement is used in flooring of chemical factories
Sulphate Resisting Cement is used in lining canals, culverts, etc.
Blast Furnace Cement Is used for lining chimneys, furnaces, etc
1.5.3 GRADE OF CEMENT
The ordinary Portland cement is represented by its characteristic compressive strength at 28 days,
expressed in N/mm2. The types of grades of cement are 33, 43 and 53.

1.5.4 SETTING OF CEMENT

When water is added to cement, cement undergoes hydration - an exothermic chemical reaction, to form
various chemical compounds which gives strength to the cement and results in its hardening. This process
is called hardening or setting of cement.
1.5.5 CURING OF CEMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE
During the setting of cement, the heat evolved due to hydration of cement (exothermic reaction) causes
the evaporation of water which is present for further reaction. To compensate this water loss, water is
added frequently during the setting period of cement. This process of adding water is called curing.
If curing water is not added setting is not completed and cement will not attain its required strength.
1.5.6 PRODUCTS OF HYDRATION OF CEMENT OR SETTING OF CEMENT
Tri-calcium silicate 3CaO SiO2 (C3S)
Di-calcium silicate 2CaO SiO2 (C2S)
Tri-calcium aluminate 3CaO Al2O3 (C3A)
Tetra-calcium aluminate 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 (C3AF)

1.5.7 Properties of cement

Its color should be uniform
It should be dry fine powder without lumps
Its specific gravity should be 3.15 and it should sink in water
It should be cool and uniform when touched
It should have fineness of 2250 mm2/gm of specific surface
Its initial setting time shall not be less than 30 minutes
Its final setting time shall not be greater than 10 hours
When it undergoes Soundness test its expansion shall not be greater than 20 mm
It should be easily workable and when mixed with water and should posses good plasticity
and binding property

1.5.8 USES OF CEMENT

It is the extensively used building material in construction as binding material in mortar,
concrete, etc
It is used in mortar for wall masonry and plastering of walls, ceilings, etc. and also in floor
finishing
It is part of concrete which is widely used construction material for constructing buildings,
dams, bridges, etc.
Concrete with steel as RCC are used in foundation, column, wall, beam, roof, floor, etc.
White & coloured cement are used for decorating works like wall plastering
Cement is used to manufacture cement sheets / panels to be used in roofs, walls, etc.
Cement is used to make pipes for transporting water and other liquids.
Cement is used to manufacture blocks to be used in for walls, foot paths, etc.
Cement is used to make tiles for using in floors, roofs, etc

1.6 MORTAR
Mortar is a mixture of a binding material like cement, water and fine aggregate like sand. It forms a wet
paste while mixing and becomes strong after setting. Cement mortar and lime mortar are examples for
mortar.
1.6.1CEMENT MORTAR
Cement mortar is a mixture of a binding material (cement), water and the fine aggregate sand. It forms a
wet paste while mixing and becomes strong after setting. It is used for plastering of walls and for bonding
bricks in wall masonry.

1.6.2 INGREDIENTS OF MORTAR

Binding material (like lime or cement)
Fine aggregate (like sand or crushed rock)
Water

1.6.3 PROPERTIES OF MORTAR

It should be cheap and durable
It should be easily workable
It should have good binding with brick, stone, etc.
It should not crack in joints
It should set and harden quickly
It should have resistance to rain water after setting
It should have required strength
It should be tough and durable after hardening
It should have resistance to fire and weathering

1.6.4 TESTS ON MORTAR

Crushing Test
Tensile Strength Test
Adhesive Test

1.6.5 USES OF MORTAR

Cement mortar is used as bonding material in masonry to bond bricks or stones
It is used for plastering walls and ceilings and finishing floors and slabs, etc.
It is used as finishing material in all concrete works
It is used in manufacturing building blocks
It is used in ferro cement works
It is used as filler material in stone masonry
It is used for pointing of masonry work
It is used in laying tiles, marbles, etc to bind them with floor as well as with each other
It is used in repair works
It is used as wearing course for roads, floors, etc.

1.7 CONCRETE
Concrete is a mixture of binding material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. It can be easily
moulded to desired shape when it is wet and workable. After setting of the binding material (cement) it
hardens like stone.

1.7.1 CONSTITUENTS OF CONCRETE

Binding material (like lime or cement)
Fine aggregate (like sand or crushed rock)
Coarse aggregate (like stone or brick bats)
Water
1.7.2 CONCRETE GRADE
The concrete mix is represented by its characteristic compressive strength at 28 days expressed in N/mm 2.
This is denoted by adding the prefix M such as M15, M20, etc.

1.7.3 FACTORS AFFECTING COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CONCRETE

The various factors affecting the compressive strength of concrete are:
Cement content
Strength of fine aggregates and coarse aggregates
Water cement ratio
Quality of water used
Presence of air voids
Admixtures
Compaction of concrete
Period of curing
Age of concrete

1.7.4 TYPES OF CONCRETE

Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
Pre-stressed Concrete (PSC)
Light Weight Concrete
Aerated Concrete
High Density Concrete
No-fines Concrete
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) contains reinforcement rods (like steel) embedded inside the
concrete members. Concrete is good in compression but weak in tension. Hence some materials like steel
which have good tensile strength are used as reinforcement in concrete. RCC is very common building
material and is used in all parts of a building such as roof, staircase, lintel, sunshade, beam, column,
footing, etc.

1.7.5 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE

Concrete is the widely used construction material in Earth, almost no structure is built
without concrete
Concrete is like plastic and workable when fresh i.e. when wet. It can be moulded to any
shape based on form work.
Concrete can be manufactured of any desired strength by proportioning its ingredients.
It shrinks during hardening due to loss of water and hence curing is done. It also shrinks
with age, but to a negligible extent.
Concrete is durable, fire resistance and water proof, once it has hardened
It is economical, its strength to cost ratio is high.
It is strong in compression but weak in tension. By using steel reinforcements, (RCC) can
withstand both tension and compression.
It is maintenance free and no strength is lost with age

1.7.6 USES OF CONCRETE

Bed concrete is used below column footings, wall footings and on wall at supports to
beams
In pavements and for making building blocks
RCC is used in structural element like footings, columns, beams, lintels, roof slabs
 It is used for the construction of storage structures (water tanks, dams, silos and bunkers),
big structures (bridges, retaining walls, docks, harbours and under water structures) and
tall structures (multi storey buildings, chimneys and towers)
It is used for pre-casting in making railway sleepers and electric poles
It should be cheap and durable
It should be easily workable
It should have good binding with brick, stone, etc.
It should not crack in joints
It should set and harden quickly
It should have resistance to rain water after setting
It should have required strength
It should be tough and durable after hardening
It should have resistance to fire and weathering

1.7.7 MANUFACTURING OF CONCRETE

Batching is the measurement of materials for making concrete like cement, water, sand and stones.
Concrete can be weight batched or volume batched. In volume batching, cement, sand and stones are
batched by their volume with help of wooden box or metal container. It gives varying degree of mix
proportions as the stones and sand have varying volume. In weight batching, cement, sand and stones are
batched by their weight. It gives accurate mix proportions and hence high quality concrete.
Mixing is the process of blending the constituents of concrete together either by hand or machine. First
cement, sand and stones are blended to form uniform color and then water is added to it. This mixture is
mixed thoroughly such that the water mixes with cement and should not result in separation of the
constituents.
Transporting of the above mixture is done by manual, wheel burrows, conveyor belts, chutes, mixer
trucks, etc. to the place where it has to be placed.
Placing of the above mixture is done manually or by chutes or pipes in to its form works and it is ensured
that it is not dropped.
Compacting is done to expel the entrapped air voids either by hand or vibrator. Vibrators are may be
external type like form works or internal type like needle or plate vibrators. Excess vibration as well as
less vibrations result in loss of concretes strength.
Curing is the process of adding water to maintain satisfactory moisture and temperature conditions for
setting of cement. During the setting of cement, the heat evolved due to hydration of cement (exothermic
reaction) causes the evaporation of water which is present for further reaction. To compensate this water
loss, water is added frequently during the setting period of cement. If curing water is not added setting is
not completed and cement will not attain its required strength. It can be done by spraying of water,
covering the surface with wet gunny bags, straw etc, by ponding, steam curing and application of curing
compounds.

1.7.8 MAIN PURPOSE REINFORCEMENT IS USED IN CONCRETE

Concrete is good in compression but weak in tension. Hence some materials like steel which have good
tensile strength are used as reinforcement in concrete and are embedded inside the concrete. RCC is very
common building material and is used in all parts of a building.

1.8 STEEL
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (0.25 % to 1.5 %). It is the most common metal as well as high
strength material used as building material.

1.8.1 TYPES OF STEEL

Mild steel - carbon content from 0.10 % to 0.25 &
Medium carbon steel - carbon content from 0.25 % to 0.60 &
High carbon steel and - carbon content from 0.60 % to 1.5
1.8.2 PROPERTIES OF STEEL
It has high tensile strength and compressive strength.
It is can be welded and forged
It is ductile and malleable
Its specific gravity is 7.85 and its melting point is around 1400C
Its Youngs Modulus is 2.10 x 105 N/mm2
It can be magnetised permanently

1.8.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF STEEL

Advantages of steel:
It has good tension as well as compression strength.
Its strength to mass ratio is high than the other construction materials and the structures are
light weight.
Its cost to strength ratio is higher.
Disadvantages of steel:
The major disadvantage of steel is that it undergoes rusting or corrosion.
It is due to the oxidation of steel.
It can be prevented by avoiding the direct exposure of the steel to atmosphere, by coating it
with paints or protective chemicals or by galvanisation. Hence maintenance of steel is
costlier.

1.8.4 USES OF STEEL

Various sections of steel bars are used as reinforcement in RCC works, as columns, beams,
trusses etc
Steel sheets are used as roofing materials and as walls for water tanks, etc.
Steel is used in making parts of various machines and for making all kinds of tools

1.8.5 PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL

It is ductile, malleable and more elastic
It has fibrous structure and can be magnetized permanently
Its specific gravity is 7.8 and its Youngs modulus is 2.1 105 N/mm2
It can be forged and welded
It is equally strong in tension and in compression
Its melting point > 1400C

1.8.6 USES OF MILD STEEL

It is used as reinforcing bars in RCC
As angles & other sections, bars or rods, sheets or plates, it is used in construction of
structural members
Used in machine parts, motor body, tubes, wires, sheet plate, tin metal, etc.
It is also used for manufacturing rails, cranes, towers, etc.
It is used in making permanent magnets

1.8.7 PROPERTIES OF MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

Its strength is more than that of mild steel
It cannot be easily forged and welded
It can withstand shocks and vibrations
It can be hardened to little extent
It is tougher and harder than mild steel
1.8.8 USES OF MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
It is used as structural steel as various sections (rod, bar, flat, channels, I and L
angles and T sections)
It is also used to make boiler plates, rails, hammers, pressing dies, etc

1.8.9 PROPERTIES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL

It has granular structure and can be magnetised permanently
It is readily forged and welded
It is tougher than mild steel and it can withstand shocks and vibrations
It can be easily hardened and tempered
Its specific gravity ~ 7.9 and melting point is > 1300C

1.8.10 USES OF HIGH CARBON STEEL

It is used to make sledge hammers, springs, smiths tools, metal cutting tools, planning machines, wood
working tools, axes & hammers, mining equipments, drill bits, stone masons' tools and knives & forks,
etc.

1.8.11 VARIOUS FORMS OF REINFORCING STEEL

Mild steel round rods, tor steel rods, steel strands or wires, flat bars, special sections like L, I, C, T,
etc.

1.8.12 COMPARE ORDINARY STEEL WITH MILD STEEL

Unlike ordinary mild steel bars which has plain surface, tor steel has ribbed perimeter and it is
used in RCC as reinforcement. Its area of contact with concrete is more when compared to mild steel rod
of same diameter. Therefore its bonding strength with concrete is higher than that of mild steel rods.
Tor steel is also tempered while manufacturing and hence it has high strength than mild steel.

1.8.13 COMPARES THE PROPERTIES OF THREE TYPES OF STEEL

Table 1.2 Compare the properties of three types of steel
Medium carbon
Property Mild steel High carbon steel
steel
Carbon content 0.10 % to 0.25 % 0.25 % to 0.60 % 0.60 % to 1.50 %
Molecular structure Fibrous structure Granular structure
Ductility More ductile Medium ductile Less ductile
Specific gravity 7.8 7.8 - 7.9 7.9
Weld-ability & forge-ability Easily done Cannot be done Easily done
Cannot be
Magnetisation Easily magnetised Easily magnetised
magnetised
Melting point > 1400C > 1350 C > 1300C
Higher than mild
Strength High Highest
steel
Hardening & tempering Not possible To little extent Can be done
Higher than mild Higher than mild
Toughness & hardness High
steel steel
Shocks & vibrations Cannot withstand Can withstand Can withstand

1.9 CLASSIFICATION OF AGGREGATES BASED ON GRAIN SIZE

Aggregates are broadly classified in to 2 types based on size, coarse aggregate and fine aggregate.
Coarse aggregates have particle size > 4.75 mm. Ordinary stones and pebbles are example for coarse
aggregates.
Fine aggregates have particle size < 4.75 mm. Common sand and all natural soils are example for fine
aggregates.
IS classification of aggregate
Boulder is large rocks whose size is > 300 mm. Rock formations are blasted into the size of boulders and
cobbles and which are then crushed into common stone sizes.
Cobble is medium sized rock or big stone whose size is in range of 300 mm to 80 mm. cobbles can be
used as building blocks in walls, foundations, etc.
Gravel is small sized stone whose size is in range of 80 mm to 4.75 mm. it is further divided into 2 types,
coarse gravel (80 mm - 20 mm) and fine gravel (20 mm - 4.75 mm)
Sand has the size limit from 4.75 mm to 75 micron. It is further divided into 3 types, coarse sand (4.75
mm - 2 mm), medium sand (2 mm - 425 micron) and fine sand (425 micron - 75 micron). Generally all
the soils fall in this category based on size.
Silt or very fine sand has the microscopic particle size range from 75 micron to 2 micron
Clay has the least size with microscopic particle size < 2 micron. Due to its fine size, clay acts as a liquid
when mixed with water, though it is basically a solid.

UNIT 2

2. BUILDINGS AND THEIR COMPONENTS

2.1 BASIC COMPONENTS OF THE BUILDING
Sub-structure - below ground level (foundation)
Super-structure - above ground level (wall, roof, floor, wall, lintel, column, beam, roof, stairs, sunshade)

2.1.1STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING

Foundation, slab, lintel, column, beam are the structural components of a building which transfers load

2.1.2 COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING

Building is basically divided into sub-structure which is below ground level (foundation) and super-
structure which is above ground level (wall, roof, etc.)
Generally foundations are the part of substructure. All other components of buildings such as floors,
walls, lintels, columns, beams, roofs, doors, windows, stairs, sunshades, etc. forms its superstructure.
Foundation, floor, wall, lintel, column, beam, roof, stairs, sunshade are some of the parts of a building.
Among them, foundation, slab, lintel, column, beam are the structural components of a building which
transfers load

Fig 2.1 Components of a Building

2.1.3 FUNCTIONS OF THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING

1. Foundation: Foundation is the most important part of the building. It is the lower most part of the
building. It transfers the load of the building to the ground below it.
2. Plinth: The portion of the wall between the ground level and the ground floor level is called plinth. It
is usually of stone masonry. If the foundation is on piles, a plinth beam is cast to support wall above floor
level. At the top of plinth a damp proof course is provided. The function of the plinth is to keep the
ground floor above ground level, free of dampness. Its height is provided not less than 450 mm and plinth
level is at least 150 mm above the road level to provide connections to underground drainage system.
3. Walls & Columns: The function of walls and columns is to transfer the load of the structure vertically
downwards to transfer it to foundation. Columns are used in framed structure and walls are used in load
bearing structure. Apart from this wall performs the function of dividing building area into different
compartments and provides privacy.
4. Beam: Beam is a horizontal member that transfers the load of a roof or floor slab to the wall or
columns that support it. It can be made of wood or stone for small spans and RCC or steel for longer
spans.
5. Lintels: Lintels are the RCC or stone beams provided over the door and window openings to transfer
the load transversely so as to see that door or window frame is not stressed unduly. The width of lintels is
equal to the width of wall while thickness to be provided depends upon the opening size.
6. Doors and Windows: The function of a door is to give access to different rooms in the building and to
deny the access whenever necessary. The size of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate
the movement of the largest object likely to use the door.
Windows are provided to get light and ventilation in the building. In hot and humid regions, the window
area should be 15 to 20 percent of the floor area.
7. Floors: Floor divides the building into different levels or storeys. It also provides the horizontal plane
surface where the various functions of a building occur. Example: in a residential building people live or
reside on floors and in storage building things are stored on floor. A floor of upper level also acts as roof
of lower level. The ground floor provided damp proofing to the building above it
8. Roof: Roof is the top most portion of the building which provides top cover to the building. It
should be durable against weather - rain, sun, wind cold and snow. It should give water proofing and fire
proofing, thermal insulation and sound insulation.
9. Step, Stairs and Lifts: Steps give convenient access from ground level to ground floor level. They are
required at doors in the outer wall. Number of steps required depends upon the difference in the levels of
the ground and the floor. Stairs give access from floor to floor. They should consist of steps of uniform
sizes. In all public buildings lifts are to be provided for the conveniences of old and disabled persons. Lift
is to be located near the entrance. Size of the lift is decided by the number of users in peak hours.
10. Finishing: Bottom portion of slab (ceiling), walls and top of floor need smooth finishing with
plaster. Then they are provided with white wash, distemper or paints or tiles. The function of finishing
work is to give protective cover, improve aesthetic view and rectify defective workmanship. Damp proof
course is provided on the ground floor level and the weathering course is provided on the top of the roof
slab.
11. Building Services: Water supply, sanitation and drainage works, electric supply work and
construction of cupboards and show cases constitute major building services.

2.2 SOIL
Soil is the un-aggregated deposits of minerals and organic particles covering large portion of the earths
crust. It is produced by the weathering of the soil rock.

2.2.1TYPES OF SOIL WITH THEIR USES AND PROPERTIES

Soils are classified into
Cohesive soils (with fine grained size: example clay)
Non-cohesive soils (with coarse grained size: example sand)
Soils are formed from weathering of rocks. They are called as fine aggregates. Their particle size is less
than 4.75 mm. Soils are broadly classified into 2 types based on their grain size, cohesive soils and non-
cohesive soils.
Cohesive soils are fine grained soils with their particle size less than 75 microns (1 micron = 1/1000 th of a
millimetre) and non-cohesive soils are coarse grained soils with their particle size greater than 75
microns.
Clay is example for cohesive soil. River sand is example for non-cohesive soil. Silt is combination of
cohesive and non-cohesive soils.
Cohesive soils derive their strength due to attraction between particles of the soils. Non-cohesive soils
derive their strength due to friction or interlocking between particles of the soils.
River sands are used in construction as a basic ingredient in mortar and concrete. Clay is used in the
manufacturing process of various building materials like bricks.

2.2.2 BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

The load carrying capacity of soils is called as their bearing capacity. In another words the property of
soils to take the loads without failing is known as bearing capacity of soils.

2.2.2.1FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Magnitude and type of load on the soil
Type, shape, size and depth of footing
Depth of water table below foundation
Permeability and moisture content of soil
Cohesion and angle of internal friction of the grains of the soil
Density and compactness of soil

2.2.2.2 METHODS TO IMPROVE THE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

Increasing depth of foundation
 Draining the soil
Cement grouting or chemical treatment
Confining the soil or compacting the soil (by ramming moist soil, sand piles, rubble
compaction, pre-loading, flooding the soil, vibrating the soil or Vibro-flotation method)

2.2.3 ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

The maximum load the soil can carry without failure is known as its ultimate bearing capacity.

2.2.4 SAFE BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL

The maximum load the soil can carry safely without the risk of failure is known as its safe bearing
capacity.

2.2.5 FACTOR OF SAFETY

Factor of safety is factor by which the ultimate bearing capacity of soil is reduced in order to
accommodate the possibilities of risks in failure of soil.
Mathematically, Factor of safety = ultimate bearing capacity / safe bearing capacity.

2.3 FOUNDATION
Foundation is part of the sub-structure of a building, which is below the ground level and in direct
contact with the ground. It safely transmits and spreads the load from the superstructure to the soil below
it.
Based on the depth of foundations, they are divided into shallow foundation whose width is more than
their depth and deep foundation whose depth is more than their width
The various shallow foundations are:
Footing
Strap footing
Raft or mat footing
Grillage foundation
Footings are divided into simple footing, sloped footing and stepped footing based on the design and
are divided into isolated footing, continuous footing and combined footing based on orientation
The various deep foundations are:
Pile foundation
Pier foundation
Well foundation
Caisson foundation
Piles are divided into end bearing pile, friction pile and combined end bearing & friction pile based on
load transfer and are divided into timber piles, concrete piles, steel piles and composite piles based on
material of construction.

2.3.1 DEEP FOUNDATIONS

Deep foundations are those foundations whose depth is more than their width. They are constructed when
the bearing capacity of soils are too less to take load from shallow foundations or the loads from the
structure are very high.
The various deep foundations are:
Pile foundation
Pier foundation
Well foundation
Caisson foundation
1. Pile foundation:
Piles are slender cylindrical members used as foundations to transfer loads from substructure to the
soil below it. A group of piles are connected at ground level by a pile cap and the substructure is
constructed above the pile cap. Piles are divided into end bearing pile, friction pile and combined end
bearing & friction pile based on load transfer

Fig 2.2 Types of Pile foundation

Fig 2.3 Types of Pier foundation

 Fig 2.4 Well foundation

2.3.2 SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Shallow foundations are those foundations whose width is more than their depth. They are constructed
when the bearing capacity of soils is sufficient to take load from foundations or the loads from the
structure are within reasonable limit.
The various shallow foundations are:
Footings
Strap footing
Raft or mat foundation
Grillage foundation

2.3.2.1 FOOTING
Footing may be provided for a column or wall or combinations of these two. It is the basic form of
foundation. The member (column or wall) is provided with a base below it whose width is such that an
offset is provided around the perimeter of the cross section of the member. By doing so, the load on the
member is spread to the soil below the footings.
2.3.2.2 TYPES OF FOOTINGS
1. Isolated footing
An isolated footing is provided under column to transfer the load safely to the soil bed. If the column is
loaded lightly, a spread is given under the base of the column. This spread is known as footing. For heavy
loaded column, the total width of the footing may be very high. This is attained in three or four steps and
is called stepped footing. If the total width of the footing is attained by gradually increasing the width
towards the bottom, then it is called sloped footing.
If the footing is provided throughout the length of the wall in the case of load bearing walls, then it is
called wall footing. Wall footings can be either simple or stepped footings.
 Fig 2.5 Isolated footing

2. Combined footing
If a footing is constructed for two or more columns is called as combined footing. The shape of the
combined footing is proportioned in such a way that the centre of gravity of the resultant area is in the
same vertical line as the centre of gravity of the loads. Generally, the shape of the footings is rectangular
or trapezoidal.

Fig 2.6 Combined footing

3. Cantilever footing
Cantilever footing consists of an eccentric footing for the exterior column and a concentric footing for the
interior column and they are connected by a strap or a cantilever beam. Such footings are used when it is
not possible to place a footing directly below a column because of limitations of boundary or eccentric
loading conditions. The load from the exterior column is balanced by a load of the interior column acting
about a fulcrum.
4. Continuous footing
In this type of footing, a single continuous R.C. slab is provided as foundation for three or more columns
in a row. This type of footing is more suitable to prevent the differential settlement in the structure and for
the safety against earthquake.

Fig 2.7 Continuous footing

5. Inverted arch footing

In this type of footing, inverted arches are constructed between the two walls at the base as shown in fig.
It is suitable for soil of low bearing capacity and when the depth of foundation is to be kept less.
The end columns must be strong enough to resist the outward pressure caused by arch action. This type of
foundation is suitable for bridges, reservoirs tanks

Fig 2.8 Inverted arch foot

6. Strap footings:

Fig 2.9 Strap footings

2.3.2.3 RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION
When the loads are heavy and the space for foundation base is less or bearing capacity of soil is low, Raft
or Mat foundations are provided. They are like an inverted slab-beam column system.
 Fig 2.10 Mat foundation

2.3.2.4 GRILLAGE FOUNDATION

Grillage foundations are provided for heavily loaded steel columns with soils of low bearing capacity.

Fig 2.11 Grillage foundation

2.3.3 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATIONS

The functions of foundation are:
To transfer the load of the building to the soil below it
To distribute the load uniformly so that the load intensity below foundation is less than soil
bearing capacity
To provide a level base and support for superstructure
To give stability against earthquake, wind, etc.
To prevent cracks due to moisture or wet soil
To give stability against tilting and overturning due to the lateral pressure on superstructure
To provide protection from burrowing animals and termites
To provide stability against unequal settlement of sub-soil or masonry
To give stability against lateral movement of sub-soil

2.3.4 CAUSES OF FAILURE OF FOUNDATION

Inadequate bearing capacity of soil
Unequal settlement of sub-soil
Lateral pressure on superstructure
Lateral movement of sub-soil
Unequal settlement of masonry
2.3.5 REMEDIAL METHODS FOR FAILURE OF FOUNDATIONS
Increasing the bearing capacity of soil
Distributing the load evenly on soil by suitable design and construction of foundation
Designing the loads and components of structure like walls, columns and foundations such
that it results in uniform or zero settlement and also negligible lateral pressure on
superstructure
Arresting the lateral movement of soil by constructing retaining walls, etc

2.4 MASONRY
Masonry is the part of building which is constructed using the building units or blocks such as bricks or
stones and are bonded together with binding material like mortar (lime or cement mortar). Normally walls
are constructed by masonry, but foundation, plinth and columns are also constructed with masonry.

2.4.1 TYPES OF MASONRY

Brick masonry,
Stone masonry
Concrete block masonry

2.4.2 TYPES OF STONE MASONRY

2.4.2.1 RUBBLE MASONRY
In this type of masonry, stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. The stones, as obtained from quarry,
are taken in use in the same form or they are broken and shaped in suitable sizes by means of hammer as
the work proceeds.
1. Random rubble masonry: In this type of masonry, the stones used are of widely different sizes. This
is the roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry.
In this coursed random rubble masonry, the masonry work is carried out in courses such that the stones
are of equal heights.
In un-coursed random rubble masonry, the masonry courses are not maintained regularly. The larger
stones are laid first and the spaces between them then filled up by means of spalls or snecks.

Fig 2.12 Un coursed rubble masonry Coursed rubble masonry

2. Square rubble masonry

In this type of masonry stones having straight bed and sides are used. The stones are usually squared and
brought to a hammer dressed or straight cut finish.
In the coursed square rubble masonry, the work is carried out in courses of varying depth.
In the un-coursed square rubble masonry, the different sizes of stones having straight edges and sides are
arranged on face in several irregular patterns.
Fig 2.12 Un coursed square rubble masonry Coursed square rubble masonry
3. Polygonal rubble masonry
In this type of rubble masonry, the stones are hammer dressed. The stones used for face work are dressed
in an irregular polygonal shape. Thus the face joints are seen running in an irregular fashion in all
directions.

4. Flint rubble masonry

In this type of rubble masonry, stones used are flints or cobbles. There are irregularly shaped nodules of
silica. The stones are extremely hard. But they are brittle and therefore they break easily. The face
arrangements may either coursed or un-coursed.

Fig 2.13 Flint rubble masonry

5. Dry rubble masonry
In this type of masonry, mortar is not used in the joints. This type of constructions is the cheapest and
requires mare skill in constructions. This may be used for non-head bearings walls such as compound
wall etc.
Advantages of rubble masonry
Rubble masonry is cheaper than ashlar masonry as cutting and dressing of stones are not
required and hence less labour and cost.
Rubble masonry is easier to construct than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry requires less skilled labour than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry is faster to construct than ashlar masonry
Disadvantages of rubble masonry
Rubble masonry gives unpleasant look than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry requires more than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry cannot be used for facing works like compound walls and outer walls.
They are preferred for foundations and unimportant works.
 2.4.2.2 ASHLAR MASONRY
In this type of constructions, no irregular stones are used. The stones used in this masonry are
rectangular blocks and are all dressed finely with chisel. The courses are not necessarily of the same
height. It may vary from 25 to 30cm. Following are the different types of ashlar masonry.
1. Ashlar fine masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, each stone is cut to uniform size and shape with all sides rectangular,
so that the stone gives perfectly horizontal and vertical joints with adjoining stone. This type of ashlar
masonry is very costly.

Fig 2.14 Ashlar fine masonry

2. Ashlar rough tooled masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, the beds and sides are finely chisel-dressed. But the face is made
rough by means of tools. A strip, about 25mm wide and made by means of a chisel is provided around the
perimeter of the rough dressed face of each stone.
3. Ashlar rock or quarry faced masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, a strip about 25mm wide and made by means of chisel is provided
around the perimeter of every stone as in case of rough- tooled ashlar masonry. But the remaining portion
of the face is left in the same form as received from quarry.
4. Ashlar chamfered masonry
In this type of ashlar masonry, the strip is provided as above. But is chambered or bevelled at an
angle of 45 degrees by means of chisel for a depth of about 25mm.

Fig 2.15 Ashlar chamfered masonry

5. Ashlar block-in-coarse masonry
This is combination of rubble masonry and ashlar masonry. In this type of masonry, the face work is
provided with rough tooled or harmer dressed stones and backing of the wall may be made in rubble
masonry.
Disadvantages of ashlar masonry
 Rubble masonry is cheaper than ashlar masonry as cutting and dressing of stones are
not required and hence less labour and cost.
Rubble masonry is easier to construct than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry requires less skilled labour than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry is faster to construct than ashlar masonry
Advantage of ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry gives unpleasant look than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry requires more than ashlar masonry
Rubble masonry cannot be used for facing works like compound walls and outer walls.
They are preferred for foundations and unimportant works.

2.4.2.3 POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE CONSTRUCTING THE STONE MASONRY

The following points should be kept in mind in supervising stone masonry work:
Hard and durable stones, free from defects like flaws, cavities veins etc. should be
used.
Dressing of the stones should be as per the requirement.
Stones should be properly wetted before they are used so as to avoid sucking of water
from mortar.
Stones should be laid on their natural bed.
Facing and backing sides should be laid neatly and levelled and checked with wooden
template.
The heart of masonry should be filled with stone chips and mortars. To thick mortar
joints should be avoided.
Verticality of the wall should be frequently checked with plumb-bob.
Mortars with correct proportion of sand and cement should be used.
Continuous vertical joints should be avoided.
Through stones should be used within 1.5 m distances.
The height of masonry should be raised uniformly.
Under the beams, trusses, sills etc large flat stones should be used.
Before continuing work, the masonry built on previous day should be well cleaned and
freed from loose particles.
Curing should be done properly for 2 to 3 weeks.

2.4.3 BRICK MASONRY:

2.4.3.1 COURSE AND BED
Course is a horizontal layer of masonry unit
Bed is the lower surface of a masonry unit in each course

2.4.3.2 LAP AND BED JOINT

Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick courses
A joint formed by bed (or lower surface) of a course and the upper surface of the
course below it is called bed joint
2.4.3.3 HEADER COURSE AND STRETCHER COURSE
A course of brick showing only the headers on the exposed surface the wall is called
header course or heading course
A course of brick showing only the stretchers on the exposed surface the wall is called
stretcher course or stretching course
2.4.3.4 CLOSER
Closer is the portion of a brick cut along its length, such that its width is shortened. Thus closer is a
header of smaller width
2.4.3.5 BAT
Bat is a part of a brick cut across its length, such that its length is shortened. Thus bat is a stretcher of
smaller length

2.4.3.6 KING CLOSER AND QUEEN CLOSER

King closer is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting away the triangular portion between the centre of
one shorter end and the centre of its longer adjacent end.
Queen closer is the portion of a brick cut into two equal halves along its length. Thus the width of the
header is reduced
2.4.3.7 TYPES OF BONDS IN BRICK MASONRY
Header bond and Stretcher bond
Flemish bond and English bond
Garden wall bond and Herring bone bond
Diagonal bond and Zigzag bond
Brick masonry is classified as the following types:
1. Stretcher bond: It has the stretcher arranged to face the side of wall. It can be used for even brick
wall.

Fig 2.16 Stretcher bond

2. Header bond: It has the headers arranged to face the side of wall. If requires at least 1 brick thick wall.

Fig 2.17 Header bond

3. English bond: Alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers.
 Fig 2.18 English bond
4. Single Flemish bond: Headers and stretchers are arranged alternatively in same course along facing.

Fig 2.19 Single Flemish bond

5. Double Flemish bond: Headers and stretchers are arranged alternatively in same course along both
sides of wall.

2.4.3.8 COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND FLEMISH BOND IN MASONRY.

Table 2.1 Comparison of English and Flemish bond in masonry
English bond Flemish bond
Alternates courses consists of headers and Headers and stretchers are arranged alternatively
stretchers in same course
For walls thicker than 1 bricks its is more For thicker walls its is comparatively weaker
stronger
Appearance is not pleasing Appearance is pleasing
Preferred for walls with plastered faces Preferred for walls with exposed faces
Skilled labour is not required Skilled and experience labour is required
Mortar requirement is less Mortar requirement is more as more brick bats
are used
It is the most commonly used bond It is not commonly used bond

2.4.3.9 POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE CONSTRUCTING THE BRICK MASONRY

The following points should be observed in the construction of brick masonry:
Before using the bricks in masonry, they should be soaked in water for 2 hours so that
bricks do not absorb water from the mortar.
Bricks should be laid with the frog pointing upward.
Construction of brick wall should start from the end or corner.
Brick courses should be perfectly horizontal.
Verticality of the wall should be ensured by frequently checking with plumb-bob.
Mortar used should be as per specification.
Whenever work is stopped brick masonry should be left with toothed end.
Use of brick bats should be avoided.
 Walls should be raised uniformly. In no case difference between adjoining walls is
more than 1 m. In a day no wall should be raised by more than 1.5 m
To get proper key for plastering or pointing, the face joints should be raised to a depth
of 12 to 20 mm, when the mortar is green. If plastering or pointing is not to be
provided, face joints should be stuck flush and finished neatly.
Brick masonry should be regularly cured for 2 weeks.
For carrying out brick work at higher levels, only single scaffolding should be used.

2.4.4 BONDING IN MASONRY

Bond or bonding is the arranging of stones or bricks such that no vertical joint is formed. Thus no full
surface of a stone or brick in a wall is in contact with full surface of the stone or brick which is above or
below it. Lime or cement mortars are used to bond the building blocks, else they dont have sufficient
strength and stability.
2.4.5 RULES FOR BONDING IN MASONRY
The amount of lap should be at least of brick length along the length of the wall and
at least of brick length across the thickness of the wall.
Use of brick bats should be least
The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along the same Perpend
Stretchers should be used in face of the wall but not in the hearting. Only headers
should be used in the hearting

2.4.6 COMPARE BRICK AND STONE MASONRY WITH THEIR ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Brick Masonry Over Stone Masonry
Advantages:
Since shape and size of bricks are uniform, it does not need skilled labour for the
construction.
Bricks are light in weight and hence handling them is easy.
Bricks are easily available around cities and their transportation cost is less because their
weight is less. Stones are to be brought from quarries which are located only at few places.
It is possible to use all types of mortar in brick masonry. For unimportant buildings even
mud mortar can be used.
Thinner walls can be constructed with bricks but it is not so with stones.
It is easy to form openings for doors and windows in brick masonry.
Dead load of brick masonry is less. They are preferred in framed structures.
In brick masonry mortar joints are thin and hence construction cost is reduced
considerably.
Brick masonry has better fire compared to stone masonry.
Disadvantages:
Strength of stone masonry is more than that of brick masonry. Stonemasonry is preferred
for load bearing structures.
Durability and weather resistance of brick masonry is less.
Brick masonry needs plastering and plastered surface needs colour washing. Stone
masonry doesnt need them and hence maintenance cost is more in brick masonry.
Brick masonry absorbs water and there is possibility of dampness. There is no such
problem in stone masonry.
More architectural effects can be given in stone masonry compared to that in brick
masonry.
Stone masonry gives massive appearance and hence monumental buildings are built in
stone masonry.
2.5 FLOOR
Floor is a horizontal member of a building. It divides the building into different levels or storeys, for
creating accommodation within a restricted space. It also provides the horizontal plane surface where the
various functions of a building occur.
Example: in a residential building people live or reside on floors.

2.5.1 COMPONENTS OF THE FLOOR

Floor slab, floor base or floor bed and floor finish are the components of floors.

2.5.2 REQUIREMENTS OF FLOORS

Economical in construction
Ease to maintenance
Smooth and good appearance
Durability and hardness
Fire resistance and damp resistance
Thermal insulation and sound insulation

2.5.3 FUNCTIONS OF FLOOR

It divides the building into different levels or storeys.
It also provides the horizontal plane surface where the various functions of a building
occur.
Example:
In a residential building people live or reside on floors and in storage building things are
stored on floor
A floor of upper level also acts as roof of lower level
The ground floor provided damp proofing to the building above it.

2.5.4 TYPES OF FLOORS

Based on the material of construction, types of floors are stone floor, brick floor, timber floor, concrete
floor, rubber floor, glass floor and plastic or PVC floor.
Based on floor finish, the types of floor are mud flooring, cement flooring, marble flooring, mosaic
flooring and tiled flooring.
1. Mud flooring
This floor is used in low cast housing, especially in villages. The floor bed is well prepared and a
250mm thick layer of selected moist earth is evenly spread out and rammed to get a consolidated
thickness of 150mm, without using water. Chopped straw is mixed with moist floor to avoid dry cracks. A
thin coat of cement, cow dung plaster in a ratio 1:4 respectively is applied evenly and wiped out. The
floor needs a thin wash of cow dung at least once a weak.
This floor is cheap, hard and easy in construction and maintenance.
This floor become slippery when wet.
2. Mosaic flooring.
It consists of slabs with a coat of small pieces of broken tiles of china glazed or a marble arranged in
different patterns, set in lime or cement mortar. The base course is concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40mm
mortar layer is provided. On this mortar layer slabs of broken pieces tile of china glazed or marble are
laid. Coloured cement is sprinkled and pressed in joints. After 20 to 24 hours of drying the top is rubbed
with corborundum stone to get smooth and polished surface.
This type of floor is used in homes, public buildings, etc.
 Fig 2.20 Mosaic flooring
3. Granolithic flooring
This floor is similar to cement concrete flooring. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its
thickness is usually 75mm to 100mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1:4:8) or lime concrete
containing 40% of 1:2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40mm size. After base course is
hardened wearing coat 40mm is laid with rich concrete mix in which sand is replaced with crushed
granite powder.

Fig 2.21 Granolithic flooring

3. Brick flooring
This is a cheap floor construction; it is commonly used in go downs and factories. After preparing the sub
grade, 10 to 15mm thick lean concrete or lime concrete is laid over it. This forms the base course and
over this good quality bricks are laid flat or on edges in desired pattern on 12mm thick mortar bed. Joints
are rendered flush and finished with cement mortar.
This floor is cheap, non-slippery, durable, sufficiently hard and easily repairable.
The floor absorbs water.
4. Cement concrete flooring
It is modestly cheap and durable floor and hence commonly used in residential, commercial and industrial
buildings. It consists of two courses-base courses and wearing coat. Base course is laid over well
compacted soil. Its thickness is usually 75mm to 100mm. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1:4:8)
or lime concrete containing 40% of 1:2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40mm size. After
base course is hardened wearing coat of 40mm is laid. It consists of panels of 1m x 1m, 2m x 2m or 1m x
2m. Alternate panels are laid with 1:2:4 concrete using wooden, glass or asbestos strip separators of
1.5mm to 2.0mm thickness. To get good bond between base coarse and wearing coat cement slurry wash
is given before laying wearing coat panels. After 3 to 4 days of laying of one set of panel, another
alternate panel are laid. Top of these are finished by tamping the surface with wooden floats and tapping
with trowels, till cement slurry appears on top. It needs curing for 7 to 14 days. To get good appearance
many times red-oxide finishing coat is provided.
It is suitable for all type of buildings such as residential, commercial, public and industrial buildings.
It is cheap and durable, fire resistant and easy to maintain.
5. Terrazzo flooring
This floor is similar to cement concrete flooring. Base course is laid over well compacted soil. Its
thickness is usually 75mm to 100m. It consists of lean cement concrete mix (1:4:8) or lime concrete
containing 40% of 1:2 lime mortar and 60% of coarse aggregate of 40mm size. After base course is
hardened wearing coat of 40mm is laid with concrete of (1:2:4) and 6mm of terrazzo topping. Terrazzo is
prepared by mixing concrete with white cement and marble chips of various colours.
 Fig 2.22 Terrazzo flooring

6. Tiles flooring

Fig 2.23 Tiles flooring

2.6 ROOF
Roof is the uppermost part of a building. It is supported by structural members and covered with roofing
material

2.6.1 FUNCTIONS OF ROOF

It protects the building from weather effects (sun, cold, rain, wind, snow, etc.)
It also gives an architectural look to the building
It should resist fire, external heat and sound.
It should carry its designed loads safely

2.6.2 REQUIREMENTS OF ROOF

Durable against weather - rain, sun, wind cold and snow
Water proof and fire proof
Thermal insulation
Heat and sound insulation
Strength and stability for carrying loads
Well drained

2.6.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE ROOFS

Based on the geometry, roofs are classified as flat (or horizontal) roof, pitched (or sloped or inclined) roof
and curved roof.
Thatched roofs, asbestos cement sheet roofs, tiled roofs, timber or wooden roof, stone roof, RCC roof,
steel roof, plastic or PVC roof, glass roof, etc.

2.6.4 FLAT ROOFS

Flat roofs are considered suitable for building in hot regions, where rainfall is moderate, and where
snowfall is not there.
2.6.4.1 ADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS:
It is easy to construct among roofs of same material
It is economical among roofs of same material for shorter spans
It can be used for other activities like conducting some functions or storing materials
Vertical extension of building is easy
It suits any type of building
Can be easily made fire proof

2.6.4.2 DISADVANTAGES OF FLAT ROOFS:

Drainage is difficult and hence not suitable for rainy or snow clad areas
It requires intermediate support for large spans and hence uneconomical
Dead weight or self weight is more
Less aesthetic appearance

2.6.5 SLOPED OR PITCHED ROOFS

Sloped or pitched roofs have flat surface but with an angle of inclination from 30 to 60 . They have their
pitch or the higher point at centre or at any one of the sides.

2.6.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF SLOPED ROOFS:

Longer spans are possible to construct with economy
Good drainage is possible to provide
Suitable for rainy and snow clad areas
Good aesthetic appearance

2.6.5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF SLOPED ROOFS:

It is somewhat difficult to construct
Costlier than flat roofs of same material for shorter spans
Cannot take more loads
Cannot be used for other uses like flat roofs (storing materials, etc)

2.6.6 CURVED ROOFS

The curved roofs surface is curved in geometry. It may be curved in one dimension like a cylindrical roof
or curved in both dimensions like dome. It gives good appearance.

2.6.6.1 ADVANTAGES OF CURVED ROOFS:

They provide best aesthetic appearance among roofs and preferred for monumental and
architecturally important buildings.
Fewer materials are used to construct and hence less self weight
Good drainage is possible to provide
Most well lit roof by daytime sunlight

2.6.6.2 DISADVANTAGES OF CURVED ROOFS:

Very difficult to construct
Cannot take more loads
Costliest among all roofs of same material
Cannot be used for longer spans

2.6.7 TRUSS ROOF

A frame work of slender members is used to support sloping roofs. These frames are known as trusses.
Roof truss acts like a beam in a framed structure. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to get
wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof sheets. Trusses are
made of wood are steel. For spans up to 9m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses
are a must. In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to connect various members at a
joint. Bolts and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made using gusset plates and by
providing bolts or rivets or welding. Over the truss roof the roof coverings are provided.
Depending upon the span, trusses of different shapes are used. End of trusses are supported on walls or
on column.

2.6.7.1 TYPES OF TRUSSED ROOFS

The types of trussed roofs or truss types are:
1. King post truss
2. Queen post truss
3. Howe truss
4. Pratt truss
5. Fink truss or French truss
6. Bow string truss
7. North light truss
8. Arch truss

Fig 2.24 Types of trussed roofs

Fig 2.25 King Post Truss

Fig 2.26 Queen Post Truss

 UNIT 3
3. BASIC INFRASTRUCTURE
3.1 SURVEYING
Surveying is the art of determining relative positions of objects on or above or beneath the surface of the
earth by taking measurements of distance, direction and elevation

3.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF SURVEYING

To work from whole to part: to prevent the accumulation of errors
To fix the position of new station (C) by at-least two independent processes (or from 2 bench marks: A &
B)

Fig 3.1 Principles of surveying

3.1.2 USES OF SURVEYING

To prepare a topographical map show the hills, valley, forest, town, village, etc.
To prepare for setting out engineering works such as roads, railways, dams, irrigation canals, buildings,
etc.
To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground details

3.1.3 TYPES OF SURVEYING

Based on equipment used: Chain surveying, compass surveying, planed table
surveying, theodolite surveying, tachometric surveying, Ariel surveying,
photographic surveying
Based on uses of surveying: Engineering survey, Military survey, mine survey,
Geological survey and Archaeological survey
Based on area of survey: Land surveying, Hydro graphic surveying and
Astronomical surveying
Based on method employed: Triangulation surveying and Traversing
Based on surface of earth: Plane surveying (earths surface is assumed as a
plane surface) and geodetic surveying (the surface of the earth is considered as
it is, i.e. spherical).
Based on special equipment used: Total station, geodimeter, tellurometer,
distomat, GPS instrument, remote sensors, etc
3.1.4 COMPASS
Compass is an instrument which can be used to measure the direction of a survey line with respect to
magnetic north- south. Compass is used in surveying for measuring the direction of a line.
3.1.5 CHAIN SURVEYING
It is the branch of surveying where Chain is used for measuring the horizontal distances, and the
operation is called chain surveying.

Fig 3.2 Chain surveying

3.1.5.1 ADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEYING

Measurements using steel bands are more accurate than chaining
It is lighter and easier to handle
The length is not altered due to usage as compared to a chain

3.1.5.2 DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEYING

It is heavier than a measure tape, hence difficult to handle
It expands or according to the temperature, hence frequent corrections required
Angular measurements cannot be taken, hence additional instrument like
compass is required
Chaining is difficult in uneven ground and over water bodies.

3.1.6 GPS
GPS (or) global positioning system is an advanced surveying method which uses satellites to locate any
object by finding its position (latitude or longitude) and the elevation altitude with respect to a base point.
It uses electronic instrument to generate signals and receive them to locate the objects by measuring the
travel time of the signals.

3.1.7 LEVELLING
Levelling is the process of measuring the vertical levels or heights of any object on the surface of the
earth.
It is used to measure the levels or locate vertical positions of the points on or above or below the surfaces
of the earth. It is also used to fix the levels or establish vertical positions of the points on or above or
below the earths surface

Fig 3.3 Levelling

3.1.7.1 USES
Levelling has a very wide range of applications. Some of them are:
Levelling is used to prepare contour maps as a part of topographical,
hydrographical and astronomical maps.
It is used in engineering works to prepare maps as well as setting out of works.
As a part of surveying, it is also used in the areas of geology, archaeology,
mining and defence.
The instruments used in the levelling are dumpy level and levelling staff.
Total station is one of the latest equipment used in levelling. EDM and GPS are
the latest advancement in levelling.

3.1.8 CONTOURS
Contour is an imaginary line joining the points of same level, relative to an assumed datum. Such lines
are drawn along with their levels, on the plan of an area after determining the levels of several points in
that area. Such a map is known as contour map.

3.1.8.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS

Contour lines do not end, but close on themselves
Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface, closely spaced contour indicates
steep ground and equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope.
Irregular contours indicates uneven surface.
Two contours dont interact except in the case of an overhanging cliff
In the series of closed contours, if highest value is inside it represents a hill; if
lowest value is inside it represents a valley
Contour lines with U-shaped with convexity towards lower ground indicate
ridge
Contour lines with V-shaped with convexity towards higher ground indicate
ridge

3.1.8.2 USES OF CONTOURS

Contours are used to find out the nature of the ground.
Contours help in finding out the depth of cutting or filling for formation level
of a road or railway line
The routes of the railway , road, canal or sewer lines can be decided by using
contours
Catchment area and quantity of water flow for river can be determined from
contour maps
From the contours , it is also possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir

3.2 ROAD
Road is a paved path for the transport of vehicle to carry men and materials from one place to another. It
is most basic and oldest form of transports.

3.2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

Basically roads are classified as urban roads and non-urban roads.
Urban roads are expressways, Arterial streets, Sub arterial streets, collector streets and local streets.
Non urban roads are National highways, State highways, Major district highways, Other district roads
and village roads.
3.2.2 PARTS OF A ROAD
Sub grade, sub base course, base course and surface course are the parts of a bituminous road.
Sub grade, base course and wearing course are the parts of a concrete road.
3.2.3 SUPER ELEVATION:
Super elevation is the additional rise in the outer edge with respect to the inner edge, provided at the
curved turnings of a road. It is provided to balance the centrifugal force on the vehicle due to the curved
nature of turnings and its travelling speed. If this elevation is not provided the vehicle may over shoot
along the other side of the curve.

3.2.4 IMPORTANCE OF ROADS:

They are the most commonly used means of transport.
They provide the cheapest form of transport after railways
They provide faster and easy transportation
Roads are easier to construct among all transport systems
They help in providing better law and order
Roads provide transport during emergencies like wars, floods, famines, etc.
They improve social, educational, commercial and economical activities and
provide health facilities
Sub grade, sub base course, base course and surfaces course are the parts of a
bituminous road. Sub grade, base course and wearing course are the parts of a
concrete road.

Fig 3.4 Bituminous Road

3.2.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MATERIAL OF ROAD
1. Earth roads: These are made from the soil available at the site. These roads are used where the traffic
is very scanty. Construction cost is very cheap and their performance depends on proper maintenance and
adequacy of drainage.
 Fig 3.5 Earth roads

2. Gravel roads: This type of roads fall in between earth roads and metal roads. These roads are
prepared by compacting a mixture of gravel and a binder material like clay or sand. This mixture is spread
on the prepared sub grade and rolled to get a thickness varying from 15cm to 30cm. In the trench type, a
trench is cut to the required depth and the gravel material is filled up in this trench and compacted.
3. Water bound macadam roads
These are prepared in layers. Each layer has a thickness of about 10-15cm.

Fig 3.5 Water bound macadam roads

Water bound macadam roads consists of broken or crushed aggregates mechanically interlocked by
rolling and their voids filled or bound by dust and water. It is generally used as sub base or base course.

Construction used for Water Bound Macadam Road.

Preparation of sub grade:
This is provided to the desired elevation and cross section. Then rolling is done for achieving compaction.
Preparation of sub base:
On the sub base a layer of broken stones is laid to get a thickness of about 15cm. Gravel and screening
materials are then spread over this. Then rolling is done adding water.
Sub base cum wearing course:This course is about 10cm thick. About 4cm size broken stones are
spread over the prepared sub base. This is then rolled dry for proper interlocking of the stones. Enough
filler materials are added to fill the surface voids.
Rolling is then done to get a thoroughly compacted surface. Then water is sprinkled over this surface and
rolled again
Blind age material application
Blind age material like soft murum, kankar or fine quarry dust is spread uniformly above the base course
for about 12mm thickness. Sufficient water is then added on this layer to form slurry. This is then rolled.
Then a layer of sand is spread uniformly on the above surface to a thickness of 6-10mm.
The surface is then cured for 1-2days before allowing the traffic; the surface is kept wet for at least 7
days.
Advantages of Water Bound Macadam road
It is stronger than earthen road and gravel road
It can be used as base course and sib base course
It is denser due to interlocking of the aggregates and hence can take more loads
Disadvantages of Water Bound Macadam road
It doesnt has any strong binder material and hence cannot be used as wearing course
4. Bituminous road
Here bitumen is used as the binding material. This type is also called as a black top road. The bituminous
material used can be classified into two-groups-Asphalt and tar. Bitumen containing some inert materials
or minerals is called Asphalt. Asphalt occurs in nature and is called rock asphalt.
Tar is a residual product of the destructive distillation of coal. Road tar is coal tar treated to conform to
specifications to make it suitable for road applications.
5. Concrete road
The following steps in construction of concrete road
First the sub grade is prepared and cleaned of dirt and loose materials.
Then the sub base course of concrete is laid in layers up to required thickness and
compacted and levelled
After 24 hours to give sub grade time to set, it is prepared for laying base concrete
The form works are placed and base concrete is laid in layers and compacted and levelled
Then the wearing course is laid with rich mortar and allowed to cure for 28 days
The entire length and width of the road is divided in to bays and the order of construction
of bays is as follows:
In alternate method the alternate bays (as shaded in diagram) are laid first and then
remaining bays are laid. In continuous method the width of road is divided in to half and
each width is laid one after another.

Fig 3.6 Concrete road

Advantages of concrete roads

They provide excellent riding surfaces and pleasing appearances
They provide better visibility
They can withstand heavy traffic
They are not much damaged during rain and neither by oils
The contents of concrete roads can be mixed under normal temperatures
They are more durable and hence maintenance of concrete roads is easier

Disadvantages of concrete roads

Cost of concrete roads is greater than the bituminous roads
They cannot be opened for traffic after construction as they require curing period
Stage development is not possible in concrete roads
Joints in concrete roads are weaker than other parts and may be easily damaged

3.2.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN BITUMINOUS CONCRETE ROAD AND CEMENT

CONCRETE ROAD
No. Item Bituminous concrete cement concrete road
road
1. Compaction It is achieved by rolling It is done by the use of
with usual precautions. vibrators
2. Curing Not necessary Necessary
3. Formwork Not necessary Required for edges and
near joints
4. Initial cost Less More
5. Joints Not to be provided To be invariably
provided.
6. Maintenance cost More Less
7. Method of placing The premix is prepared The concrete is prepared
in hot mix plant and it is by mixing cement,
to be placed in hot aggregates and water
condition and it is to be deposited
before cement starts to
difficult set. No heating
is required.
8. Opening of underground Can be easily opened up Difficult to open
trenches
9. Opening to traffic After 24 hours After 15 to 20 days
10. Salvage value Practically nil Can serve as a base or
foundation for the new
bituminous surface
11. Tractive resistance More Less
12. Useful life Less More
13. Utility Less durable for heavy More durable and
traffic, cost of repair and reliable for heavy traffic
maintenance more
14. Visibility at night Bad Good
15. Wear of surface More Less

3.3 BRIDGE
Bridges are the structures which provide passage for road or rail over an obstacle like a river or valley.

Fig 3.7 Typical Bridge Elements

3.3.1 PIERS
Piers are the part of the substructure of a bridge. They provide intermediate supports for the super
structure of the bridge. They act like columns and transfer the load of bridges to the foundation. They are
made of stone masonry or concrete

3.3.2 COMPONENTS OF BRIDGE

The components of the bridge are substructure and super structure. Substructure consists of foundations,
abutments and piers, wing walls and bearings. The super structure consists of approaches, deck and
parapet walling railing. Bridges are made of various materials such as timber, steel, RCC, masonry, pre
stressed concrete bridges and composite materials.
3.3.3 CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE SPAN O BRIDGE:
Culverts - span less than 6m
Minor bridges span from 6m to 30m
Major bridges span from 30m to 120m
Long span bridges- span above 120m

3.3.4 USES OF BRIDGES

Bridges provide continuation of pathways over obstructions like river, lake, valley
and also seas.
Bridges also provide an over pass for pipelines or canal over other waterways like
river or lake
Bridges provide unobstructed flow or traffic or pedestrians above an existing road
or rail.
3.3.5 DECK TYPE BRIDGE
The bridges may be of the "deck type", "through type" or "semi-through type". These are described
below with respect to truss bridges.
(i) Deck type bridge - The carriageway rests on the top of the main load carrying members. In the
deck type plate girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed on the top flanges. In the deck type truss
girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at the top chord level as shown in Fig.3.8(a).

Fig.3.8 Typical deck, through and semi-through type truss bridges

(ii) Through Type Bridge - The carriageway rests at the bottom level of the main load carrying members
[Fig. 3.8(b)]. In the through type plate girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at the level of
bottom flanges. In the through type truss girder bridge, the roadway or railway is placed at the bottom
chord level. The bracing of the top flange or lateral support of the top chord under compression is also
required.
(iii) Semi through Type Bridge - The deck lies in between the top and the bottom of the main load
carrying members. The bracing of the top flange or top chord under compression is not done and part of
the load carrying system project above the floor level as shown in Fig. 3.8(c). The lateral restraint in the
system is obtained usually by the U-frame action of the verticals and cross beam acting together.

3.3.6 SOME POINTS IN LOCATING A BRIDGE ACROSS A RIVER.

 The span of the bridge should be perpendicular to the direction of flow of the river
as much as possible.
The width of the river at the bridge crossing should be of least width.
The longitudinal direction of the bridge should be as much as parallel to the
direction of the passage

3.4 DAM
Dam is a structure used to store water. It is constructed across a river preferably at a valley. It is
constructed with water tight materials like stone masonry, RCC, or steel.
The parts of a dam are:
Reservoir, embankment, impervious core or lining, foundation , spill ways, sluice gates to control flow of
water.

3.4.1 PURPOSES OF DAMS

To store and control the water for irrigation
To store and divert the water for domestic uses
To supply water for industrial uses
To develop hydro electric power plants to produce electricity
To increase water depths for navigation
To create storage space for flood control
To preserve and cultivate the useful aquatic life
For recreational purposes

3.4.2 MULTIPURPOSE RESERVOIR

A reservoir which has more than one use is called multi-purpose reservoir. Hence a reservoir
designed to protect the downstream areas from floods and also to conserve water for water supply,
irrigation, industrial needs, hydroelectric purposes etc.

3.4.3 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTION OF SITE FOR DAM

The dam site should not be an earthquake prone zone or seismically active zone.
Suitable foundations should be available at the site selected for a particular type of
dam. For gravity dams, sound rock is essential. For earth dams, any type of
foundations is suitable with proper treatment.
The river cross-section at the dam site should preferably have a narrow gorge to
reduce the length of the dam.
The general bed level at dam site should preferably be higher than that of the river
basin. This will reduce the height of the dam and will facilitate the drainage.
A suitable site for the spillway should be available in the near vicinity.
Easily availability of construction materials and man power an ease in access.
3.4.4 CLASSIFICATION OF DAMS:
1. Based on its use, the types of dams are:
Storage dam, diversion dam, detention dam, hydro electric power producing dam, irrigation dam, etc
2. Based on material used for construction, the types of dams are:
Earthen dam, rock-fill dam, timber dams, steel dams and concrete dams
3. Based on construction and action of hydraulic forces, the types of dams are:
Gravity dams, arch dams and buttress dams
4. Based on its hydraulic design, the types of dams are:
Over flow dams and non-overflow dams

3.4.4.1 BASED ON CONSTRUCTION, DAMS ARE CLASSIFIED AS THE FOLLOWING:

1. Gravity dams: They consist of a solid embankment made of masonry or concrete which is used to
hold the water. The weight of the embankment should balance the lateral pressure of stored water. Hence
a dense material like concrete is used in their core. They require large quantities of material and may
prove to be costly for storing large quantities of water.
They require less structural components like foundation. They require large quantities of materials and
may prove to be costly for storing large quantities of water.

Fig 3.9 Gravity dams

2. Arch dams: They consist of an arch like curved structure which holds the water with the concave side
towards of downstream side. This arch is supported by abutments at the end and foundations at their base.
The curvature of the arch and its reaction at abutment balances the water pressure. This arch can be
constructed of concrete or steel.
It requires less material as its cross section is thinner than that of gravity dam. Hence it is cheaper. It is
preferable for great heights.
Arch dams are preferable at valleys with narrow width.
Arch dams cannot be used as very large dams.

Fig 3.10 Arch dams

3. Buttress dams: They are similar to gravity dams but with thinner sections and intermediate support
members called buttress. Buttresses are provided in the downstream direction to balance the pressure of
water.
Buttresses dams can be constructed on soils with weak bearing capacity.
 Fig 3.11 Buttress Dam

3.4.4.2 BASED ON THE MATERIAL USED FOR CONSTRUCTION, DAMS ARE CLASSIFIED
IN THE FOLLOWING:
1. Earth dams: These are well suited and economical when the height of the dam is medium and can be
constructed on any type of foundation. The soil is laid in this layer, added with the proper moisture
content and compacted with rollers to develop the require strength.
The upstream face of the dam holding the water is provided with stone revetment. It is not made water
tight.
Filters are provided so that the seepage water does not carry any material of the dam. Earth dam last long
if properly designed constructed and maintained.

Fig 3.12 Earth dams

2. Rock fills dams

In places, where good rock is available in plenty, this type can be adopted. This type is suitable for
moderate heights. A concrete slab is provided on the upstream side.
The dam section consists of dry rubble stone masonry on the upstream side and loose rock fill on the
downstream side. If rock foundation is available, then the settlement of the dam is minimum. This type
has better resistance to earthquake forces because of its flexible nature.
 Fig 3.13 Rock fills dams

3.4.5 ADVANTAGES OF CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

A dam is used to store water for usage in summer.
The water stored is used for drinking, irrigation, glow fishes and recreation
Water stored in dam is used to generate hydro electric power
Dams are also used to avoid floods, to divert the flow of water and also
increase river depth for navigation
Constructing a dam may results in economic development

3.4.6 DISADVANTAGES OF CONSTRUCTION OF DAMS

Dams cause a large area of land and forest to submerge along its sides and
affect people and wildlife
Dams have possible risk of failure resulting in huge loss of life and property
due to any unexpected reasons like heavy rains, floods flood, land slide,
earthquakes, etc.
Dams are too much expensive and require a lot of resource and time to
construct.
3.4.7 USES OF A DAM
A dam is used to store water for usage in summer
The water stored is used for drinking, irrigation, grow fishes, recreation and
generate hydro electric power
Dams are also used to avoid floods, to divert the flow of water and also to
increase river depth for navigation.

3.5 WATER SUPPLY

3.5.1 AS PER IS 1172: 1971, WRITE THE DETAILS OF DOMESTIC CONSUMPTION OF
WATER.
The average per capita demand for domestic consumption of water is
135litres/capita/day
The demand for gardens is 3.5litres/sq.m/day
3.5.2 SOURCES OF WATER
The following are the sources of water:
Precipitation in form of rain, snow, dew, hail
Surface water sources like lake, pond, river, and stream
Ground water sources such as springs, infiltration galleries, well, ground well
 Water from any source contains impurities in it and need to be treated.
Water treatment plants treat the water in large volumes.
Filtering, sedimentation, aeration, reverse osmosis, disinfection like
chlorination, UV rays treatment, etc. are the various method employed in water
treatment plants to treat water from impurities. Then the water is sent to
consumers through pipelines.

3.5.3 WATER SUPPLY CAN BE DONE IN THE FOLLOWING METHODS:

1. Continuous water supply: Where water is made available through the pipelines all along the days for
24 hours.
2. Intermittent water supply: Where water is made available through the pipelines only particular
interval of times, like from morning 10.00 A.M. to evening 4.00 P.M.
Water has to be sent from treatment plants to the consumers through the pipelines using some force.
That force may is gravity or pressure created by pumps or combination of both. Therefore the types of
water distribution system are gravity system, pumping system and dual system.

3.5.4 SYSTEMS OF WATER SUPPLY

Water can be supplied within the city or town by the following methods.
1. Gravity system
This system can be advantageously adopted if there is naturally elevated ground in that area. The
distribution reservoir is constructed in the elevated ground in that area. The distribution reservoir is
constructed in the elevated ground and the water from the reservoir can be led through pipes to supply
water by gravity to the city and town.

Fig
3.14
Gravity system
2. Pumping system:
The water from the water source (stream, rivers, ground water, etc.) is directly pumped into distribution
main. A pump house is constructed and the number of pumps required depends upon the quantity of water
to be supplied.
 Fig 3.15 Pumping system

3. Combination of pumping and gravity system

From the water source, the water source is first pumped into a storage reservoir, or overhead tank. Then
the water from the overhead tank is supplied to the mains by means of gravity flow.
The water pipeline networks may be of the following types: Dead end system, Grid iron system, Circular
system and Radial system.

3.5.5 QUALITY REQUIREMENTS OF WATER:

1. Physical quality requirements:
They are important for satisfaction of the user and probably does not result in much harm
Colour of the water should be from 15-25 when measured in cobalt scale
Turbidity of the water should be less than 10NTU when measured in nephelometric units
The temperature of the water is preferred from 100C 150C
The water should not contain any taste or odour
2. Chemical quality requirements:
The chemical impurities result in various disorders of the parts of the human body. The impurity is
measured in ppm- parts per million or mg of impurity per litre of water. The maximum permissible limits
of some impurities are given below.
Total solids (suspended & dissolved) < 50-100ppm
Chlorides < 250ppm
Sulphates < 250ppm
Magnesium < 125ppm
Iron < 0.3ppm
pH value should be within the limit of 6.5-8.5
Hardness should be within 75 to 115 units of equivalent CaCO3
3. Bacteriological quality requirements:
Pathogens or harmful micro organisms in water will result in various diseases like cholera, etc. These
impurities should < 1 colony of M.P.N coli form bacteria/100ml

3.5.6 METHODS OF TREATING WATER.

The various methods of treatment water are: Filtration, Sedimentation, Aeration, Reverse-osmosis,
disinfection like chlorination, UV rays treatment, etc.
1. Filtration: Filtration is the process of screening water by passing it through a filter medium with pores,
like sand. It is the most common method to clean water from solid particles. The effectiveness and speed
of filtration is depending on the sizes of pores of the filter medium. Smaller pores filter most particles but
at slow rates. Larger filters take less time but with less effectiveness. Filtration can clean water from small
particles.
2. Sedimentation: Sedimentation is a process of cleaning the water by allowing the impurities to settle as
sediments. Some chemical agents are used to increase the sediment size and weight by bonding them
together. Then this is called flocculation. These sediments are then allowed to settle. Sedimentation is
very slow process but flocculated sedimentation increase the rate of sediments. Sedimentation cleans
water from fine particles.
3. Aeration: Aeration means allowing the air to pass into the water. The oxygen air in the air mixes with
water and decomposes the chemical impurities in water and cleans it. Aeration is done for waters with
more BOD and COD or with less oxygen percentage. Aeration can clean the water from oxy-degradable
chemicals.
4. Reverse-osmosis: Reverse osmosis is a process similar to filtration using a semi permeable
membrane. A semi permeable membrane allows the impurities in water to pass through it along in only
one direction. This property is used to filter the water from salts and other dissolved chemicals. It requires
some pressure and hence energy is required to drive this process. Hence it is costlier but most effective.
5. Chlorination: Chlorination is defined as the process of adding chlorine to water. It results in
disinfection of water and makes it fit domestic consumption. It is the most common method and also
economical method. It results in cleaning the water from bacteria and other micro organisms.
6. Ultra-violet rays: Ultra-violet rays are used to kill the pathogens or germs in the water which cause
diseases. Even though they are very effective they are very costly.

3.5.7 METHODS OF CHLORINATION:

The different methods of chlorination are: pre-chlorination, post-chlorination, double-chlorination, break
point chlorination and super chlorination.
1. Pre-chlorination is done before treating the water. The amount of chlorine dose is such that the
residual chlorine or excess chlorine in the water is from 0.1 to 0.5ppm.
2. Post-chlorination is done after treating the water. The amount of chlorine dose is such that the residual
chlorine or excess chlorine in the water is from 0.1 to 0.2ppm.
3. Double -chlorination is done during the treatment of water in two different stages. The amount of
chlorine dose is such that the residual chlorine or excess chlorine in the water is from 0.1 to 0.2ppm.
4. Break Point-chlorination means optimum chlorine requirement. The amount of chlorine dose is such
that the residual chlorine or excess chlorine in the water is from 0.2 to 0.3ppm.
5. Super -chlorination means chlorine dose is more than normal dose. The amount of chlorine dose is
such that the residual chlorine or excess chlorine in the water is from 0.5 to 2ppm. This is ring rainy done
during the times of epidemic or spreading of diseases during rainy season.

3.6 RAIN WATER HARVESTING

An artificial method of recharging the ground water table is called rain water harvesting. The rain water is
collected in pits and sent in to underground water table after proper filtration.
Now-a-days we depend more on ground water table for water, resulting in fast depletion of ground water
level. Naturally, the rain water takes more time to percolate through the soil to reach the ground water
table artificially.

3.6.1 METHODS OF RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Ground water harvesting method, Roof top harvesting method and rain water harvesting method for
roads.
In rain water harvesting method, the rain water is collected from roof tops in large apartments, open
grounds or roads. The collected water is filtered in a pit with pebbles and coarse sand. Then the filtered
water is fed to the ground water table through bores.
 Fig 3.16 Rain water harvesting

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT NAME: BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING
QUESTION BANK
 UNIT 1
Part I - 2 Marks Questions
1. Define Engineering and Civil Engineering?
2. What is a building?
3. How can you classify the buildings?
4. Define plinth area?
5. What do you mean by floor area?
6. What is carpet area?
7. Explain circulation area.
8. What is floor area ratio?
9. What is building material?
10. Name a few building materials.
11. What is a stone?
12. What are the types of rocks? Give example.
13. Name a few properties of stone.
14. State some uses of stone.
15. List the tests conducted on stones.
16. What is a brick?
17. What are the steps in manufacturing bricks?
18. What are the qualities of a good brick?
19. List out different types of bricks
20. What are the uses of bricks?
21. What is cement?
22. What are the constituents of cement?
23. State some types of cement.
24. What is setting of cement?
25. What is curing? What is its importance?
26. What are the products of hydration of cement?
27. Name a few properties of cement.
28. State the uses of cement.
29. What do you mean by the grade of cement?
30. What is mortar? Give example.
31. What are the ingredients of mortar?
32. Name some properties of mortar?
33. What are the tests on mortar?
34. What are the uses of mortar?
35. What is concrete?
36. What are the constituents of concrete?
37. What is concrete grade?
38. List the types of concrete.
39. Name some uses of concrete.
40. What is steel?
41. What are the types of steel?
42. What are the uses of steel?
43. What is the main disadvantage of steel? How do you prevent it?
44. Name some properties of mild steel.
45. State the uses of mild steel.
46. What are the properties of medium carbon steel?
47. Write down the uses of medium carbon steel.
48. Name some uses of high carbon steel.
49. What are the properties of high carbon steel?
50. What are the uses of tor steel?
 Part II - 9 Marks Questions
1. Explain the terms: Plinth Area, Floor Area, Carpet Area and Circulation Area?
2. (a) Classify the buildings according to the National Building Code of India
(b) Distinguish between Plinth area, Floor Area and Carpet Area.
3. State the types of aggregates based on size. Describe the classification of soils based on grain size.
4. What are the qualities (or properties) of a good building stone?
5. What are the various tests conducted on building stone?
6. What are the uses of stone?
7. (a) Briefly state the requirements of a good quality brick that is to be used for construction.
(b) What are the various classes of bricks?
8. Name the constituents of bricks. Explain their uses in bricks.
9. What are the steps in the manufacture of the burnt clay bricks?
10. Write down the uses of bricks.
11. What are the advantages and disadvantages of bricks?
12. Explain the properties and uses of cement.
13. Name the types of cement. Write down the uses of any one type.
14. What are the properties of cement?
15. Name the uses of cement.
16. State the properties of cement mortar.
17. What are the uses of mortar?
18. Explain various stages of manufacturing of concrete.
19. What are the properties of concrete?
20. Name the uses of concrete.
21. What is grade of concrete? Explain the various factors affecting the compressive strength of concrete.
22. What are the types of concrete? Explain any one type with uses.
23. What is steel? Name its types and general properties. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
24. What are the different types of steel? Explain their properties and uses.
25. Compare the properties of three types of steel.

UNIT 2
Part I - 2 Marks Questions
1. Write about the two basic components of the building.
2. What are the component parts of a building?
3. What are the structural components of a building?
4. Name the types of soil.
5. Define bearing capacity of soil.
6. What is ultimate bearing capacity?
7. What is safe bearing capacity of soil? What is factor of safety?
8. Name the factors that affect the bearing capacity of soil.
9. State some methods to improve the bearing capacity of soil.
10. What is foundation?
11. Name the types of foundation.
12. What are the functions of foundations?
13. What are the usual causes of failure of foundation?
14. Write the remedial methods for failure of foundations.
15. What are the types of shallow foundation?
16. State the various deep foundations.
17. What are the types of piles?
18. Name the types of footings.
19. What is simple footing?
20. Define masonry. What are its components?
21. Name the types of masonry.
22. What are header and stretcher?
23. What is a course and bed joint?
24. What do you mean by header course and stretcher course?
25. Define closer. Define lap.
26. What are king closer and queen closer?
27. Define bonding in masonry.
28. Name the rules for bonding in masonry.
29. State the types of bonds in brick masonry.
30. Name the types of stone masonry.
31. What is floor?
32. How floors are classified based on floor finishes?
33. Name some requirements for floors.
34. What are the components of the floor?
35. Write a few types of floors.
36. Name a few functions of floors.
37. What is roof?
38. How do you classify roofs?
39. State any two requirements of well-planned roof?
40. Name a few functions of roof.
41. What are the advantages of flat roof?
42. State the disadvantages of flat roof.
43. What is pitched or sloped roof?
44. What are the advantages of sloped roof?
45. State the disadvantages of sloped roof.
46. What is roof truss?
47. Name a few types of roof truss.
48. What is a curved roof?
49. Name the advantages of curved roof?
50. State the disadvantages of curved roof.
Part II - 9 Marks Questions
1. What are the components of a building? Draw a neat sketch and label the parts of building.
2. Explain the functions of the various components of a building.
3. Explain the various types of soils with their uses and properties.
4. Define foundation. Explain the classification of foundations.
5. With neat sketches explain deep foundations.
6. Classify shallow foundations with diagrams.
7. What are the types of footings? Explain with neat drawings.
8. List the objectives of foundation.
9. What are the various causes of failure of foundations? What are the remedial measures?
10. Explain the different types of stone masonry.
11. State the types of rubble masonry with sketches. Name their advantages and disadvantages.
12. Explain the types of ashlar masonry with diagrams. State their advantages and disadvantages.
13. Compare brick and stone masonry with their advantages and disadvantages.
14. (a) Define bonding in brick masonry.
(b) Explain the various types of bonding in brick masonry with neat sketches.
15. What are the points to be considered while constructing the brick masonry?
16. Differentiate between English and Flemish bond in masonry.
17. What is a floor? What are its functions, requirements and types?
18. Write a short note on Mud, Mosaic and Brick floorings.
19. Explain the construction of the following floors: Cement concrete flooring, Terrazzo and Tiles flooring
20. What is a roof? What are its functions and requirements? Classify roofs with neat sketches.
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of flat roofs?
22. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sloped or pitched roofs?
23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of curved roofs?
24. What is a truss roof? What are the types of trussed roofs?
25. (a) Sketch neatly the following trusses with the parts: King Post Truss and Queen Post Truss
(b) Classify the various types of roofs based on their roof coverings.

UNIT-3

Part I - 2 Marks Questions

1. Define surveying
2. Classify surveying based on equipment used.
3. Classify surveying based on application of surveying.
4. Classify surveying based on area of surveying.
5. Classify surveying based on the surface of earth assumed in surveying.
6. State the general principles of surveying.
7. What is a compass? What is its use in surveying?
8. What are the common equipments used in surveying?
9. Name some special equipment used in surveying?
10. List out disadvantages of chain surveying.
11. Define levelling.
12. Name the uses of levelling.
13. Name the advancements in surveying.
14. Explain GPS?
15. What is a contour?
16. Name any two characteristics of contours.
17. Name the uses of contours.
18. What is a road?
19. How highways are classified according to their importance.
20. What are the types of roads based on material used?
21. Name the parts of a road.
22. What is super elevation? Why is it provided in a road?
23. What is water bound macadam road?
24. State any two advantages of bituminous roads.
25. Name the disadvantages of bituminous roads.
26. What are the advantages of concrete roads?
27. What are the disadvantages of concrete roads?
28. What are bridges?
29. Name the components of a bridge.
30. State the uses of bridges.
31. How are bridges classified according to the span?
32. What are the types of bridges based on construction?
33. Define piers.
34. Name some points in locating a bridge across a river.
35. What is a dam?
36. What are the uses of a dam?
37. List out the types of dams based on uses.
38. Classify dams based on material used for construction.
39. What do you mean by multi-purpose dam?
40. Name the points considered in selecting a dam site.
41. What are the common parts of a dam?
42. What are the disadvantages of a dam?
43. What are the sources of water?
44. As per IS 1172: 1971, write the details of domestic consumption of water.
45. Name the types of water supply systems.
46. What are the various methods to treat water?
47. Define chlorination. What is its importance in water supply?
48. What is rain water harvesting?
49. What are the methods of harvesting rain water?
50. What is the importance of rain water harvesting?

Part II - 9 Marks Questions

1. Define surveying. Classify surveying based on equipment used, its use, area and surface of earth assumed.
2. (a) State the general principles of surveying
(b) What are the uses of surveying?
3. What is levelling? What are its uses and the instruments used in it?
4. Define contours. Explain the characteristics and uses of contours.
5. What is bridge? Explain it uses and its parts with a neat drawing.
6. (a) With a neat sketch, explain the parts of a deck type bridge.
(b) Classify the various types of dams.
7. What is a dam? Explain its parts and types with neat sketches.
8. What are the purposes of dams? What does Multipurpose Reservoir means?
9. Explain the factors to be considered in selection of a dam site.
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of construction of dams?
11. Explain with neat sketches the types of dams based on its construction and material used.
12. What is a road? What is its importance? Draw a neat sketch of road and name its parts.
13. Explain the road classification based on material with neat diagrams.
14. What are the component parts of water bound macadam road?
15. Differentiate between bituminous and concrete roads with their plus and minus.
16. (a) With the help of a neat sketch explain the construction of Water Bound Macadam Road.
(b)What do you know about rain water harvesting? Explain its importance.
17. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Water Bound Macadam road?
18. Explain the steps in construction of concrete roads.
19. Name the advantages and disadvantages of concrete roads.
20. What are the sources of water? How is it supplied to its users? Explain the steps in it.
21. Explain the quality requirements of water to be supplied for drinking purpose with its importance.
22. Explain the various methods of treating water.
23. List out the systems of water supply with neat sketches and their merits and demerits.
24. What are the different methods of chlorination?
25. Explain the method of rain water harvesting in buildings and roads.

QUESTION AND ANSWERS

UNIT 1
PART I - 2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Define Engineering and Civil Engineering?
[January, 2011]
Engineering is the field of application of the various scientific principles for the benefaction of
mankind.
Civil Engineering is oldest branch of engineering, directing the great resources of Nature for
the use and convenience of mankind.

2. What is a building?
National Building Code of India has defined building as any structure constructed for any
purpose with any materials, used for human habitation or not.
 It includes foundation, plinth, floors, walls, roofs, chimneys, fixed platform, verandah,
balconies, plumbing and building services, etc.

3. How can you classify the buildings? [January,

2011]
National Building Code of India has classified building as Residential Buildings, Educational
Buildings, Institutional Buildings, Assembly Buildings, Business Buildings, Mercantile
Buildings, Industrial Buildings, Storage Buildings and Hazardous Buildings.

4. Define plinth area. [January, 2010],

[January, 2013]
Plinth Area is defined as the total covered built-up area of a building, measured at floor level
or any storey. It is calculated by measuring the external dimensions of a building. It includes
supported porches (non-cantilever) and excludes courtyards, open areas, balconies, and
cantilever projections.

5. What do you mean by floor area? [May,

2010]
Floor Area of any floor is the total floor area between walls for all rooms in that floor. It
includes area of verandas, passages, corridors, stair rooms, entrance halls, kitchens, stores and
toilets. It excludes area of all walls, columns / pillars and intermediate supports.
Mathematically, Floor Area = Plinth Area - Area of all walls.

6. What is carpet area? [January,

2013]
Carpet Area of any floor is the useful or livable area of that floor. Or it is the area where floor
carpet is laid. It excludes toilets, passages, verandahs, corridors, stairs, lifts, entrance hall, etc.

7. Define circulation area.

Circulation area is defined as the area of building that is used for the movement of people
inside the building. It includes verandas, passages, corridors, balconies, entrance halls,
porches, stairs, etc.

8. What is floor area ratio?

Ratio of total built-up covered area to the area of the plot.
Mathematically, Floor Area Ratio (FAR) = Plinth Area of all Floors / Plot Area

9. What is building material or construction material?

Building material or construction material is the material used for building or constructing the
structures like building, dams, roads, etc. Example: stone, cement, brick, etc.

10. Name a few building materials.

Solid materials like stone, sand, timber, steel
Binding materials like cement, lime, mortar
Protective materials like paint, varnish, plaster

11. What is stone?

Stone is naturally available building material, which has been used from the early age of civilization.
It is available in the form of rocks and is cut to required size and shape and used as building block.
It is used to construct residential buildings of small size to large forts and huge dams.

12. What are the types of rocks? Give example.

Based on their origin of formation, rocks are classified into three main groups - igneous rocks (granite
and basalt), sedimentary rocks (sand stone and lime stone) and metamorphic rocks (marble and slate).

13. Name a few properties or characteristics of stone.

Strength, hardness, porosity and water absorption, toughness, resistance to fire and ease in dressing,
etc.

14. State some uses of stone.

Stones are used in construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches in buildings and in
construction of bridge piers and abutments and also in construction of dams, etc.
Stones are used for flooring and face works of buildings, paving of roads, as railway ballast and as
basic inert material in concrete.

15. List the tests conducted on stones.

[January, 2011]
Crushing strength test
Water absorption test
Abrasion test
Impact test
Acid test

16. What is a brick?

Brick is a building block like stone and after stone it is the oldest building block being used. Brick is
obtained by moulding good clay into a block of required dimensions, which is dried and then burnt.

17. What are the steps in manufacturing bricks?

Preparation of brick earth
Moulding of bricks
Drying of bricks and
Burning of bricks

18. What are the qualities of a good brick? [May,

2011]
Uniformity in colour, shape, and size
Sufficiency in soundness, hardness and strength
Nil efflorescence, less water absorption and low thermal conductivity
Good sound insulation and fire resistance

19. List out different types of bricks. [May, 2009], [May,

2012]
Building Bricks
Paving Bricks and Fire Bricks
Special Bricks like specially shaped bricks, facing bricks, perforated building bricks, burnt clay
hollow bricks, sewer bricks and acid resistant bricks

20. What are the various types (classes) of bricks based on quality? [November,
2008]
First class bricks, second class bricks, third class bricks and fourth class bricks.

21. What are the uses of bricks?

As building block
For lining of ovens, furnaces and chimneys
As aggregates in concrete
For protecting steel columns from fire
As pavers in footpaths and cycle tracks
For lining sewer lines

22. What is cement?

Cement is a commonly used binding material in construction. It is in powdery form and mixed with
water to undergo hydration to form a hard and strong building material. It can be used in mortar as a
covering and bonding material and in concrete as building material

23. What are the constituents of cement?

Basic constituents of cement are lime (62%) and silica (22%). Other constituents are alumina (5%),
calcium sulphate (4%), iron oxide (3%), magnesia (2%), sulphur (1%) and alkalis (1%).

24. State some types of cement. [May, 2009]

Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), Portland Pozzalona Cement (PPC), White Cement, Coloured
Cement, Quick Setting Cement, Rapid Hardening Cement, Expanding Cement, Acid Resistant
Cement, etc.

25. What is setting of cement?

When water is added to cement, cement undergoes hydration - an exothermic chemical reaction, to
form various chemical compounds which gives strength to the cement and results in its hardening.
This process is called hardening or setting of cement.

26. What is curing? What is its importance?

During the setting of cement, the heat evolved due to hydration of cement (exothermic reaction)
causes the evaporation of water which is present for further reaction. To compensate this water loss,
water is added frequently during the setting period of cement. This process of adding water is called
curing.
If curing water is not added setting is not completed and cement will not attain its required strength.

27. What are the products of hydration of cement or setting of cement?

Tri-calcium silicate 3CaO SiO2 (C3S)
Di-calcium silicate 2CaO SiO2 (C2S)
Tri-calcium aluminate 3CaO Al2O3 (C3A)
Tetra-calcium aluminate 4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3 (C3AF)

28. Name a few properties of cement.

Fineness, uniform colour, specific gravity of 3.15, setting time (initial setting time > 30 minutes and
final setting time < 10 hours), soundness or less expansion, required crushing strength and tensile
strength.

29. State the uses of cement.

Cement in mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing
Cement in concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges, water
tanks, tunnels, docks and harbours etc. and in manufacturing of railway sleepers, piles etc. It is also
useful for the paving roads, footpaths and courts for various sports
Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures

30. What do you mean by the grade of cement? [January,

2010]
The ordinary Portland cement is represented by its characteristic compressive strength at 28 days,
expressed in N/mm2. The types of grades of cement are 33, 43 and 53.
31. What is mortar? Give example. [May,
2012]
Mortar is a mixture of a binding material like cement, water and fine aggregate like sand. It forms a
wet paste while mixing and becomes strong after setting. Cement mortar and lime mortar are
examples for mortar.

32. Define cement mortar. [November,

2011]
Cement mortar is an example of mortar and it consists of cement as binding material, water and the
fine aggregate sand. It forms a wet paste while mixing and becomes strong after setting. It is used for
plastering of walls and for bonding bricks in wall masonry.

33. What are the ingredients of mortar?

Binding material (like lime or cement)
Fine aggregate (like sand or crushed rock)
Water

34. Name some properties of mortar?

Easy workability while mixing
Water tightness and hardening after setting
Good bonding strength with stone or bricks
Sufficient compressive strength and durability after hardening

35. What are the tests on mortar?

Crushing Test
Tensile Strength Test
Adhesive Test

36. What are the uses of mortar?

To bind masonry units like stone, bricks, cement blocks
To give neat finishing to walls and concrete works.
For pointing masonry joints
To fill joints and cracks in walls

37. What is concrete?

Concrete is a mixture of binding material, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. It can be easily
moulded to desired shape when it is wet and workable. After setting of the binding material (cement)
it hardens like stone.

38. What are the constituents of concrete?

Binding material (like lime or cement)
Fine aggregate (like sand or crushed rock)
Coarse aggregate (like stone or brick bats)
Water

39. What is concrete grade?

The concrete mix is represented by its characteristic compressive strength at 28 days expressed
in N/mm2. This is denoted by adding the prefix M such as M15, M20, etc.

40. List the types of concrete. [May,

2010]
Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)
Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
 Fiber Reinforced Concrete (FRC)
Prestressed Concrete (PSC)
Light Weight Concrete
High Density Concrete

41. Name some uses of concrete.

Bed concrete is used below column footings, wall footings and on wall at supports to beams
In pavements and for making building blocks
RCC is used in structural element like footings, columns, beams, lintels, roof slabs
It is used for the construction of storage structures (water tanks, dams, silos and bunkers), big
structures (bridges, retaining walls, docks, harbours and under water structures) and tall structures
(multi storey buildings, chimneys and towers)
It is used for pre-casting in making railway sleepers and electric poles

42. What are the steps in manufacturing of concrete?

Batching, mixing, transporting, placing, compacting and curing

43. Why reinforcement is used in concrete? [May,

2009]
Concrete is good in compression but weak in tension. Hence some materials like steel which have
good tensile strength are used as reinforcement in concrete and are embedded inside the concrete.
RCC is very common building material and is used in all parts of a building.

44. What is steel? What are the types of steel? [May,

2009]
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (0.25 % to 1.5 %). It is the most common metal as well as high
strength material used as building material. Types of steel are,
Mild steel - carbon content from 0.10 % to 0.25 &
Medium carbon steel - carbon content from 0.25 % to 0.60 &
High carbon steel and - carbon content from 0.60 % to 1.5 &

45. What are the properties of steel? [November,

2008]
It has high tensile strength and compressive strength.
It is can be welded and forged
It is ductile and malleable
Its specific gravity is 7.8
Its Youngs Modulus is 2.10 x 105 N/mm2
It can be magnetised permanently

46. What are the uses of steel?

Various sections of steel bars are used as reinforcement in RCC works, as columns, beams, trusses etc
Steel sheets are used as roofing materials and as walls for water tanks, etc.
Steel is used in making parts of various machines and for making all kinds of tools

47. What is the major disadvantage of steel? How do you prevent it?
The major disadvantage of steel is that it undergoes rusting or corrosion. It is due to the
oxidation of steel.
Rusting can be prevented by avoiding the direct exposure of the steel to humid air, by coating
it with paints or protective chemicals or by galvanisation.

48. Name some properties of mild steel.

It is ductile, malleable and more elastic
 It has fibrous structure and can be magnetized permanently
Its specific gravity is 7.8 and its Youngs modulus is 2.1 105 N/mm2
It can be forged and welded
It is equally strong in tension and in compression
Its melting point > 1400C

49. State the uses of mild steel.

It is used as reinforcing bars in RCC
As angles & other sections, bars or rods, sheets or plates, it is used in construction of structural
members
Used in machine parts, motor body, tubes, wires, sheet plate, tin metal, etc.
It is also used for manufacturing rails, cranes, towers, etc.
It is used in making permanent magnets

50. What are the properties of medium carbon steel?

Its strength is more than that of mild steel
It cannot be easily forged and welded
It can withstand shocks and vibrations
It can be hardened to little extent
It is tougher and harder than mild steel

51. Write down the uses of medium carbon steel.

It is used as structural steel as various sections (rod, bar, flat, channels, I and L angles and T
sections)
It is also used to make boiler plates, rails, hammers, pressing dies, etc

52. What are the properties of high carbon steel?

It has granular structure and can be magnetised permanently
It is readily forged and welded
It is tougher than mild steel and it can withstand shocks and vibrations
It can be easily hardened and tempered
Its specific gravity ~ 7.9 and melting point is > 1300C

53. Name some uses of high carbon steel.

It is used to make sledge hammers, springs, smiths tools, metal cutting tools, planning machines,
wood working tools, axes & hammers, mining equipments, drill bits, stone masons' tools and knives
& forks, etc.

54. What are the various forms of reinforcing steel? [November,

2011]
Mild steel round rods, tor steel rods, steel strands or wires, flat bars, special sections like L,
I, C, T, etc.

55. What are the uses of tor steel? [May, 2011]

Compare ordinary steel with mild steel.
[January, 2013]
Unlike ordinary mild steel bars which has plain surface, tor steel has ribbed perimeter and it is
used in RCC as reinforcement. Its area of contact with concrete is more when compared to
mild steel rod of same diameter. Therefore its bonding strength with concrete is higher than
that of mild steel rods.
Tor steel is also tempered while manufacturing and hence it has high strength than mild steel.
 UNIT II
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Write about the two basic components of the building.
Sub-structure is below ground level (foundation) and super-structure is above ground level (wall, roof,
etc.)

2. What are the components of substructure and superstructure of a building? [November,

2011]
Generally foundations are the part of substructure. All other components of buildings such as
floors, walls, lintels, columns, beams, roofs, doors, windows, stairs, sunshades, etc. forms its
superstructure.
3. What are the component parts of a building?
Foundation, floor, wall, lintel, column, beam, roof, stairs, sunshade are some of the parts of a
building.

4. What are the structural components of a building? [May,

2010]
Foundation, slab, lintel, column, beam are the structural components of a building which
transfers load

5. Name the types of soil.

Soils are classified into cohesive soils (with fine grained size: example clay) and non-cohesive soils
(with coarse grained size: example sand).

6. Define bearing capacity of soil.

The load carrying capacity of soils is called as their bearing capacity. In another words the
property of soils to take the loads without failing is known as bearing capacity of soils.

7. What is ultimate bearing capacity?

The maximum load the soil can carry without failure is known as its ultimate bearing capacity.

8. What is safe bearing capacity of soil? [November,

2011]
The maximum load the soil can carry safely without the risk of failure is known as its safe
bearing capacity.

9. What is factor of safety?

Factor of safety is factor by which the ultimate bearing capacity of soil is reduced in order to
accommodate the possibilities of risks in failure of soil.
Mathematically, Factor of safety = ultimate bearing capacity / safe bearing capacity.

10. Name the factors that affect the bearing capacity of soil.
Magnitude and type of load on the soil
Type, shape, size and depth of footing
Depth of water table below foundation
Permeability and moisture content of soil
Cohesion and angle of internal friction of the grains of the soil
Density and compactness of soil

11. State some methods to improve the bearing capacity of soil. [November,
2008]
Increasing depth of foundation
Draining the soil
Cement grouting or chemical treatment
Confining the soil or compacting the soil (by ramming moist soil, sand piles, rubble compaction, pre-
loading, flooding the soil, vibrating the soil or Vibro-flotation method)

12. What is foundation? [May, 2008]

It is part of sub-structure of a building, which is in direct contact with ground.
It safely transmits and spreads the load from the superstructure to the soil below it.

13. Name the types of foundation.

Based on the depth of foundations, they are divided into
Shallow foundation: their width is more than their depth
Deep foundation their depth is more than their width

14. What are the functions of foundations? [November, 2008], [January,

2010]
To distribute the load uniformly so that the load intensity below foundation is less than soil bearing
capacity
To provide a level base and support for superstructure
To give stability against earthquake, wind, etc.
Prevent cracks due to moisture, tilting and overturning

15. What are the usual causes of failure of foundation? [May, 2008], [May, 2009],
[May, 2011]
Inadequate bearing capacity of soil
Unequal settlement of sub-soil
Lateral pressure on superstructure
Lateral movement of sub-soil
Unequal settlement of masonry

16. Write the remedial methods for failure of foundations.

Increasing the bearing capacity of soil
Distributing the load evenly on soil by suitable design and construction of foundation
Designing the loads and components of structure like walls, columns and foundations such that it
results in uniform or zero settlement and also negligible lateral pressure on superstructure
Arresting the lateral movement of soil by constructing retaining walls, etc

17. What are the types of shallow foundation?

Footing
Strap footing
Raft or mat footing
Grillage foundation

18. State the various deep foundations.

Pile foundation
Well foundation
Caisson foundation

19. What are the types of piles?

Pile types based on load transfer are: end bearing pile, friction pile and combined end bearing &
friction pile
Pile types based on material of construction are: timber piles, concrete piles, steel piles and composite
piles

20. Name the types of footings.

Simple footing, sloped footing and stepped footing
Isolated footing, continuous footing and combined footing

21. What is simple footing? [May,

2011]
It is the basic form of footing for column and wall. The member (column or wall) is provided with a
base below it whose size is such that an offset is provided around the perimeter of the member. By
doing so, the load on the member is spread to the soil below the footing.

22. Define masonry. What are its components?

Masonry is the part of building which is constructed using the building units or blocks such as bricks
or stones and are bonded together with binding material like mortar (lime or cement mortar).
Normally walls are constructed by masonry, but foundation, plinth and columns are also constructed
with masonry.

23. Name the types of masonry.

Brick masonry, stone masonry and concrete block masonry

24. What are header and stretcher?

Header is a full brick or stone unit which is laid such that its length is laid perpendicular to the
longitudinal direction of the wall.
Stretcher is a full brick or stone unit which is laid such that its length is laid parallel to the
longitudinal direction of the wall.

25. What is a course and bed?

Course is a horizontal layer of masonry unit
Bed is the lower surface of a masonry unit in each course

26. What is lap and bed joint?

Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick courses
A joint formed by bed (or lower surface) of a course and the upper surface of the course below it is
called bed joint

27. What do you mean by header course and stretcher course?

A course of brick showing only the headers on the exposed surface the wall is called header course or
heading course
A course of brick showing only the stretchers on the exposed surface the wall is called stretcher
course or stretching course

28. Define closer. Define bat.

Closer is the portion of a brick cut along its length, such that its width is shortened. Thus closer is a
header of smaller width
Bat is a part of a brick cut across its length, such that its length is shortened. Thus bat is a stretcher of
smaller length

29. What are king closer and queen closer?

King closer is the portion of a brick obtained by cutting away the triangular portion between the
centre of one shorter end and the centre of its longer adjacent end.
Queen closer is the portion of a brick cut into two equal halves along its length. Thus the width of the
header is reduced

30. Define bonding in masonry. [May, 2010]

Bond or bonding is the arranging of stones or bricks such that no vertical joint is formed. Thus no full
surface of a stone or brick in a wall is in contact with full surface of the stone or brick which is above
or below it. Lime or cement mortars are used to bond the building blocks, else they dont have
sufficient strength and stability.

31. Name a few rules for bonding in masonry.

The amount of lap should be at least of brick length along the length of the wall and at least of
brick length across the thickness of the wall.
Use of brick bats should be least
The vertical joints in the alternate courses should be along the same Perpend
Stretchers should be used in face of the wall but not in the hearting. Only headers should be used in
the hearting

32. State the types of bonds in brick masonry. [November,

2008]
Header bond and Stretcher bond
Flemish bond and English bond
Garden wall bond and Herring bone bond
Diagonal bond and Zigzag bond

33. Name the types of stone masonry.

Rubble Masonry: coursed and un-coursed random rubble masonry, coursed and un-coursed square
rubble masonry, polygonal rubble masonry and flint rubble masonry
Ashlar Masonry: ashlar fine tooled, ashlar chamfered and ashlar facing masonry

34. What is floor?

Floor is a horizontal member of a building. It divides the building into different levels or storeys, for
creating accommodation within a restricted space. It also provides the horizontal plane surface where
the various functions of a building occur. Example: in a residential building people live or reside on
floors.

35. How floors are classified based on floor finishes?

[January, 2010]
Mud or murram flooring, cement flooring, marble flooring, mosaic flooring and tiled flooring

36. Name some requirements for floors.

Economical in construction
Ease to maintenance
Smooth and good appearance
Durability and hardness
Fire resistance and damp resistance
Thermal insulation and sound insulation

37. What are the components of the floor?

Floor slab, floor base or floor bed and floor finish are the components of floors.

38. Write a few types of floors. [May,2009], [January, 2013]

Based on the material of construction, types of floor are stone floor, brick floor, timber floor, concrete
floor, rubber floor, glass floor and plastic or PVC floor

39. Name a few functions of floors.

It divides the building into different levels or storeys.
It also provides the horizontal plane surface where the various functions of a building occur. Example:
in a residential building people live or reside on floors and in storage building things are stored on
floor.
A floor of upper level also acts as roof of lower level.
The ground floor provided damp proofing to the building above it

40. What is roof?

Uppermost part of building
It is supported by structural members
It is covered with roofing material
It protects the building from weather effects

41. How do you classify roofs?

Based on the geometry of the roof, it is classified as flat (or horizontal) roof, pitched (or sloped or
inclined) roof and curved roof.

42. Classify the roofs based on roof coverings. [May,

2010]
Thatched roofs, asbestos cement sheet roofs, tiled roofs, timber or wooden roof, stone roof, RCC roof,
steel roof, plastic or PVC roof, glass roof, etc.
43. State some requirements of well-planned roof?
[January, 2011]
Durability against weather - rain, sun, wind cold and snow
Water proofing and fire proofing
Thermal insulation
Sound insulation
Strength and stability for carrying loads
Well drained arrangement

44. Name a few functions of roof. [May,

2008]
It protects the building from weather effects (sun, cold, rain, wind, snow, etc.)
It also gives an architectural look to the building
It should resist fire, external heat and sound.
It should carry its designed loads safely

45. What are the advantages of flat roof? [May,

2010]
It can be easily made fire proof
It can be used for other activities like conducting some functions or storing materials
It suits any type of building and vertical extension of building is easy

46. State the disadvantages of flat roof. [November,

2008]
Drainage is difficult and hence not suitable for rainy or snow clad areas
It requires intermediate support for large spans and its dead weight or self weight is more
Less aesthetic appearance

47. What is pitched or sloped roof?

These roofs have flat surface but with an angle of inclination from 30 to 60. They have their pitch or
the higher point at centre or at any one of the sides. Example: truss roofs.

48. What are the advantages of sloped roof?

Good drainage is possible and hence suitable for rainy and snow clad areas
Good aesthetic appearance and suitable for large spans

49. State the disadvantages of sloped roof.

Addition of floors above the roof is difficult and more prone to fires than flat roofs
Cannot take more loads and cannot used for other uses like flat roofs
50. What is roof truss? [May, 2013]
A frame work of slender members is used to support sloping roofs. These frames are known as
trusses. Roof truss acts like a beam in a framed structure. Example: King post truss and Queen post
truss.

51. Name a few types of roof truss.

King post truss and Queen post truss
Howe truss and Pratt truss
Fink truss or French truss
Bow string truss or Arch truss
North light truss

52. What is a curved roof?

The roofs outer surface is curved in geometry. It may be curved in one dimension like a cylindrical
roof or curved in two dimensions like dome. It gives good appearance.

53. Name the advantages of curved roof?

Best aesthetic appearance among roofs
Less materials used and hence less self weight
Good drainage is possible

54. State the disadvantages of curved roof.

Very difficult to construct and costliest among all roofs
Cannot take more loads
 UNIT III
2 MARKS QUESTIONS
1. Define surveying
Surveying is the art of determining relative positions of objects on or above or beneath the surface of
the earth by taking measurements of distance, direction and elevation

2. Classify surveying based on equipment used.

Chain surveying, compass surveying, planed table surveying, theodolite surveying, tachometric
surveying, Ariel surveying, photographic surveying

3. Classify surveying based on application of surveying.

Engineering survey, Military survey, mine survey, Geological survey and Archaeological survey

4. Classify surveying based on area of surveying.

Land surveying, Hydrographic surveying and Astronomical surveying

5. Classify surveying based on the surface of earth assumed in surveying.

Plane surveying is the type of surveying in which the earths surface is assumed as a plane surface and
geodetic surveying is the type of surveying in which the surface of the earth is considered as it is
(spherical).

6. Classify surveying based on the method used.

Triangulation surveying and Traversing

7. State the general principles of surveying.

To work from whole to part: to prevent the accumulation of errors
To fix the position of new stations by at-least two independent process (or from 2 bench marks)

8. What is a compass? What is its use in surveying?

Compass is an instrument which can be used to measure the direction of a survey line with respect to
magnetic north- south. Compass is used in surveying for measuring the direction of a line.

9. What are the common equipments used in surveying?

Measuring tape, chain, sextant, compass, plane table, theodilite, dumpy level ,etc.

10. Name some special equipment used in surveying?

Total station, geodimeter, tellurometer, distomat, GPS instrument, remote sensors, etc

11. List out disadvantages of chain surveying.

It is heavier than a measure tape, hence difficult to handle
It expands or according to the temperature, hence frequent corrections required
Angular measurements cannot be taken, hence additional instrument like compass is required
Chaining is difficult in uneven ground and over water bodies

12. Define levelling.

Levelling is the process of measuring the vertical levels or heights of any object on the surface of the
earth.
It is used to measure the levels or locate vertical positions of the points on or above or below the
surfaces of the earth. It is also used to fix the levels or establish vertical positions of the points on or
above or below the earths surface
13. Name the uses of levelling.
Levelling has a very wide range of applications. Some of them are:
Levelling is used to prepare contour maps as a part of topographical, hydrographical and astronomical
maps.
It is used in engineering works to prepare maps as well as setting out of works.
As a part of surveying, it is also used in the areas of geology, archaeology, mining and defence.
The instruments used in the levelling are dumpy level and levelling staff.
Total station is one of the latest equipment used in levelling. EDM and GPS are the latest
advancement in levelling.

14. Name the advancements in surveying.

Electronic distance measurement(EDM) instruments, Global positioning system(GPS), remote
sensing.

15. Explain GPS?

GPS (or) global positioning system is an advanced surveying method which uses satellites to locate
any object by finding its position (latitude or longitude) and the elevation altitude with respect to a
base point. It uses electronic instrument to generate signals and receive them to locate the objects by
measuring the travel time of the signals.

16. What is a contour?

Contour is an imaginary line joining the points of same level, relative to an assumed datum. Such
lines are drawn along with their levels, on the plan of an area after determining the levels of several
points in that area. Such a map is known as contour map

17. Name any two characteristics of contours.

Contour lines do not end, but close on themselves
Widely spaced contour indicates flat surface, closely spaced contour indicates steep ground and
equally spaced contour indicates uniform slope

18. Name the uses of contours.

Contours are used to find out the nature of the ground.
Contours help in finding out the depth of cutting or filling for formation level of a road or railway line
The routes of the railway, road, canal or sewer lines can be decided by using contours
Catchment area and quantity of water flow for river can be determined from contour maps
From the contours, it is also possible to determine the capacity of a reservoir

19. What is a road?

Road is a paved path for the transport of vehicle to carry men and materials from one place to another.
It is most basic and oldest form of transports

20. How highways are classified according to their importance.

Basically roads are classified as urban roads and non-urban roads.
Urban roads are expressways, Arterial streets, Sub arterial streets, collector streets and local streets.
Non urban roads are National highways, State highways, Major district highways, Other district
roads and village roads.

21. What are the types of roads based on material used?

Earthen roads, gravel roads, WBM roads, bituminous roads, Concrete roads and block pavements
using stone or brick or concrete blocks.
22. Name the parts of a road.
Sub grade, sub base course, base course and surface course are the parts of a bituminous road.
Sub grade, base course and wearing course are the parts of a concrete road

23. What is super elevation? Why is it provided in a road?

Super elevation is the additional rise in the outer edge with respect to the inner edge, provided at the
curved turnings of a road. It is provided to balance the centrifugal force on the vehicle due to the
curved nature of turnings and its travelling speed. If this elevation is not provided the vehicle may
over shoot along the other side of the curve.

24. What is water bound macadam road?

These are prepared in layers. Each layer has a thickness of about 10-15cm.
Water bound macadam roads consists of broken or crushed aggregates mechanically interlocked by
rolling and their voids filled or bound by dust and water. It is generally used as sub base or base
course.

25. State any two advantages of bituminous roads.

Cost of bituminous roads is greater than the concrete roads
Bituminous roads can be opened for traffic after construction as they require curing period
Stage development is possible in bituminous roads

26. Name the disadvantages of bituminous roads.

Bituminous roads are severely damaged during rain and also by oils
High temperature is required to mix the contents of bituminous roads
Maintenance of bituminous roads is difficult than that of the concrete roads

27. What are the advantages of concrete roads?

They provide excellent riding surfaces and pleasing appearances
They provide better visibility
They can withstand heavy traffic
They are not much damaged during rain and neither by oils
The contents of concrete roads can be mixed under normal temperatures
They are more durable and hence maintenance of concrete roads is easier

28. What are the disadvantages of concrete roads?

Cost of concrete roads is greater than the bituminous roads
They cannot be opened for traffic after construction as they require curing period
Stage development is not possible in concrete roads
Joints in concrete roads are weaker than other parts and may be easily damaged

29. What are bridges?

Bridges are the structures which provide passage for road or rail over an obstacle like a river or valley

30. Name the components of a bridge.

The components of the bridge are substructure and super structure. Substructure consists of
foundations, abutments and piers, wing walls and bearings. The super structure consists of
approaches, deck and parapet walling railing. Bridges are made of various materials such as timber,
steel, RCC, masonry, pre stressed concrete bridges and composite materials.

31. State the uses of bridges.

Bridges provide continuation of pathways over obstructions like river, lake, valley and also seas.
Bridges also provide an over pass for pipelines or canal over other waterways like river or lake
Bridges provide unobstructed flow or traffic or pedestrians above an existing road or rail

32. How are bridges classified according to the span?

Culverts - span less than 6m
Minor bridges span from 6m to 30m
Major bridges span from 30m to 120m
Long span bridges- span above 120m

33. What are the types of bridges based on construction?

Timber, steel, RCC, masonry, pre stressed concrete bridges and composite materials.

34. Define piers.

Piers are the part of the substructure of a bridge. They provide intermediate supports for the super
structure of the bridge. They act like columns and transfer the load of bridges to the foundation. They
are made of stone masonry or concrete

35. Name some points in locating a bridge across a river.

The span of the bridge should be perpendicular to the direction of flow of the river as much as
possible.
The width of the river at the bridge crossing should be of least width.
The longitudinal direction of the bridge should be as much as parallel to the direction of the passage

36. What is a dam?

Dam is a structure used to store water. It is constructed across a river preferably at a valley. It is
constructed with water tight materials like stone masonry, RCC, or steel.

37. What are the uses of a dam?

To store and control the water for irrigation
To store and divert the water for domestic uses
To supply water for industrial uses
To develop hydro electric power plants to produce electricity
To increase water depths for navigation
To create storage space for flood control
To preserve and cultivate the useful aquatic life

38. List out the types of dams based on uses.

Storage dam, diversion dam, detention dam, hydro electric power producing dam, irrigation dam, etc

39. Classify dams based on material used for construction.

Earthen dam, rock-fill dam, timber dams, steel dams and concrete dams

40. What do you mean by multi-purpose dam?

A dam which has more than one use is called as multi-purpose dam. A same dam can be used to avoid
floods during monsoon and store that water for summer for irrigation or to generate power.

41. Name the points considered in selecting a dam site.

The dam site should not be an earthquake prone zone or seismically active zone.
Suitable foundations should be available at the site selected for a particular type of dam. For gravity
dams, sound rock is essential. For earth dams, any type of foundations is suitable with proper
treatment.

42. What are the common parts of a dam?

The parts of a dam are:
Reservoir, embankment, impervious core or lining, foundation , spill ways, sluice gates to control
flow of water

43. What are the disadvantages of a dam?

Dams cause a large area of land and forest to submerge along its sides and affect people and wildlife
Dams have possible risk of failure resulting in huge loss of life and property due to any unexpected
reasons like heavy rains, floods flood, land slide, earthquakes, etc.

44. What are the sources of water?

The following are the sources of water:
Precipitation in form of rain, snow, dew, hail
Surface water sources like lake, pond, river, and stream
Ground water sources such as springs, infiltration galleries, well, ground well

45. As per IS 1172: 1971, write the details of domestic consumption of water.
The average per capita demand for domestic consumption of water is 135litres/capita/day
The demand for gardens is 3.5litres/sq.m/day

46. Name the types of water supply systems.

Water supply
Continuous water supply
Intermittent water supply
Water distribution system
Gravity system
Pumping system
Dual system

47. What are the various methods to treat water?

Filtration, Sedimentation, Aeration, Reverse-osmosis, disinfection like chlorination, UV rays
treatment, etc.

48. Define chlorination. What is its importance in water supply?

Chlorination is defined as the process of adding chlorine to water. It results in disinfection of water
and makes it fit domestic consumption. It is the most common method and also economical method. It
results in cleaning the water from bacteria and other micro organisms.

49. What is rain water harvesting?

An artificial method of recharging the ground water table is called rain water harvesting. The rain
water is collected in pits and sent in to underground water table after proper filtration.
Now-a-days we depend more on ground water table for water, resulting in fast depletion of ground
water level. Naturally, the rain water takes more time to percolate through the soil to reach the ground
water table artificially

50.What are the methods of harvesting rain water?

Ground water harvesting method, Roof top harvesting method and rain water harvesting method for
roads.

51. What is the importance of rain water harvesting?

Now-a-days we depend more on ground water table for water, resulting in fast depletion of ground
water level. Naturally, the rain water takes more time to percolate through the soil to reach the ground
water table artificially.