Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
9R-91
Richard O. Albright Howard J. Durham Starr Kohn Antonio Nanni Michel A. Sargious
William A. Arent Robert J. Fluhr Ronald J. Larsen Thomas J. Pasko, Jr. Milton R. Sees
Glen E. Bollin Nader Ghafoori Torbjorn J. Larsen Ronald L. Peltz Terry W. Sherman
Jerry E. Breite Wilbur C. Greer, Jr. Richard A. McComb Sr. Robert W. Piggott Douglas C. Staab
Jo Coke Amir N. Hanna B. Frank McCullough Steven A. Ragan Douglas W. Weaver
Benjamin Colluci Morris Skip Huffman Paul E. Mueller John L. Rice C. Philip Weisz
Michael I. Darter Oswin Keifer, Jr. Jon I. Mullarky Raymond S. Rollings Gerald E. Wixson
Matthew W. Ross William A. Yrjanson
Task Force Member
Task Force Chairman
This report covers the construction of concrete pavements and concrete bases without attempting to include inflexible specifications for
procedures, materials, or equipment. References are made to specifications, but only as a guide to enable a selection of requirements suitable
for a particular location or class of work. The document is slanted to some degree toward use by agencies other than state highway
departments, or turnpike and airfield authorities, which usually have large and experienced engineering staffs with knowledge of past
performance of pavements in the area.
Sections are devoted to specifying, sampling, and testing materials, and to the possible influence of materials on skid resistance, economy,
and durability. Maximum aggregate size is mentioned as sometimes relating to pavement durability. Subgrades and subbases are treated only
as to final preparation for paving.
Recommendations for forms are included as well as recommendations for projects using slipforms. Arrangement of joints is described,
and references are given for guidance in using reinforcement. Sections on normal and high-early-strength concrete proportioning rely heavily
on reference to ACI 211.1, but point out the special problems connected with pavement concretes and the use of admixtures in pavement
concrete.
Sections on mixing, placing, finishing, and curing concrete refer to other ACI reports where pertinent, but make recommendations for the
special handling necessary in the case of pavements. Concrete bases are treated where procedures vary from those used for pavements, and
recommendations and references are given for cold and hot weather concreting.
Keywords: admixtures; aggregates; air entrainment; base courses; cements; cold weather construction; compressive strength; concrete construction; concrete
durability: concrete finishing (fresh concrete); concrete pavements; curing; curing compounds; curing films and sheets; flexural strength; formwork
(construction): high-early-strength cements; hot weather construction; joint sealers; joints (junctions); mix proportioning; mixing; mixing plants; placing;
portland cements: quality control; ready-mixed concrete; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels; skid resistance; slipform construction; subbases.
325.9R-1
325.9R-2 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
CONTENTS
Fig. 1b-A slipform paving operation showing paver components (Courtesy CMI Corp.)
size of coarse aggregate is 1 in. (25 mm) or less, consist of any of the following:
such separation is not necessary. 2.4.1.1 - Portland cement (ASTM C 150)
2.3.2 - Aggregates should be handled and 2.4.1.2 - Blended hydraulic cements (ASTM C
stored in a manner which minimizes segregation, 595)
degradation, contamination, or mixing of 2.4.1.3 - Other special types, such as expansive
different kinds and sizes. A preferred method cements (ASTM C 845).
of stockpiling coarse aggregates to minimize 2.4.2 - When hydraulic cements listed in
segregation is construction of the stockpile in Section 2.4.1.1 are to be batched on the job with
successive horizontal layers not more than 6 ft (2 another cementing material, the batched
m) thick, with each layer completed over the ingredient may be one of the following:
entire stockpile area before the next is started. 2.4.2.1 - Ground granulated, blast furnace,
If operation of hauling equipment on a stockpile slag (ASTM C 989)
is necessary all ramps and runways on the 2.4.2.2 - Fly ash (ASTM C 618)
stockpile should be covered by suitable mats or 2.4.2.3 - Natural pozzolan (ASTM C 618)
boards, or rubber tired vehicles should be used 2.4.2.4 - Silica fume
to minimize degradation. Rejected material,
may be reprocessed and returned to the 2.5-Curing materials
stockpile provided the reprocessed materials The specifications should stipulate the type or
meet the applicable specifications. Comparable types of curing material to be used and require
care should be used in removal of aggregates conformance to the appropriate specification
from stockpiles to prevent segregation. below. The general requirements of curing
Information about stockpiling in specific practice as recommended by ACI 308 should be
situations can be obtained from ACI 304R and followed.
ACI 221R. 2.5.1 - Burlap should be made from jute or
2.3.3 - Frozen aggregates or aggregates kenaf and, at the time of use, should be in good
containing frozen lumps should be thawed condition, free from holes, dirt, clay, or any
before use. Washed fine aggregates and fine other substance which interferes with its
aggregates produced or manipulated by absorptive quality. It should not contain any
hydraulic methods should be allowed to drain substance which would have a deleterious effect
for at least 12 hrs before use. Stockpiles, or cars on the concrete. Additional details are in
and barges equipped with seep holes are AASHTO M 182. Burlap that will not absorb
considered to offer suitable opportunity for water readily when dipped or sprayed and that
drainage. weighs less than 7 oz/yd2 (240 g/m2) when clean
2.3.4 - Aggregates should have a reasonably and dry should not be used. Burlap made into
uniform moisture content when delivered to the mats should be handled with care to avoid
mixer. Wetting of dry aggregates prior to marring the finished surface of the concrete.
batching will effect cooling by evaporation and 2.5.2 - Waterproof paper and impermeable
may, if carefully done, minimize moisture sheets should conform to the water retention
variations and reduce excessive absorption of requirements of ASTM C 171.
mixing water. 2.5.3 - Liquid membrane-forming compounds
should conform to the requirements of ASTM C
2.4-Cement and cementitious materials 309. Type 2, white pigmented curing compound
The cement type or types to be used should is generally preferred for concrete pavements.
be specified and should conform to the Type 1, clear or translucent, and Type 3, light
requirements of applicable ASTM standards as gray pigmented, are also used.
listed below. All cement used on a given project
should be from the same source unless otherwise 2.6-Expansion joint filler
permitted by the specifications. For further Expansion joint filler should be of the type
guidance on cementitious materials see ACI 223, specified and conform to one of the following
ACI 225R, ACI 226.1R, and ACI 226.3R. specifications, depending on the conditions of its
2.4.1 - Cementitious materials used may use.
325.9R-6 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
2.6.1 - ASTM D 1751. hand wire brushed test specimen are not less
2.6.2 - ASTM D 1752. than the applicable ASTM specification
2.6.3 - ASTM D 994. requirements.
2.9.5 Tie bars - Tie bars should be deformed
2.7-Joint sealants steel bars conforming to the requirements of the
The recommendations in ACI 504R should be specifications for reinforcing bars except that
followed in the selection of joint materials. only grades of steel bars should be used that can
Among the current specifications for joint be bent and restraightened without damage
sealants are: when this procedure is indicated. Tie bars can
2.7.1 - ASTM D 1850. have various shapes to conform to the placement
2.7.2 - ASTM D 1190. method: straight for embedment from the
2.7.3 - Federal Specification SS-S-200. surface, bent to form legs for preplacement on
2.7.4 - ASTM D 1854. grade, sinuous to develop bond when inserted in
2.7.5 - ASTM D 2628 and ASTM D 2835. freshly slipformed edge. Joint hook bolts may
2.7.6 - AASHTO M 282. be used as an alternate to tie bars. Such bolts
2.7.7 - ASTM D 3406. should not be less than 1/ 2 in. (13 mm) in
Information on other sealants which may be diameter and should be equipped with adequate
used, such as silicone, may be found in ACI couplings.
504R. 2.9.6 Dowels - Dowels should be plain round
bars conforming to the requirements of the
2.8-Nonbituminous inserts specifications for plain round bars, ASTM A
2.8.1 - ASTM D 2828. 615, A 616, and A 617. Dowel bars should not
be burred, roughened, or deformed out of round
2.9-Reinforcing steel and accessories in such a manner as to hinder slippage in the
The desired types of reinforcing steel and concrete. When metal expansion caps are used
accessories should be specified in accordance for expansion joints, they should cover the ends
with the following applicable specifications: of the dowels for not less than 2 in. (50 mm) nor
2.9.1 Steel wire fabric reinforcement - ASTM A more than 3 in. (75 mm). Caps should be closed
185, ASTM A 497 or ASTM A 884. at one end, and should provide for adequate
2.9.2 Bar mats - ASTM A 184. Member size expansion. It should be of such rigid design that
and spacing should be shown on the plans. All the closed end will not collapse during
intersections of longitudinal and transverse bars construction. Epoxy coatings have also been
should be securely wired, clipped, or welded used on dowels to prevent corrosion.
together in the plant of the steel supplier. 2.9.7 Chairs - Chairs which are used to
2.9.3 Reinforcing bars - Reinforcing bars support reinforcing steel, dowels, or tie bars on
should conform to the requirements of one of subbases must be of adequate strength and
the following standard specifications: design to resist displacement or deformation
2.9.3.1 - ASTM A 615, Grade 40 or Grade 60. before and during concrete placing.
2.9.3.2 - ASTM A 616, Grade 50 or Grade 60. 2.9.8 Stakes - Stakes used to support
2.9.3.3 - ASTM A 617, Grade 40 or Grade 60. expansion joint fillers should be metal. Their
2.9.3.4 - Guidance for the use of fiber length and stiffness should be adequate to keep
reinforced concrete can be found in ACI 544.1R. the fillers in proper position during the concrete
2.9.3.5 - ASTM A 775 specifies materials, placement.
surface preparation procedures, and coating
requirements for protective epoxy coatings. 2.10-Water
2.9.4 Surface condition - Reinforcing steel Water used in mixing or curing concrete
should be free from dirt, oil, paint, grease, or should be clean and free from injurious amounts
other organic materials that may adversely affect of oil, salt, acid, vegetable matter, or other
or reduce bond with the concrete. Rust, mill substances harmful to the finished product.
scale, or a combination of both should be Water obtained from natural sources should be
considered acceptable provided the minimum withdrawn in a manner which excludes silt, mud,
dimensions, weight, and physical properties of a grass, or other foreign materials. Water should
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-7
control, companion compressive cylinders should strength and no one test falls more than 500 psi
also be made. These cylinders should be (3.5 MPa) low in compression or 75 psi (0.5
molded and cured in accordance with ASTM C MPa) low in flexure. The mixture should be
192 and tested in accordance with ASTM C 39 reproportioned in the event of compressive or
to establish the correlation between the flexural flexural strengths failing to meet this criteria.
and compressive strengths.
3.6-Gradation, specific gravity, and
3.4-Strength tests of field concrete absorption of aggregates
3.4.1 Strength test specimens - Specimens, Concrete uniformity is difficult to control
either compressive or flexural, should be made unless aggregates are tested with a frequency
in the field in accordance with ASTM C 31 in consistent with the production rate.
sufficient numbers to assure job control; for 3.6.1 Grading - Fine and coarse aggregate
example, two sets each day for fast moving grading should be closely monitored using the
projects, one set on projects with low to sieve analysis procedures of ASTM C 136.
moderate production rates. Flexural specimens 3.6.2 Coarse aggregate - The bulk specific
should be tested in accordance with ASTM C gravity in a saturated-surface-dry condition and
78. Compressive specimens should be tested in the absorption of coarse aggregate should be
accordance with ASTM C 39. More elaborate determined in accordance with ASTM C 127.
testing programs can be developed using the 3.6.3 Fine aggregate - The bulk specific gravity
methods described in ACI 214. in a saturated-surface-dry condition and the
3.4.2 Accelerated strength tests - ASTM C 684 absorption of fine aggregate should be
includes three methods, any one of which may determined in accordance with ASTM C 128.
be used to predict the compressive strength of
concrete at later ages for acceptance purposes or 3.7-Air content
for process control as the concrete is produced The air content of plastic concrete may be
and used. Results are available within 24 to 48 determined in accordance with standard
hrs, depending on the method used. Choice of methods of test for air content: (1) gravimetric,
the method should be based on this factor and ASTM C 138; (2) volumetric, ASTM C 173; or
convenience, since cooperative testing programs (3) pressure method, ASTM C 231. For
and practical experience show the three methods concretes made with blast-furnace slag,
have equal precision. Currently, these methods lightweight aggregate, or other vesicular porous
are being used with 6 x 12 in. (152 x 305 mm) aggregates, the volumetric (rolling) method must
cylinders only, but there is no theoretical reason be used.
why they could not be used with flexural beams.
The size of beam specimens involved, however, 3.8-Consistency
restricts use of the methods for practical 3.8.1 - Consistency is usually determined in
purposes to cylinders subsequently tested in Accordance with ASTM C 143. See Fig. 3.8.1.
compression.
3.4.3 Tests of in-place concrete - In the event
of low compressive tests, core testing of in-place
concrete should be conducted in accordance
with ASTM C 42 evaluated in accordance with
ACI 318, Chapter 4. Beams sawed from the
pavement should not be used to evaluate in-
place concrete strength.
CHAPTER 4-SUBGRADE OR SUBBASE have been properly aligned and set to grade.
PREPARATION AND FORMS High areas are trimmed to proper elevation.
4.1-General Low areas should be filled and compacted in
Only that portion of the final fine grading of compliance with the specified compaction
the underlying base course, subbase course, requirements of the underlying material. If the
select materials, or treated base material equipment is controlled with an automatic
referred to as subbase construction operation, guidance system operating from a wire guideline,
which is usually considered as incidental to the the grading equipment can run directly on the
paving operation, is within the scope of this unfinished surface. (see Fig. 4.2). This
guide. For more specific information covering equipment is often used on large projects. Fine
other aspects of incidental pavement grading of cement treated subbases should be
construction such as clearing and grubbing, completed prior to initial hardening of the base
removal of structures and obstructions, material, which takes 4 to 6 hr. Trimmed
excavations and embankments, or the cement treated base (CTB) material should be
construction of special subbases with or without removed from the surface of the subbase or used
cementing agents, reference should be made to to fill low spots.
the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Highway After the grade or subbase has been placed and
Construction 2 or to the various state highway compacted to the required density, the grade on
standard specifications for road construction. which the pavement is to be constructed should
Essential preparatory work prior to the paving then be brought to the proper profile. If the
operation includes such items as fine grading, density of the base is disturbed by the grading
making minor adjustment, to the surface of the operations, it should be corrected by additional
subgrade or subbase (or underlying material if compaction before concrete is placed. The
required), adding moisture and recompacting grade should be constructed sufficiently in
any disturbed material, and preparing the final advance of the placing of the concrete that the
finished surface to conform to the grade and two operations do not interfere. If any traffic is
cross section shown on the plans. allowed to use the prepared grade, the grade
Accurate trimming is important to the paving should be checked and corrected immediately
contractor from the standpoint of the amount of ahead of the placing of the concrete.
concrete needed to complete the job. Subbases
of adequate stability will benefit pavement
smoothness. Where slipform methods are used,
it is recommended that a minimum width of
subbase should be 2 ft (0.61 m) greater on each
side than the width of the driving lanes to
accommodate the slipform tracks. Not all
concrete pavement is placed on special subbases.
Most city streets and many light traffic rural
pavements are placed directly on the prepared
subgrade. On heavy duty routes or where
serious frost problems exist special granular
subbases with or without a cementing agent are
frequently used. Care should be taken to insure Fig. 4.2-Subgrade trimmer operating from
that utility trenches are properly filled and stringline for both line and grade (Courtesy
compacted prior to fine grading and paving. Construction Machinery, Inc.)
Controlled low strength concrete fill may be
used for this purpose in lieu of conventional soil 4.3-Requirements and checking of the
backfilling techniques. finished grade
Prior to placing concrete, the underlying
4.2-Fine grading material should be checked for conformity to
When forms are to be used in the paving specified density and cross section. The cross
operation, fine grading is usually done with section can be checked by means of an approved
equipment which rides on the forms after they template riding on the forms or by use of a
325.9R-10 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
4.4-Stationary forms
4.4.1 Materials and dimensions - Forms
capable of supporting the loads imposed by the
construction equipment should be used. A test Fig. 4.4.1-Standard paving forms
to evaluate the load capability of straight metal
forms has requirements that forms should not are at the proper elevation. It is preferable that
deflect more than 1/ 4 in. (6 mm) when tested as the grade be established by cutting.
a simple beam with a span of 10 ft (3 m) and a Foundations below the established grade should
load equal to that of the finishing machine or be filled to grade in lifts of 1/ 2 in. (12.7 mm) or
other construction equipment that will operate less for 18 in. (460 mm) each side of the form
on them. The two form thicknesses in general and thoroughly compacted according to job
use are 1/ 4 in. (6 mm) and 5/ 16 in. (8 mm). If specifications. The alignment and grade
the forms are to support heavy paving elevations of the forms should be checked and
equipment they should have a thickness of not corrections made by the contractor immediately
less than 5/ 16 in. (8 mm). It is recommended before placing the concrete. When any form has
that forms have a depth equal to the specified been disturbed or after any unstable grade has
thickness of the concrete, and a base width that been corrected, the form should be reset and
is equal to three-quarters of the depth but not rechecked. Forms should be set sufficiently in
less than 8 in. (200 mm). Forms should be advance of concrete placement to permit
provided with adequate devices for secure inspection of the work. After the forms have
setting so that when in place they will withstand, been set to the correct grade, the subgrade or
without visible spring or settlement, the impact subbase should be thoroughly tamped,
and vibration of the consolidating and finishing mechanically, or by hand, at both the inside and
equipment. Flange braces should extend outside edges of the base of the forms. Forms
outward on the base not less than two-thirds the should be staked into place with not less than
height of the form. Built-up forms, made from three pins for each 10 ft (3 m) section. Form
smaller sizes, are not recommended on projects sections should be tightly locked, and free from
where the total pavement area is greater than play or movement in any direction. The forms
2000 yd2 (1670 m2). If built-up forms are used, should not deviate from true line by more than
1
the increase in depth should be not more than / 4 in. (6 mm) at any point. No excessive
25 percent of the original form depth. When settlement or springing of forms under the
checked for straightness, forms should not vary finishing machine should occur. Forms should
by more than 1/ 8 in. (3 mm) in 10 ft (3 m) from be cleaned and oiled prior to the placing of
the true plane surface on the top, and 1/ 4 in. (6 concrete.
mm) in 10 ft (3 m) along the face of the form. 4.4.3 Removal of forms - Forms should remain
Forms should contain provisions for locking the in place at least 8 hr after placing the concrete.
ends of abutting form sections together tightly. If the air temperature is below 50F (10C) at
Flexible or curved forms are recommended for any time during the 8 hr following concrete
use when the curve has a radius of 100 ft (30 m) placement, the forms should be left in place for
or less. Fig. 4.4.1 shows a standard paving form. a sufficient additional time to assure that
4.4.2 Form setting - It is essential that the pavement edges will not be damaged Curing of
foundation under the forms be compacted and the exposed concrete pavement edges should
cut to grade so that the forms, when set, are begin immediately after removal of the forms.
uniformly supported for their entire length and
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-11
CHAPTER 5-INSTALLATION OF JOINTS blades, wet abrasive, or dry abrasive blades, care
AND REINFORCEMENT should be exercised that sawing is delayed
5.1-General sufficiently to prevent a rough, eroded joint.
Joints are placed in concrete pavements to Longitudinal joints are less prone to random
control the location of cracks, and in some cracking due to late sawing than transverse
instances, provide relief for expansion due to joints.
temperature and moisture changes. ACI 504R 5.2.2 Construction joints - Longitudinal keyed
contains information on joint sealants. construction joints (i.e., joints between lanes
5.1.1 - All longitudinal and transverse joints placed separately) can be formed with either the
should conform to the details and positions slipform methods or standard steel forms and
shown on the plans. keyway. Consideration can be given to
5.1.2 - Plans and specifications should be elimination of keyways in this joint where
explicit as to location and type of joints at ramp stabilized subbases are used. If permitted by the
entrances and intersections, and where normal specifications, tie bars may be bent against the
spacing is altered due to end-of-day or form during casting of the first lane, and then
emergency construction joints. bent out for insertion into the adjacent lane.
5.1.3 - All transverse joints should be Current ASTM specifications for reinforcing
constructed in line for the full width of the bars do not guarantee that bars can be bent and
pavement. Faces of joints should be normal to restraightened without breakage. Hence, if this
the surface of the pavement. method is specified, precautionary steps should
5.1.4 - Special care should be taken to prevent be taken to assure adequate performance. One
uneven riding surfaces at formed joints. If state highway department has alleviated the
edging is required or permitted, a 10 ft (3 m) problem of tie bars which will not tolerate a 90-
straight edge should be used to assure that deg bend with subsequent straightening; they use
displaced concrete has not resulted in high spots. a 60-deg bend initially, and then a straightening
Joint forming insets placed ahead of the screeds 60-deg bend to produce a skewed but adequate
may tip; if placed behind they are liable to result tie bar arrangement (see Fig. 5.2.2).
in high spots. Joint hook bolts conforming to the provisions
5.1.5 - Keyways, when required, should be of Section 2.9.5 may be used. Hook bolts and
accurately formed by material of sufficient couplings should be provided with approved
strength to assure a full keyway and accurate fasteners for attachment to the pavement forms
alignment. Keyways may also be extruded to the to maintain them in correct position during
proper dimensions by a slipform paver. concreting and subsequent removal of forms.
Slipform pavers should be equipped with a
5.2-Longitudinal joints suitable device for the installation of tie bars, or
5.2.1 Weakened plane joints - Longitudinal other approved means of holding the lanes in
weakened plane joints may be formed in the contact should be provided.
concrete by sawing. Care must be exercised to
insure that the depth of the separation is 5.3-Isolation or expansion joints
adequate to prevent random cracking, usually Isolation or expansion joints should be placed
about one-third of the slab depth. If sealing between all structures and features such as catch
cannot be done ahead of traffic, backer rod basins and manholes projecting through, into, or
should be installed before the pavement is against the pavement. Unless otherwise
opened. indicated on the plans, such joints should be not
5.2.1.1 Sawing - The timing of the sawing less than 1/ 4 in. (6 mm) thick and of the
operation should be late enough to avoid premolded type. A need for thicker joints can
raveling of the new concrete, but soon enough often be predicted. Expansion joint fillers
so that random cracking does not occur. Where should be firmly held in place and not dislodged
cracking has occurred at the proposed joint so that concrete cannot enter the expansion
location, the sawing of that joint should be space at bottom, sides, or top.
omitted. Whatever the sawing method, diamond
325.9R-12 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
should be not less than one-fourth the slab subsequent transverse joints should be measured
depth. from the transverse contraction joints last
Fig. 5.4 shows a detail of a longitudinal joint, placed. In lane-at-a-time construction,
a transverse contraction joint, and a dowel bar construction joints not located in the adjacent
assembly. lane should be keyed and tied to prevent the
formation of sympathy cracks.
If joints are constructed in sections, there such stretching may be a drastic shortening of
should be no offsets between adjacent units. the useful life of the material. The seal and the
Dowel bars should be checked for exact position installation lubricant should conform to Section
and alignment as soon as the joint assembly is 2.7.5. Fig. 5.8.4 shows a machine used to install
staked in place on the subgrade or subbase, and preformed joint material.
the joint should be tested to determine whether
it is firmly supported. Any joint not firmly
supported should be reset. Wires or bars used
to hold assemblies in position for shipment
should be cut before concrete is placed if they
could cause restraint to early shrinkage of new
concrete.
5.8-Joint sealing
ACI 504R should be referred to in selecting
proper joint shape factors and joint sealants.
5.8.1 - The tops of expansion joints and all
edged and sawed joints should be sealed with
the specified sealing material before traffic is
permitted on the pavement. Joint openings
should be thoroughly cleaned of all foreign
matter before the sealing material is placed. All
contact faces of joints should be cleaned to
remove loose material, and should be surface Fig. 5.8.4-Machine used for installation of
dry when hot-poured sealing material is used. preformed neoprene contraction joint strip. The
When sawing of green concrete is required or material and reel are not pictured. Machine is
permitted, extra care should be exercised to self-propelled and capable of installation of the
remove the slurry coating deposited along the strip with little length change.
sides of saw cuts.
5.8.2 - Sealing material should be installed in 5.8.5 - Edge seals are sometimes specified and
the joint openings to conform to the details these may be useful in preventing infiltration.
shown on the plans. The installation should be Such systems have exhibited varying degrees of
done in such a manner that the material will not success and their use should be based on
be spilled on the exposed surfaces of the experience (Fig. 5.8.5).
concrete. Any excess material on the surface of
the concrete pavement should be removed
immediately and the pavement surface cleaned.
5.8.3 - Poured joint sealing materials should
not be placed when temperatures are such as to
prevent proper installation. The manufacturers
recommendations may be useful in preparing
specification limits.
5.8.4 - Where preformed joint material, such Fig. 5.8.5-A method sometimes used to
as neoprene (preformed compression sealants), prevent entrance of water between pavement
is used the uncompressed width of such joint and asphalt shoulder. (1 in. = 25.4 mm)
material should be properly balanced with the
joint opening, which in turn should be of a width
consistent with the length of the slab and 5.8.6 - Some jointing materials are
temperature ranges expected. The installing incompatible and should not be used in direct
device should assure that the preformed material contact with each other without an inert divider.
is not stretched more than 3 percent during Some bituminous materials, for example, should
insertion in the joint opening since the result of not be in contact with a joint seal of the two
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-15
component, polysulfide type. They may be sheet or mat of reinforcement to be laid full
separated with a neoprene tape, or other length on the concrete in its final position
relatively inert material. without farther manipulation of the
reinforcement. Adjacent mats or sheets should
5.9-Placing reinforcement be tied to prevent an opening from occurring
5.9.1 - When steel reinforcement for jointed between the mats. The balance of the required
pavements is used it should consist of welded concrete should be placed after the
wire fabric or bar mats in accordance with reinforcement is in place. The first course of
Sections 2.9.1 and 2.9.2. The surface condition struck-off concrete should not be exposed
of the steel with respect to foreign matter and particularly during hot, windy weather. Probably
rust should conform to the requirements in 30 min should be considered a reasonable
Section 2.9.4. Width of fabric sheets or bar mats maximum exposure time. The positioning of the
should be such that, when properly placed in the reinforcement during concrete operations should
work, the extreme longitudinal members of the be checked and if necessary, corrected.
sheet or mat will be located not less than 2 in.
(50 mm) or more than 6 in. (150 mm) from the
edges of the slab. The length of fabric sheets of
bar mats should be as shown on the plans and
should be such that, when properly placed in the
work, the reinforcement will clear all transverse
contraction joints by not less than 6 in. (150
mm) as measured from the center of the joint to
the ends of the longitudinal members of the
sheet or mat.
5.9.2 - When reinforcing bar assemblies arc
shown on the plans, the bars should be firmly
fastened together at all intersections. Adjacent
ends should lap not less than 30 diameters (see
Section 5.9.7).
5.9.3 - Where bars are fabricated into mat Fig. 5.9.5-Mesh installations on two-course
form by positive welding at all intersections, the pavement, employing forms. Mesh cart towed
laps for longitudinal bars should be a minimum by spreader
of 30 diameters. If the mat pattern is such that
the edge longitudinal bars or the end transverse 5.9.6 - When concrete is placed in a single
bars of the mats overlap, the lap should be made course, wire fabric sheets or bar mats may be
so that the bars overlap each other by at least 2 laid in proper horizontal alignment on the full
in. (50 mm). depth of struck-off concrete and machine
5.9.4 - Steel fabric sheets should be lapped as vibrated or tamped to proper elevation. Care
shown on the plans. Sheets should be securely should be exercised that the installing machines
tied together to prevent displacement, are designed and adjusted so that they will not
particularly from being pulled by the paving leave cleavage planes over steel members nor
train. drag the sheets or mats from their proper
5.9.5 - When reinforced concrete is placed in position. At each transverse joint a check
two lifts (see Fig. 5.9.5) the initial layer should should be made to assure proper clearance
be uniformly struck off at a depth not less than between mesh ends and the joint.
2 in. (50 mm) below the finished surface nor 5.9.7 - Where continuously reinforced
greater than middepth of slab below the concrete pavement is specified, steel in the
proposed surface of the pavement, and the quantity, fabrication, and grade shown on the
reinforcement placed thereon. The concrete plans should be installed so that the
should be struck off to the entire width of the reinforcement will have a minimum cover of 2
placement and a sufficient length to permit the in. (50 mm) and the longitudinal members will
325.9R-16 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
not fall below the middepth of the slab, unless 5.9.8 Verifying location of reinforcing - A gage
otherwise specified or shown on the plans. should be used to determine the location of the
When the concrete is placed in a single reinforcing in a pavement. Insertion to the
course, the steel should be placed on supports depth of the reinforcing location will indicate its
that will retain the steel in its specified position positioning in the fresh concrete.
while the concrete is being deposited, or else
mechanical placement as described in Section
5.9.6 should be used (Fig. 5.9.7). When CHAPTER 6-CONCRETE PROPERTIES
transverse bars are not used, the steel can be AND PROPORTIONS OF MATERIALS
placed through tubes in a concrete spreader. 6.1-General
Equipment is also available to place steel with Concrete pavements, and in most respects
transverse bars in single course construction. concrete bases, are exposed to severe treatment.
When the concrete is placed in two courses, the In addition to the pounding of traffic, many
procedure outlined in Section 5.9.5 should be factors are present tending to destroy them.
followed. They are subjected to rapid change in extremes
Lap splices for individual bars, prefabricated of temperature, abrasion, usually salt
bar mats, or deformed welded wire fabric mats applications, as well as the certainty of erratic
are usually designated on plans and should be subgrade support at alI ages after the first few
carefully checked in the work. The importance hours. For these reasons, and of course for
of adequate laps and proper placement cannot economy, considerable extra care in
be overemphasized. The danger of failure at proportioning is justified (see ACI 211.1).
splices at early ages can be minimized by The concrete produced should be required to
arranging the splices in a skewed or staggered attain strength compatible with the structural
pattern from one pavement edge to the other. design. It should contain entrained air within
Splice lengths should be shown on the plans or the range recommended for the aggregate size
specifications and should not be less than 30 and the area in which it is to be used, and most
diameters, nor less than 16 in. (400 mm). importantly, it should have a water-cement, or
water-cementitious material ratio not higher
than that recommended for the anticipated
exposure. When a blend of cementing materials
is used as provided in Section 2.4.2, the water-
cementitious material ratio should be
appropriate for making highly durable concrete
with these materials.
careful evaluation before the start of work using chemical admixtures (see Section 2.2), certain
job materials as should be done for concrete blends of cementing materials (see Section
without admixtures. Evaluations are preferably 2.4.2), or both are used in the work. Specified
made by means of full scale trial batches. Refer concrete strengths for design and durability
to ACI 212.3R or TRB Special Report 119.1 purposes should generally not be less than:
6.2.4 Skid resistance - It has been found that Flexural strength with third-point loading - 650
low water-cement ratios are helpful in psi (4.5 MPa) at 28 days; Compressive
maintaining the skid resistant qualities of strength-4000 psi (27.6 MPa) at 28 days.
concrete pavement surfaces. Some aggregates Specification for statistical control limits to
are more susceptible than others to polishing, achieve these strengths should be based on
and local experience in high traffic areas should principles stated in ACI 214.
be observed. The contribution of fine
aggregates to skid resistance is discussed in CHAPTER 7-HIGH-EARLY-STRENGTH
Section 9.5. CONCRETE
6.2.5 Air entrainment - Where freezing and 7.1-Methods of production
thawing cycles occur, all concrete must contain a High strength at an early age may be desired
satisfactory air void system to improve its to permit placing some key sections of pavement
durability. In practice this is specified in terms into use at the earliest possible moment, or for
of the volume of entrained air required as other reasons. High-early-strength concrete may
related to the nominal maximum size of coarse be produced by in the following ways.
aggregate used. See the recommendations of 7.1.1 - Use of high-early-strength portland
ACI 201.2R. cement Type III or IIIA, by either method of
proportioning in lieu of normal portland cement
6.3-Proportioning (Type I or IA, or Type II or IIA).
Specifications should establish limits for these 7.1.2 - Reducing the water-cement ratio by use
basic mixture proportioning factors: either of additional normal portland cement (Type I or
maximum water-cement or water-cementitious IA or Type II or IIA).
material ratio or minimum strength or minimum 7.1.3 - Use of calcium chloride as an
cement content. In addition, minimum and ingredient of the concrete in the following
maximum air content, maximum slump, and quantities: (1) between 1 and 2 lb (0.45 to 0.91
maximum size of aggregate should be specified. kg) per 100 lb (45.5 kg) of Type I cement or (2)
Preliminary batch weights can be developed between 0.8 to 1.6 lb (0.36 to 0.73 kg) per 100 lb
from experience, from tables of approximate (45.5 kg) of Type III cement. Calcium chloride
relationships (see ACI 211.1), or from small trial should be added in solution. It is convenient to
batches. Regardless of how batch weights are proportion the solution so that 1 qt (0.95 L)
initially determined, they should be finally contains one lb (0.45 kg) of calcium chloride for
established from full-size batches at the start of use with Type I cement and that 1 qt (0.95 L)
the work. ACI 211.1 contains a step-by-step contains 0.8 lb (0.36 kg) calcium chloride for use
procedure for determining batch weights and with Type II cement. It should be recognized
tables of approximate relationships. that the use of calcium chloride very likely will
Where minimum cement content is specified reduce the natural ability of concrete to inhibit
as the criterion of quality of concrete pavement, corrosion of embedded metals such as tie bars,
the committee recommends a minimum of 564 mesh, or dowels.
lb/yd 3 of cement per cubic yard (334.6 kg/m3) 7.1.4 - Use of an appropriate accelerating
unless local experience demonstrates that this admixture meeting the requirement of ASTM
minimum can be decreased. C 494.
If one of the alternate permitted mixture 7.1.5 - Currently, fast track paving
proportioning factors, i.e., required strength construction practices are under development
consistent with specified air content and slump is which use rapid strength gaining concrete
employed, less cement per cubic yard of proportions of various material compositions.
concrete might be used, especially if certain During 1986 and 1987, several projects were
325.9R-18 MANUAL OF CONCRETE PRACTICE
successfully completed so that the pavements the mixing water for succeeding batches should
could be opened to traffic in 12-24 hr. The not be permitted unless the quantity of wash
high-early-strength technology being developed water is accurately measured.
in these systems may lend itself to quick opening 8.2.4 - Chemicaladmixtures, other than fly ash
pavement sections. and other cementitious materials, should be used
The user is referred to the American Concrete in liquid form and may be batched by weight or
Pavement Associations Technical Bulletin on by volume. Accuracy of weighing chemical
Fast Track Paving4 for additional information. admixtures should be within plus or minus 3
percent of the required weight. Volumetric
measurements should be within an accuracy of
CHAPTER 8-MIXING CONCRETE plus or minus 3 percent of the total amount
8.1-Batching plants required. A suitable device for measuring and
Batching plants used to supply concrete for dispensing the liquid admixture should be
paving and concrete bases should be of sizes provided. If an air-entraining admixture is used
adequate to supply well-mixed concrete at the together with a chemical admixture, each
production rate specified or anticipated by the admixture should be measured and added to the
contractor. Plants should be in good repair and concrete mix separately to avoid all contact with
operate reliably. Guidance for establishing plant each other until they are in the mix. All other
requirements and judging the adequacy of a cementitious materials should be measured by
batching plant can be found in Certification of weight to an accuracy of plus or minus 3
Ready Mixed Concrete Production Facilities percent.
(QC-3) 5, Sections 9, 10, and 11 of ASTM C 94,
ACI 304R, and ACI 311.5R. 8.3-Central-mixed concrete
Plants should contain separate bins or 8.3.1 Stationary mixers - Stationary mixers at
compartments for each aggregate size specified. the site should meet the standards of the
Bulk cement and other cementitious materials Concrete Plant Manufacturers Bureau.6
should be stored in closed bins or silos. If Regardless of mixer size, the required minimum
combined bins or double silos are used, storage mixing time for an individual mixer should be
compartments for cement and other specified as that which, as shown by tests, will
cementitious materials must be separated by result in satisfactory mixing. The mixing time
double walls. should not be less than 60 sec. Where mixer
Suitable batching equipment with weigh performance tests are not made, minimum
hoppers, scales, and batching controls should be mixing time should be in accordance with ASTM
provided. Cementitious materials should be C 94. Preblending of materials is necessary to
weighed in separate hoppers and should not be obtain a uniform mixture with large batches and
weighed cumulatively with aggregates. Weighing short mixing times.
equipment should meet the requirements and Mixing of concrete should continue for the
accuracies specified in ASTM C 94. required mixing time after all ingredients,
including water (and admixture if added with the
8.2-Measurement and handling of materials water), are in the mixing compartment of the
8.2.1 - Bulkcement is normally used on high mixer before any part of the batch is released.
production paving projects. Cement should be Transfer time in multiple drum mixers should be
measured by weight within a maximum allowable counted as part of the mixing time.
error of 1 percent. 8.3.2 Transporting mixed concrete - When
8.2.2 - Aggregates should be weighed within a nonagitating hauling equipment is used for
maximum allowable error plus or minus 2 transporting concrete to the delivery point,
percent. discharge should be completed within 45 min
8.2.3 - Mixing water may be measured by after mixing. In case of emergency, the haul
weight or by volume. Measurement of the water time may be increased to that which will not
should be within a maximum allowable error of result in undue loss of slump or separation of
plus or minus 1 percent of the total mixing the mixture (see ASTM C 94). Under
water. The use of wash water as a portion of conditions contributing to quick stiffening of the
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-19
concrete or when the temperature of the equipment for proper spreading. All should be
concrete at point of discharge is 85F (30C) or operated with care in a prescribed and uniform
above, the time between mixing and discharge manner to minimize segregation. See Fig. 9.2.1
should not exceed 30 min. On smaller projects spreading can be
8.4-Ready-mixed concrete accomplished in a number of ways such as with
Ready-mixed concrete should be mixed, mixer powered strikeoff, hand tools, or a plank,
handled, and transported to the site in but in any case the concrete should be spread to
accordance with ASTM C 94. Truck mixers the proper depth for consolidation and finishing.
should conform to the requirements of the
Truck Mixer Manufacturers Bureau of the
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association.
Suitable equipment should be provided for
transferring the concrete from the transporting
vehicle and distributing it uniformly, without
segregation, on the grade.
meet for these pavements. Extra effort should 10.1.3 Cotton mats or burlap - The surface and
be made to use construction techniques which edges of the pavement should be entirely
will produce surface tolerances comparable to covered with mats. Prior to being place, the
those on the mainline. However, surface mats should be saturated thoroughly with water.
tolerance can be increased to 1/ 4 in. (6 mm) in The mats should be so placed as to cause them
10 ft (3 m) in these sections. to remain in intimate contact with the surface,
but these should not be placed until the surface
CHAPTER 10-CURING AND PROTECTING has hardened sufficiently to prevent marring.
CONCRETE They should be maintained fully wetted and in
10.1-Curing position for the specified curing period.
Immediately after the finishing operations have 10.1.4 Waterproof paper - As soon as the
been completed and the water film has pavement has hardened sufficiently to prevent
evaporated from the surface or as soon as marring of the surface, the pavement should be
marring of the concrete will not occur, the entire entirely covered with waterproof paper. The
surface of the newly placed concrete should be paper units should be lapped 12 in (300 mm).
covered and curing in accordance with one of The waterproof paper should be sufficiently wide
the methods in Sections 10.1.1 through 10.1.5. to overlap and completely cover the sides of the
In all cases in which curing requires the use of slab after the forms have been removed unless
water, the curing operation should have prior additional strips of paper are furnished for
right to all water supply or supplies. ACI 308 curing the sides. The curing paper should be
should be used as a guide. This place and maintained in intimate contact with
recommendation requires 7 days curing at the surface and sides of the pavement during the
temperatures above 40F (4C) but provides for curing period. Damaged curing paper which
shorter curing periods if 70 percent or more of cannot be effectively patched or repaired should
specified compressive or flexural strength can be be discarded. Curing paper should be placed
attained earlier. only on a moist surface. If the surface appears
10.1.1 Membrane curing - Immediately after dry it should be wetted by a spray fine enough
the water film has disappeared from the surface to prevent damage to the fresh concrete.
of the pavement, the surface should be 10.1.5 White polyethylene sheeting - The surface
uniformly coated with liquid membrane curing and sides of the pavement should be entirely
material by a suitable means of an approved covered with white polyethylene sheeting. It
mechanical spray machine at the rate of not less should be placed while the surface of the
than 1 gal. per 150 ft2 of surface (one L per 3 concrete is still moist. If the surface appears dry
m2), or as recommended by the manufacturer. it should be wetted with a fine spray before the
To insure uniform consistency and dispersion of sheeting is placed. Adjacent sheets should be
the pigment in the curing material, it should be lapped 18 in. (460 mm). The sheeting should be
agitated in the supply container immediately weighted to keep it in contact with the pavement
before transfer to the distributor and kept surface and it should be large enough to extend
thoroughly agitated during application. Irregular beyond the pavement edge and completely cover
areas or sections of pavement where the use of a the sides of the slab after the forms have been
mechanical spraying machine is impracticable removed. The polyethylene sheeting should
may be sprayed with approved hand spraying remain in place for the duration of the curing
equipment. The sides of the pavement slab period. A minimum polyethylene thickness of 4
should be coated within 60 min after the mils (1 mm) should be specified. Special
removal of forms. Any areas of the coating insulating sheeting materials are sometimes used
which are damaged within the specified curing for cold weather or fast-track paving.
period should be immediately repaired. 10.1.6 Curing of saw cuts - Saw cuts in
10.1.2 Mono-molecular coatings - This type of pavement being cured should be protected from
membrane coating material may be desirable rapid drying. This is often accomplished with
under adverse drying construction conditions to twisted paper or fiber cords or ropes, or with
retard surface evaporation. This is not a gummed polyethylene strips, or other approved
substitute for curing. material.
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-23
226.3R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete A 615 Specification for Deformed and
Plain Billet-Steel Bars for
304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Concrete Reinforcement
Transporting, and Placing
Concrete A 616 Specification for Rail-Steel
Deformed and Plain Bars for
305R Hot Weather Concreting Concrete Reinforcement
C 150 Specification for Portland Cement D 1190 Specification for Concrete Joint
Sealer, Hot-Poured Elastic Type
C 171 Specification for Sheet Materials
for Curing Concrete D 1751 Specification for Preformed
Expansion Joint Fillers for
C 173 Test Method for Air Content of Concrete Paving and Structural
Freshly Mixed Concrete for Construction (Nonextruding and
Volumetric Method Resilient Bituminous Types)
CONCRETE PAVEMENTS AND BASES 325.9R-27
D 1752 Specification for Preformed ACI publications are available from the
Sponge Rubber and Cork American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box 19150,
Expansion Joint Fillers for Detroit, Mich. 48219
Concrete Paving and Structural
Construction ASTM standards may be obtained from the
American Society for Testing and Materials,
D 1850 Specification for Concrete Joint 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.
Sealer, Cold Application Type
TRB standards may be obtained from the
D 1854 Specification for Jet-Fuel- Transportation Research Board, 2101
Resistant Concrete Joint Sealer, Constitution Ave., N. W., Washington, D. C.
Hot-Poured Elastic Type 20418.
D 2628 Specification for Preformed Federal standards are available through the
Polychloroprene Elastomeric Joint Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Seals for Concrete Pavements Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402.
D 2835 Specification for Lubricant for 2. Guide Specification for Highway Construction,
Installation on Preformed American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Compression Seal in Concrete Officials, Washington, D. C., 1984.
Pavements 3. Design and Construction of Bridge Approaches,
NCHRP Synthesis 159, Transportation Research Board,
D 3406 Specification for Joint Sealants, Washington, D. C.
Hot-Poured, Elastomeric-Type,
4. Technical Bulletin on Fast Track Paving, American
for Portland Cement Concrete
Concrete Pavement Association, Arlington Heights, Ill.
Pavements
5. Certification of Ready Mixed Concrete Production
D 3569 Specification for Joint Sealant, Facilities, QC-3, National Ready Mixed Concrete
Hot-Poured, Elastomeric, Jet- Association, Silver Spring, MD.
Fuel-Resistant Type, for Portland 6. CPMB 100--Concrete Plant Standards of the CPMB,
Cement Concrete Pavements Eighth Revision, 1986.