Contents

1 Chemistry 1
1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Chemistry as science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Principles of modern chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.2 Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.4 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.5 Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.6 Ions and salts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.7 Acidity and basicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.8 Redox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3.9 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.10 Chemical laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.1 Subdisciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.2 Chemical industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.3 Professional societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Computer engineering 17
2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.1 Computer software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.2 Computer hardware engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Specialty areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

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2.3.1 Coding, cryptography, and information protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.3.2 Communications and wireless networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.3 Compilers and operating systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.4 Computational science and engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.5 Computer networks, mobile computing, and distributed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.6 Computer systems: architecture, parallel processing, and dependability . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.7 Computer vision and robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.8 Embedded systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.9 Integrated circuits, VLSI design, testing and CAD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.10 Signal, image and speech processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 Job outlook in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.1 Computer software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5.2 Computer hardware engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Similar occupations and elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

3 Computer science 21
3.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1.1 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Areas of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4.1 Theoretical computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.4.2 Applied computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.5 The great insights of computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.6 Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

4 Theoretical computer science 32

4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.2 Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.1 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.2 Data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.3 Computational complexity theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.2.4 Distributed computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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4.2.5 Parallel computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

4.2.6 Very-large-scale integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.7 Machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.8 Computational biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.9 Computational geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.2.10 Information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.11 Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.12 Quantum computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.13 Information-based complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.2.14 Computational number theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.15 Symbolic computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.16 Program semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.17 Formal methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.18 Automata theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.19 Coding theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.2.20 Computational learning theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.3 Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.4 Journals and newsletters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.5 Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

5 Physics 40
5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1.1 Ancient astronomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1.2 Natural philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.3 Physics in the medieval Islamic world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.4 Classical physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.1.5 Modern physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.2 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3 Core theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3.1 Classical physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.3.2 Modern physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.3.3 Dierence between classical and modern physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4 Relation to other elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.1 Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
5.4.2 Application and inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5.1 Scientic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.5.2 Theory and experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
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5.5.3 Scope and aims . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

5.5.4 Research elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.6 Current research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.10 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

6 Mechanical engineering 58
6.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.2.1 Coursework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.2.2 License and regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3 Salaries and workforce statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.4 Modern tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.5 Subdisciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.1 Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.2 Mechatronics and robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.5.3 Structural analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.5.4 Thermodynamics and thermo-science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.5.5 Design and drafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
6.6 Areas of research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.1 Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.2 Friction stir welding (FSW) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.3 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.4 Mechatronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.5 Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.6.6 Finite element analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6.7 Biomechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6.8 Computational uid dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.6.9 Acoustical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.7 Related elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6.9 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

7 Science 68
7.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.1.1 Antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.1.2 Medieval science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
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7.1.3 Renaissance and early modern science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

7.1.4 Age of Enlightenment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.1.5 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.1.6 20th century and beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.7 Scientic method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.8 Mathematics and formal sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.2 Scientic community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.2.1 Branches and elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.2.2 Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.2.3 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.3 Science and society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.3.1 Women in science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.3.2 Science policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3.3 Media perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.3.4 Political usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.3.5 Science and the public . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.4 Philosophy of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.4.1 Certainty and science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.4.2 Fringe science, pseudoscience, and junk science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.5 Scientic practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.5.1 Basic and applied research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.5.2 Research in practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.5.3 Practical impacts of scientic research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.9 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.11.1 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.11.2 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

8 Engineering physics 89
8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.2 Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.3 Professional Societies and Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.5 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
8.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

9 Information theory 91
9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
vi CONTENTS

9.2 Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

9.3 Quantities of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.1 Entropy of an information source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
9.3.2 Joint entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.3.3 Conditional entropy (equivocation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.3.4 Mutual information (transinformation) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.5 KullbackLeibler divergence (information gain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3.6 Other quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.4 Coding theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.4.1 Source theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.4.2 Channel capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
9.5 Applications to other elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.5.1 Intelligence uses and secrecy applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.5.2 Pseudorandom number generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.5.3 Seismic exploration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.5.4 Semiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.5.5 Miscellaneous applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6.1 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6.3 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9.6.4 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.7.1 The classic work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.7.2 Other journal articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
9.7.3 Textbooks on information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.7.4 Other books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.7.5 MOOC on information theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

10 Biology 101
10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.2 Foundations of modern biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.1 Cell theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.2 Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
10.2.3 Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.4 Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
10.2.5 Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3 Study and research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.1 Structural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10.3.2 Physiological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
10.3.3 Evolutionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CONTENTS vii

10.3.4 Systematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

10.3.5 Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
10.3.6 Ecological and environmental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.4 Basic unresolved problems in biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.5 Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
10.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
10.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
10.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

11 Electrical engineering 115

11.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.1.1 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
11.1.2 More modern developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.1.3 Solid-state transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
11.2 Subdisciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.2.1 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.2.2 Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.2.3 Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
11.2.4 Microelectronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.2.5 Signal processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
11.2.6 Telecommunications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.2.7 Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.2.8 Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
11.2.9 Related disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.3 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
11.4 Practicing engineers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
11.5 Tools and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
11.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
11.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

12 Engineering 130
12.1 Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
12.2.1 Ancient era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.2.2 Renaissance era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.2.3 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
12.3 Main branches of engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
12.4 Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
viii CONTENTS

12.5 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

12.5.1 Problem solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.5.2 Computer use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
12.6 Social context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
12.7 Relationships with other disciplines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
12.7.1 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
12.7.2 Medicine and biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
12.7.3 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.7.4 Business Engineering and Engineering Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.7.5 Other elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
12.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
12.10Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
12.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

13 List of engineering branches 142

13.1 Chemical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.2 Civil engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.3 Electrical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.4 Mechanical engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.5 Software engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.6 Systems engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.7 Interdisciplinary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

14 Computer scientist 144

14.1 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
14.2 Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
14.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
14.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

15 Logic 146
15.1 Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.1.1 Logical form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
15.1.2 Semantics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.1.3 Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
15.1.4 Logical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.1.5 Logic and rationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
15.1.6 Rival conceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
15.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
15.3 Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
CONTENTS ix

15.3.1 Syllogistic logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

15.3.2 Propositional logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.3.3 Predicate logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
15.3.4 Modal logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.3.5 Informal reasoning and dialectic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
15.3.6 Mathematical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.3.7 Philosophical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.3.8 Computational logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.3.9 Non-classical logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.4 Controversies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.4.1 Is Logic Empirical?" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.4.2 Implication: Strict or material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.4.3 Tolerating the impossible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.4.4 Rejection of logical truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.6 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
15.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

16 Philosophy 159
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
16.1.1 Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
16.1.2 Philosophical progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
16.2 Historical overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
16.2.1 Western philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
16.2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
16.2.3 Indian philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
16.2.4 Buddhist philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
16.2.5 East Asian philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
16.2.6 African philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
16.2.7 Indigenous American philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
16.3 Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
16.3.1 Metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
16.3.2 Epistemology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
16.3.3 Value theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
16.3.4 Logic, science and mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
16.3.5 History of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
16.3.6 Philosophical schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
16.4 Other approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
16.4.1 Applied philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
16.5 Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
16.6 Professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
x CONTENTS

16.7 Non-professional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

16.8 Role of women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.9 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
16.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
16.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
16.12Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
16.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
16.14General introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
16.15Topical introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
16.15.1 Eastern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
16.15.2 African . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.15.3 Islamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.16Historical introductions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.16.1 Ancient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.16.2 Medieval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.16.3 Modern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.16.4 Contemporary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.17Reference works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
16.18External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

17 Metaphysics 178
17.1 Central questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.1.1 Being and ontology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
17.1.2 Identity and change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.1.3 Causality and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.1.4 Necessity and possibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.1.5 Cosmology and cosmogony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
17.1.6 Mind and matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.1.7 Determinism and free will . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17.1.8 Religion and spirituality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.2 Metaphysics in science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
17.3 Rejections of metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.4 History and schools of metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.4.1 Pre-history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.4.2 Bronze age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.4.3 Pre-Socratic Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
17.4.4 Chinese metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.4.5 Socrates and Plato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
17.4.6 Aristotle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.4.7 Classical India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
17.4.8 Buddhist metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.4.9 Islamic metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
CONTENTS xi

17.4.10 Scholasticism and the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

17.4.11 Rationalism and Continental Rationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
17.4.12 British empiricism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.4.13 Kant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.4.14 Kantians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.4.15 Early analytical philosophy and positivism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.4.16 Continental philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
17.4.17 Process metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
17.4.18 Later analytical philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
17.5 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
17.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
17.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
17.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
17.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
17.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
17.11Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17.11.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
17.11.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
17.11.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Chapter 1

Chemistry

For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). 1.1 Etymology

Chemical science redirects here. For the Royal Society
of Chemistry journal, see Chemical Science (journal).
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including ammonium
hydroxide and nitric acid, illuminated in dierent colors
The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred
to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements
of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astron-
omy, mysticism and medicine. It is often seen as linked
to the quest to turn lead or another common starting ma-
terial into gold,[6] though in ancient times the study en-
compassed many of the questions of modern chemistry
being dened as the study of the composition of waters,
movement, growth, embodying, disembodying, drawing
the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bod-
ies by the early 4th century Greek-Egyptian alchemist
Zosimos.[7] An alchemist was called a 'chemist' in pop-
ular speech, and later the sux "-ry was added to this to
describe the art of the chemist as chemistry.
The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the
Arabic word al-km (). In origin, the term
is borrowed from the Greek or .[8][9] This
may have Egyptian origins since al-km is derived from
the Greek , which is in turn derived from the word
Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt
in Egyptian.[8] Alternately, al-km may derive from
, meaning cast together.[10]

1.1.1 Denition
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that stud-
ies the composition, structure, properties and change of In retrospect, the denition of chemistry has changed
matter.[1][2] Chemistry includes topics such as the proper-
over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the func-
ties of individual atoms, how atoms form chemical bonds tionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the
to create chemical compounds, the interactions of sub- view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the
stances through intermolecular forces that give matter subject of the material principles of mixed bodies.[11] In
its general properties, and the interactions between sub- 1663 the chemist Christopher Glaser described chym-
stances through chemical reactions to form dierent sub- istry as a scientic art, by which one learns to dissolve
stances. bodies, and draw from them the dierent substances on
Chemistry is sometimes called the central science be- their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt
cause it bridges other natural sciences, including physics, them to a higher perfection.[12]
geology and biology.[3][4] For the dierences between The 1730 denition of the word chemistry, as used by
chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, com-
physics.[5] pound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of
The history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which composing such bodies from those principles.[13] In 1837,
had been practiced for several millennia in various parts Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to
of the world. refer to the science concerned with the laws and eects of

1
2 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY

molecular forces.[14] This denition further evolved un- for empirical observations and no concern for chemical
til, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: experiments.[21]
their structure, their properties, and the reactions that
In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy rst pro-
change them into other substances - a characterization liferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study
accepted by Linus Pauling.[15] More recently, in 1998, of natural substances with the ultimate goal of trans-
Professor Raymond Chang broadened the denition of muting elements into gold and discovering the elixir
chemistry to mean the study of matter and the changes of eternal life.[22] Work, particularly the development
it undergoes.[16] of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period
with the most famous practitioner being the 4th cen-
tury Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis.[23] Alchemy
1.2 History continued to be developed and practised throughout the
Arab world after the Muslim conquests,[24] and from
Main article: History of chemistry there, and from the Byzantine remnants,[25] diused into
See also: Alchemy and Timeline of chemistry medieval and Renaissance Europe through Latin trans-
Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, lations. Some inuential
[17] Muslim chemists, Ab al-
Rayhn al-Brn,[26] Avicenna[27] and Al-Kindi refuted
the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the
transmutation of metals; and al-Tusi described a version
of the conservation of mass, noting that a body of matter
is able to change but is not able to disappear.[28]

1.2.1 Chemistry as science

Democritus' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus

(341270 BCE).

Indians[18] amassed practical knowledge concerning the

arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didn't develop a
systematic theory.
A basic chemical hypothesis rst emerged in Classical
Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded
denitively by Aristotle stating that re, air, earth and
water were the fundamental elements from which ev-
erything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism
dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers
such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman
philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his
book De rerum natura (On The Nature of Things).[19][20]
Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism
was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern
Jbir ibn Hayyn (Geber), a Persian alchemist whose experimen-
tal research laid the foundations of chemistry.
The development of the modern scientic method was
slow and arduous, but an early scientic method for
chemistry began emerging among early Muslim chemists,
beginning with the 9th century Persian or Arabian
chemist Jbir ibn Hayyn (known as Geber in Eu-
rope), who is sometimes referred to as the father of
chemistry.[29][30][31][32] He introduced a systematic and
experimental approach to scientic research based in the
1.2. HISTORY 3

laboratory, in contrast to the ancient Greek and Egyptian The Scottish chemist Joseph Black (the rst experimental
alchemists whose works were largely allegorical and often chemist) and the Dutchman J. B. van Helmont discovered
unintelligble.[33] Under the inuence of the new empiri- carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'xed air' in 1754;
cal methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and oth- Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its
ers, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl
Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old alchem- Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen.
ical traditions into a scientic discipline. Boyle in partic-
ular is regarded as the founding father of chemistry due
to his most important work, the classic chemistry text
The Sceptical Chymist where the dierentiation is made
between the claims of alchemy and the empirical scien-
tic discoveries of the new chemistry.[34] He formulated
Boyles law, rejected the classical four elements and
proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms and chemical
reactions that could be subject to rigorous experiment.[35]

In his periodic table, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted the existence of

7 new elements,[38] and placed all 60 elements known at the time
in their correct places.[39]

English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory

of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible
'atoms of matter and that dierent atoms have varying
atomic weights.
The development of the electrochemical theory of chem-
ical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as
the result of the work of two scientists in particular, J.
J. Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the
prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta.
Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali
metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric
current.[40]
British William Prout rst proposed ordering all the el-
ements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight
that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydro-
gen. J. A. R. Newlands devised an early table of elements,
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the Father of Mod- which was then developed into the modern periodic ta-
ern Chemistry.[36] ble of elements[41] in the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev
and independently by several other scientists including
The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all Julius Lothar Meyer.[42][43] The inert gases, later called
combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in
Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the cen-
by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine tury, thereby lling in the basic structure of the table.
Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics; Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig
who did more than any other to establish the new science and others, following Friedrich Whler's synthesis of
on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle urea which proved that living organisms were, in the-
of conservation of mass and developing a new system of ory, reducible to chemistry.[44] Other crucial 19th cen-
chemical nomenclature used to this day.[37] tury advances were; an understanding of valence bond-
Before his work, though, many important discoveries had ing (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of
been made, specically relating to the nature of 'air' which thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante
was discovered to be composed of many dierent gases. Arrhenius in the 1870s).
4 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY

1.2.2 Chemical structure and Cultural Organization and involves chemical soci-
eties, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on
individual initiatives to organize local and regional activ-
ities.

1.3 Principles of modern chemistry

Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne in

Germany.

The current model of atomic structure is the quantum

mechanical model.[46] Traditional chemistry starts with
the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules,[47]
substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of mat-
Top: Expected results: alpha particles passing through the plum ter. This matter can be studied in solid, liquid, or gas
pudding model of the atom undisturbed.
states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions,
Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were
deected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.
reactions and transformations that are studied in chem-
istry are usually the result of interactions between atoms,
At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical un- leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which
derpinnings of chemistry were nally understood due hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a
to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in chemistry laboratory.
probing and discovering the very nature of the inter- The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various
nal structure of atoms. In 1897, J. J. Thomson of forms of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not
Cambridge University discovered the electron and soon central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as
after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it.
Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of A chemical reaction is a transformation of some sub-
radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experi-
stances into one or more dierent substances.[48] The ba-
ments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester sis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrange-
discovered the internal structure of the atom and the exis- ment of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms.
tence of the proton, classied and explained the dierent It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equa-
types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the rst tion, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The num-
element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles. ber of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a
His work on atomic structure was improved on by his chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of
students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and Henry atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is re-
Moseley. The electronic theory of chemical bonds and ferred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.) The
molecular orbitals was developed by the American scien- type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and
tists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis. the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained
The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.
International Year of Chemistry.[45] It was an initiative Energy and entropy considerations are invariably impor-
of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chem- tant in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances
istry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientic, are classied in terms of their structure, phase, as well
1.3. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY 5

as their chemical compositions. They can be analyzed oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred
using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent).
and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical re-
search are known as chemists.[49] Most chemists special-
ize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are Element
essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:[50]
Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Period
1 2
1 H He

1.3.1 Matter 2
3
Li
4
Be B
5
C
6
N
7 8
O
9
F
10
Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Main article: Matter 4 K
37
Ca
38
Sc
39
Ti
40
V
41
Cr
42
Mn
43
Fe
44
Co
45
Ni
46
Cu
47
Zn
48
Ga
49
Ge
50
As
51
Se
52
Br
53
Kr
54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
In chemistry, matter is dened as anything that has rest 7
87
Fr**
88
Ra
104
Rf
105
Db
106
Sg
107
Bh
108
Hs
109
Mt
110
Ds
111
Rg
112
Cn
113
Nh
114
Fl
115
Mc
116
Lv
117
Ts
118
Og

mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71

particles. The particles that make up matter have rest
mass as well - not all particles have rest mass, such as
the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or
a mixture of substances.[51]
* La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
* * Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Standard form of the periodic table of chemical elements. The
colors represent dierent categories of elements

Atom Main article: Chemical element

A chemical element is a pure substance which is com-

posed of a single type of atom, characterized by its partic-
ular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known
as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z.
The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms
belonging to one element will have the same atomic num-
ber, they may not necessarily have the same mass number;
atoms of an element which have dierent mass numbers
are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6
protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element
carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of
12 or 13.[53]
The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in
the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic num-
ber. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns,
and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in iden-
tifying periodic trends.[54]

A diagram of an atom based on the Rutherford model

Compound
The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of
a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a Main article: Chemical compound
space called the electron cloud. The nucleus is made up
of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (to- A compound is a pure chemical substance composed
gether called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of more than one element. The properties of a com-
of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. pound bear little similarity to those of its elements.[55]
In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons bal- The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by
ance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus the International Union of Pure and Applied Chem-
is dense; the mass of a nucleon is 1,836 times that of an istry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named accord-
electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times ing to the organic nomenclature system.[56] The names
that of its nucleus.[52][53] for Inorganic compounds are created according to the
The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envis- inorganic nomenclature system. When a compound has
aged to retain the chemical properties of the element, more than one component, then they are divided into
such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative
6 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ), an example of a chemical compound
components.[57] In addition the Chemical Abstracts Ser-
vice has devised a method to index chemical substances.
In this scheme each chemical substance is identiable by
a number known as its CAS registry number.
Molecule
Main article: Molecule
A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure
A ball-and-stick representation of the caeine molecule
(C8 H10 N4 O2 ).
chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical
properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of
chemical reactions with other substances. However, this
denition only works well for substances that are com-
posed of molecules, which is not true of many substances
(see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound
together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is elec-
trically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with
other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs.
Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike
ions. When this rule is broken, giving the molecule a
charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion
or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and sepa-
rate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that
molecular ions be present only in well-separated form,
such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrom-
eter. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids
(for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are gen-
erally not considered molecules in chemistry. Some
molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, cre-
ating radicals. Most radicals are comparatively reactive,
but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable.
A 2-D skeletal model of a benzene molecule (C6 H6 )
The inert or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as
their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chem-
ical elements consist of either molecules or networks of
atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identiable
molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air,
and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gaso-
line, and the various pharmaceuticals.
However, not all substances or chemical compounds con-
sist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid
substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core
of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules.
These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds
and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack
the existence of identiable molecules per se. Instead,
these substances are discussed in terms of formula units
or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the
substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts
(such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, met-
als, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz
and granite.
1.3. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY 7

One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its ge- Physical properties, such as density and refractive index
ometry often called its structure. While the structure of tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The
diatomic, triatomic or tetra atomic molecules may be triv- phase of matter is dened by the phase transition, which
ial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of poly- is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes
atomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of
atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemi- changing the bulk conditions.
cal nature. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be contin-
uous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case
Substance and mixture the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state.
When three states meet based on the conditions, it is
A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a denite known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is
composition and set of properties.[58] A collection of sub- a convenient way to dene a set of conditions.
stances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids,
and alloys.[59] and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases.
For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha,
gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and
Mole and amount of substance pressure. A principal dierence between solid phases is
the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. An-
Main article: Mole other phase commonly encountered in the study of chem-
istry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances
The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water).
amount of substance (also called chemical amount). The Less familiar phases include plasmas, BoseEinstein con-
mole is dened as the number of atoms found in exactly densates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic
0.012 kilogram (or 12 grams) of carbon-12, where the and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While
carbon-12 atoms are unbound, at rest and in their ground most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional sys-
state.[60] The number of entities per mole is known as tems, it is also possible to dene analogs in two-
the Avogadro constant, and is determined empirically to dimensional systems, which has received attention for its
be approximately 6.0221023 mol1 .[61] Molar concen- relevance to systems in biology.
tration is the amount of a particular substance per volume
of solution, and is commonly reported in moldm3 .[62]
1.3.3 Bonding
1.3.2 Phase Main article: Chemical bond
Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said
Sublimation

Melting Boiling/Evaporation

Solid Liquid Gas

Freezing Condensation

Deposition

Example of phase changes

Main article: Phase
In addition to the specic chemical properties that dis-
tinguish dierent chemical classications, chemicals can
exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical
classications are independent of these bulk phase classi-
cations; however, some more exotic phases are incom-
patible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a
set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk
structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as
pressure or temperature.
An animation of the process of ionic bonding between sodium
(Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride, or common table
salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons
from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent
bonding)
to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be
visualized as the multipole balance between the positive
charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating
about them.[63] More than simple attraction and repulsion,
the energies and distributions characterize the availability
of an electron to bond to another atom.
A chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond,
8 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY
a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force.
Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some poten-
tial. These potentials create the interactions which hold
atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple
compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Elec-
tron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of
oxidation number can be used to explain molecular struc-
ture and composition.
An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more
of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and
the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, be-
coming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely
charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the
electrostatic force of attraction between them. For exam-
ple, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become
an Na+ cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this
electron to become Cl . The ions are held together due to
electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chlo-
ride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed.
H
HC H
H
In the methane molecule (CH4 ), the carbon atom shares a pair
of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus,
the octet rule is satised for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its
valence shell) and the duet rule is satised for the H-atoms (they
have two electrons in their valence shells).
In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons
are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral
group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will
share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble
gas electron conguration (eight electrons in their outer-
most shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine
in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their
valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However,
some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two
electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable con-
guration; these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and
in this way they are reaching the electron conguration of
the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer
shell.
Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to
predict many ionic structures. With more complicated
compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond the-
ory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as
the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. See dia-
gram on electronic orbitals.
1.3.4 Energy
Main article: Energy
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a
substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or
aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is
accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds
of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase
or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some
energy is transferred between the surroundings and the
reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus
the products of a reaction may have more or less energy
than the reactants.
A reaction is said to be exergonic if the nal state is lower
on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of
endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reac-
tion is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat
to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions,
the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings.
Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless
the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the
activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at
given temperature T) is related to the activation energy
E, by the Boltzmanns population factor eE/kT - that is
the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than
or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential
dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as
the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary
for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of
heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of
ultrasound.[64]
A related concept free energy, which also incorporates
entropy considerations, is a very useful means for pre-
dicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the
state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical
thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total
change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, G 0 ;
if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at
equilibrium.
There exist only limited possible states of energy for elec-
trons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the
rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization
of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules
in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The
molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state
are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to
chemical reactions.
1.3. PRINCIPLES OF MODERN CHEMISTRY 9

The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its

energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the
intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the en-
ergy of the surroundings is not sucient to overcome
them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or
solid as is the case with water (H2 O); a liquid at room
temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen
bonds.[65] Whereas hydrogen sulde (H2 S) is a gas at
room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules
are bound by weaker dipole-dipole interactions.
The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to an-
other depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from
one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred
more easily from almost any substance to another because
the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational en- During chemical reactions, bonds between atoms break and
form, resulting in dierent substances with dierent properties.
ergy levels in a substance have much less energy than
In a blast furnace, iron oxide, a compound, reacts with carbon
photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon
because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more dioxide.
closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more
easily transferred between substances relative to light or
other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultravi- dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking
olet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rear-
much ecacy from one substance to another as thermal rangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chem-
or electrical energy. ical reactions usually involve the making or breaking
of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation,
The existence of characteristic energy levels for dierent
acid-base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are
chemical substances is useful for their identication by the
some of the commonly used kinds of chemical reactions.
analysis of spectral lines. Dierent kinds of spectra are
often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted
NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear
the composition of remote objects - like stars and distant chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both
galaxies - by analyzing their radiation spectra. sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this
holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and
neutrons.[66]
The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of
chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of
Emission spectrum of iron a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemi-
cal reaction can be envisioned to take place in a num-
The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the ber of steps, each of which may have a dierent speed.
potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transfor- Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can
mation through a chemical reaction or to transform other thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Re-
chemical substances. action mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics
and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical
chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mech-
1.3.5 Reaction anisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical
rules, like the WoodwardHomann rules often come in
Main article: Chemical reaction handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reac-
When a chemical substance is transformed as a result tion.
of its interaction with another substance or with energy,
According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction
a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chem-
is a process that results in the interconversion of chemi-
ical reaction is therefore a concept related to the reac-
cal species.[67] Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be
tion of a substance when it comes in close contact with
an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An ad-
another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to
ditional caveat is made, in that this denition includes
some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy
cases where the interconversion of conformers is experi-
exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well
mentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions
as with the system environment, which may be designed
normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by
vesselsoften laboratory glassware. this denition, but it is often conceptually convenient to
Chemical reactions can result in the formation or use the term also for changes involving single molecular
10 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY

entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events).

1.3.6 Ions and salts

When hydrogen bromide (HBr), pictured, is dissolved in water, it

forms the strong acid hydrobromic acid

substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is

the substance which receives that hydrogen ion.
A third common theory is Lewis acid-base theory, which
The crystal lattice structure of potassium chloride (KCl), a salt is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis
which is formed due to the attraction of K+ cations and Cl an- theory explains that an acid is a substance which is ca-
ions. Note how the overall charge of the ionic compound is zero. pable of accepting a pair of electrons from another sub-
stance during the process of bond formation, while a base
Main article: Ion is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to
form a new bond. According to this theory, the crucial
An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, things being exchanged are charges.[68] There are sev-
that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an eral other ways in which a substance may be classied
atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this
electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation. concept.[69]
When an atom gains an electron and thus has more elec- Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods.
trons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ionOne measurement, based on the Arrhenius denition of
or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lat-acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium
tice of neutral salts, such as the Na+ and Cl ions form-
ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a neg-
ing sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low
ions that do not split up during acid-base reactions arepH have a high hydronium ion concentration, and can be
hydroxide (OH ) and phosphate (PO4 3 ). said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based
Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been com- on the BrnstedLowry denition, is the acid dissocia-
pletely ionized, usually through high temperature. tion constant (K), which measures the relative ability of
a substance to act as an acid under the BrnstedLowry
denition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher
1.3.7 Acidity and basicity K are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical
reactions than those with lower K values.
Main article: Acidbase reaction

A substance can often be classied as an acid or a base.

There are several dierent theories which explain acid-
base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which
states than an acid is a substance that produces hydronium
ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that
produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Ac-
cording to BrnstedLowry acidbase theory, acids are
substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another
1.3.8 Redox
Main article: Redox
Redox (reduction-oxidation) reactions include all
chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation
state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction)
or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have
1.4. PRACTICE
the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be
oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or
oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another
substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to
reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are
known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.
A reductant transfers electrons to another substance, and
is thus oxidized itself. And because it donates electrons
it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduc-
tion properly refer to a change in oxidation numberthe
actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxida-
tion is better dened as an increase in oxidation number,
and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number.
1.3.9 Equilibrium
Main article: Chemical equilibrium
Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across
sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever
a number of dierent states of the chemical composition
are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chem-
ical compounds that can react with one another, or when a
substance can be present in more than one kind of phase.
A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even
though having an unchanging composition, is most of-
ten not static; molecules of the substances continue to re-
act with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equi-
librium. Thus the concept describes the state in which
the parameters such as chemical composition remain un-
changed over time.
1.3.10 Chemical laws
Main article: Chemical law
Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which
have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some
of them are:
Avogadros law
BeerLambert law
Boyles law (1662, relating pressure and volume)
Charless law (1787, relating volume and tempera-
ture)
Ficks laws of diusion
Gay-Lussacs law (1809, relating pressure and tem-
perature)
Le Chateliers principle
Henrys law
11
Hesss law
Law of conservation of energy leads to the impor-
tant concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and
kinetics.
Law of conservation of mass continues to be con-
served in isolated systems, even in modern physics.
However, special relativity shows that due to mass
energy equivalence, whenever non-material en-
ergy (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from
a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with
it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable
amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear
chemistry.
Law of denite composition, although in many sys-
tems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the
ratios tend to require large numbers, and are fre-
quently represented as a fraction.
Law of multiple proportions
Raoults law
1.4 Practice
1.4.1 Subdisciplines
Chemistry is typically divided into several major
sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-
disciplinary and more specialized elds of chemistry.[70]
Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material sam-
ples to gain an understanding of their chemical com-
position and structure. Analytical chemistry in-
corporates standardized experimental methods in
chemistry. These methods may be used in all sub-
disciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoreti-
cal chemistry.
Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical
reactions and chemical interactions that take place in
living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chem-
istry are closely related, as in medicinal chemistry
or neurochemistry. Biochemistry is also associated
with molecular biology and genetics.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties
and reactions of inorganic compounds. The dis-
tinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is
not absolute and there is much overlap, most impor-
tantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chem-
istry.
Materials chemistry is the preparation, characteriza-
tion, and understanding of substances with a useful
function. The eld is a new breadth of study in grad-
uate programs, and it integrates elements from all
12
classical areas of chemistry with a focus on funda-
mental issues that are unique to materials. Primary
systems of study include the chemistry of condensed
phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces be-
tween dierent phases.
Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; in-
cluding transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sug-
ars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the
roles they play in forming, maintaining, and mod-
ifying the nervous system.
Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic
particles come together and make nuclei. Mod-
ern Transmutation is a large component of nuclear
chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important
result and tool for this eld.
Organic chemistry is the study of the structure,
properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions
of organic compounds. An organic compound is de-
ned as any compound based on a carbon skeleton.
Physical chemistry is the study of the physical
and fundamental basis of chemical systems and
processes. In particular, the energetics and dy-
namics of such systems and processes are of in-
terest to physical chemists. Important areas of
study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical
kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics,
spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry.[71]
Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular
physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of
innitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usu-
ally associated with quantum chemistry and theoret-
ical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct disci-
pline from chemical physics, but again, there is very
strong overlap.
Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via
fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within
mathematics or physics). In particular the applica-
tion of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called
quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second
World War, the development of computers has al-
lowed a systematic development of computational
chemistry, which is the art of developing and apply-
ing computer programs for solving chemical prob-
lems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with
(theoretical and experimental) condensed matter
physics and molecular physics.
Other disciplines within chemistry are traditionally
grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind
of study. These include inorganic chemistry, the study
of inorganic matter; organic chemistry, the study of
organic (carbon-based) matter; biochemistry, the study of
substances found in biological organisms; physical chem-
istry, the study of chemical processes using physical con-
cepts such as thermodynamics and quantum mechanics;
CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY
and analytical chemistry, the analysis of material samples
to gain an understanding of their chemical composition
and structure. Many more specialized disciplines have
emerged in recent years, e.g. neurochemistry the chemi-
cal study of the nervous system (see subdisciplines).
Other elds include agrochemistry, astrochemistry
(and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry,
chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-
informatics, electrochemistry, environmental chemistry,
femtochemistry, avor chemistry, ow chemistry,
geochemistry, green chemistry, histochemistry,
history of chemistry, hydrogenation chemistry,
immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials sci-
ence, mathematical chemistry, mechanochemistry,
medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, molecular
mechanics, nanotechnology, natural product chemistry,
oenology, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry,
pharmacology, photochemistry, physical organic
chemistry, phytochemistry, polymer chemistry,
radiochemistry, solid-state chemistry, sonochemistry,
supramolecular chemistry, surface chemistry, synthetic
chemistry, thermochemistry, and many others.
1.4.2 Chemical industry
Main article: Chemical industry
The chemical industry represents an important economic
activity worldwide. The global top 50 chemical producers
in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a prot margin
of 10.3%.[72]
1.4.3 Professional societies
American Chemical Society
American Society for Neurochemistry
Chemical Institute of Canada
Chemical Society of Peru
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Royal Australian Chemical Institute
Royal Netherlands Chemical Society
Royal Society of Chemistry
Society of Chemical Industry
World Association of Theoretical and Computa-
tional Chemists
List of chemistry societies
1.6. REFERENCES
1.5 See also
Outline of chemistry
Glossary of chemistry terms
Common chemicals
International Year of Chemistry
List of chemists
List of compounds
List of important publications in chemistry
Comparison of software for molecular mechanics
modeling
List of unsolved problems in chemistry
Periodic systems of small molecules
Philosophy of chemistry
1.6 References
[1] What is Chemistry?". Chemweb.ucc.ie. Retrieved 2011-
06-12.
[2] Chemistry. (n.d.). Merriam-Websters Medical Dictio-
nary. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
[3] Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Edward
Bursten, H. Lemay. Chemistry: The Central Science.
Prentice Hall; 8 edition (1999). ISBN 0-13-010310-1.
Pages 34.
[4] Chemistry occupies an intermediate position in a hierar-
chy of the sciences by reductive level between physics and
biology. Carsten Reinhardt. Chemical Sciences in the 20th
Century: Bridging Boundaries. Wiley-VCH, 2001. ISBN
3-527-30271-9. Pages 12.
[5] Bunge, M. (1982). Is chemistry a branch of physics?".
Journal for the General Philosophy of Science - Zeitschrift
fr allgemeine Wissenschaftstheorie. 13 (2): 209223.
doi:10.1007/BF01801556.
[6] History of Alchemy. Alchemy Lab. Retrieved 2011-
06-12.
[7] Strathern, P. (2000). Mendeleyevs Dream the Quest for
the Elements. New York: Berkley Books.
[8] alchemy, entry in The Oxford English Dictionary, J. A.
Simpson and E. S. C. Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN
0-19-861213-3.
[9] p. 854, Arabic alchemy, Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853
885 in Encyclopedia of the history of Arabic science, eds.
Roshdi Rashed and Rgis Morelon, London: Routledge,
1996, vol. 3, ISBN 0-415-12412-3.
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[10] Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of
Modern English. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN
0-486-21873-2
[11] Boyle, Robert (1661). The Sceptical Chymist. New York:
Dover Publications, Inc. (reprint). ISBN 0-486-42825-7.
[12] Glaser, Christopher (1663). Traite de la chymie. Paris. as
found in: Kim, Mi Gyung (2003). Anity, That Elusive
Dream - A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution. The
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[13] Stahl, George, E. (1730). Philosophical Principles of Uni-
versal Chemistry. London.
[14] Dumas, J. B. (1837). 'Anite' (lecture notes), vii, pg 4.
Statique chimique, Paris: Academie des Sciences
[15] Pauling, Linus (1947). General Chemistry. Dover Publi-
cations, Inc. ISBN 0-486-65622-5.
[16] Chang, Raymond (1998). Chemistry, 6th Ed. New York:
McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-115221-0.
[17] First chemists, February 13, 1999, New Scientist
[18] Barnes, Ruth. Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies. Rout-
ledge. p. 1.
[19] Lucretius (50 BCE). de Rerum Natura (On the Na-
ture of Things)". The Internet Classics Archive. Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 9 January
2007. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[20] Simpson, David (29 June 2005). Lucretius (c. 99 - c.
55 BCE)". The Internet History of Philosophy. Retrieved
2007-01-09.
[21] Strodach, George K. (2012). The Art of Happiness. New
York: Penguin Classics. pp. 78. ISBN 0-14-310721-6.
[22] International Year of Chemistry - The History of Chem-
istry. G.I.T. Laboratory Journal Europe. Feb 25, 2011.
Retrieved March 12, 2013.
[23] Bryan H. Bunch & Alexander Hellemans (2004). The His-
tory of Science and Technology. Houghton Miin Har-
court. p. 88. ISBN 0-618-22123-9.
[24] Morris Kline (1985) Mathematics for the nonmathemati-
cian. Courier Dover Publications. p. 284. ISBN 0-486-
24823-2
[25] Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes
grecs (3 vol., Paris, 18871888, p.161); F. Sherwood Tay-
lor, The Origins of Greek Alchemy, Ambix 1 (1937),
40.
[26] Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965).
"An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Con-
ceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study
by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina by
Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Speculum. 40 (4): 744746.
doi:10.2307/2851429. JSTOR 2851429.
[27] Robert Briault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p.
196-197.
14
[28] Alakbarov, Farid (2001). A 13th-Century Darwin?
Tusis Views on Evolution. Azerbaijan International. 9:
2.
[29] Derewenda, Zygmunt S.; Derewenda, ZS (2007).
On wine, chirality and crystallography. Acta
Crystallographica Section A. 64 (Pt 1): 246
258 [247]. Bibcode:2008AcCrA..64..246D.
doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293. PMID 18156689.
[30] John Warren (2005). War and the Cultural Heritage of
Iraq: a sadly mismanaged aair, Third World Quarterly,
Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, p. 815-830.
[31] Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), JABIR IBN HAIYAN (Geber)
[32] Paul Vallely, How Islamic inventors changed the world,
The Independent, 10 March 2006
[33] Kraus, Paul, Jbir ibn Hayyn, Contribution l'histoire
des ides scientiques dans l'Islam. I. Le corpus des crits
jbiriens. II. Jbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942-
1943). Repr. By Fuat Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam.
67-68), Frankfurt. 2002:
To form an idea of the historical place of
Jabirs alchemy and to tackle the problem of
its sources, it is advisable to compare it with
what remains to us of the alchemical litera-
ture in the Greek language. One knows in
which miserable state this literature reached
us. Collected by Byzantine scientists from
the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek al-
chemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments,
going back to all the times since the third cen-
tury until the end of the Middle Ages.
The eorts of Berthelot and Ruelle to
put a little order in this mass of literature
led only to poor results, and the later re-
searchers, among them in particular Mrs.
Hammer-Jensen, Tannery, Lagercrantz, von
Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Fes-
tugiere and others, could make clear only few
points of detail
The study of the Greek alchemists is not
very encouraging. An even surface exami-
nation of the Greek texts shows that a very
small part only was organized according to
true experiments of laboratory: even the sup-
posedly technical writings, in the state where
we nd them today, are unintelligible non-
sense which refuses any interpretation.
It is dierent with Jabirs alchemy. The
relatively clear description of the processes
and the alchemical apparatuses, the method-
ical classication of the substances, mark an
experimental spirit which is extremely far
away from the weird and odd esotericism of
the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir
supports his operations is one of clearness
and of an impressive unity. More than with
the other Arab authors, one notes with him
a balance between theoretical teaching and
CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY
practical teaching, between the `ilm and the
`amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek
texts a work as systematic as that which is
presented for example in the Book of Sev-
enty.
(cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. A Critical Reassessment of the
Geber Problem: Part Three. Archived from the original
on 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2008-08-09.)
[34] Robert Boyle, Founder of Modern Chemistry Harry
Sootin (2011)
[35] History - Robert Boyle (16271691)". BBC. Retrieved
2011-06-12.
[36] Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). Marie
Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chem-
istry. The Chemical Educator. 3 (5): 118.
doi:10.1007/s00897980249a.
[37] Mi Gyung Kim (2003). Anity, that Elusive Dream: A
Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution. MIT Press. p.
440. ISBN 0-262-11273-6.
[38] Chemistry 412 course notes. A Brief History of the De-
velopment of Periodic Table. Western Oregon Univer-
sity. Retrieved July 20, 2015.
[39] Note: "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived
modern chemists would be using a Periodic Table and
Dmitri Mendeleev. Royal Society of Chemistry. Re-
trieved July 18, 2015.
[40] Davy, Humphry (1808). On some new Phenomena
of Chemical Changes produced by Electricity, partic-
ularly the Decomposition of the xed Alkalies, and
the Exhibition of the new Substances, which constitute
their Bases. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society. Royal Society of London. 98 (0): 145.
doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001.
[41] Winter, Mark. WebElements: the periodic table on the
web. The University of Sheeld. Archived from the
original on January 4, 2014. Retrieved January 27, 2014.
[42] Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev.
Chemical Heritage Foundation. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
[43] What makes these family likenesses among the elements?
In the 1860s everyone was scratching their heads about
that, and several scientists moved towards rather simi-
lar answers. The man who solved the problem most tri-
umphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich
Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in
1859. Bronowski, Jacob (1973). The Ascent of Man. Lit-
tle, Brown and Company. p. 322. ISBN 0-316-10930-4.
[44] Ihde, Aaron John (1984). The Development of Modern
Chemistry. Courier Dover Publications. p. 164. ISBN
0-486-64235-6.
[45] Chemistry. Chemistry2011.org. Retrieved 2012-03-
10.
[46] chemical bonding. Britannica. Encyclopdia Britan-
nica. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
1.7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[47] Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton by Anthony
Carpi, Ph.D.
[48] IUPAC Gold Book Denition
[49] California Occupational Guide Number 22: Chemists.
Calmis.ca.gov. 1999-10-29. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
[50] General Chemistry Online - Companion Notes: Matter.
Antoine.frostburg.edu. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
[51] Armstrong, James (2012). General, Organic, and Bio-
chemistry: An Applied Approach. Brooks/Cole. p. 48.
ISBN 978-0-534-49349-3.
[52] Burrows et al. 2008, p. 13.
[53] Housecroft & Sharpe 2008, p. 2.
[54] Burrows et al. 2009, p. 110.
[55] Burrows et al. 2008, p. 12.
[56] IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry. Acd-
labs.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
[57] Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshorn, Richard M.;
Hutton, Alan T. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IU-
PAC Recommendations 2005. RSCPublishing. pp. 512.
ISBN 0-85404-438-8.
[58] Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S.
(2005). General Chemistry (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 37.
[59] M. M. Avedesian; Hugh Baker. Magnesium and Magne-
sium Alloys. ASM International. p. 59.
[60] Ocial SI Unit denitions. Bipm.org. Retrieved 2011-
06-12.
[61] Burrows et al. 2008, p. 16.
[62] Atkins & de Paula 2009, p. 9.
[63] Visionlearning. Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi,
Ph. visionlearning. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
[64] Reilly, Michael. (2007). Mechanical force induces chem-
ical reaction, NewScientist.com news service, Reilly
[65] Changing States of Matter - Chemforkids.com
[66] Chemical Reaction Equation- IUPAC Goldbook
[67] Gold Book Chemical Reaction IUPAC Goldbook
[68] The Lewis Acid-Base Concept. Apsidium. May 19,
2003. Archived from the original on 2008-05-27. Re-
trieved 2010-07-31.
[69] History of Acidity. Bbc.co.uk. 2004-05-27. Retrieved
2011-06-12.
[70] W.G. Laidlaw; D.E. Ryan And Gary Horlick; H.C. Clark,
Josef Takats, And Martin Cowie; R.U. Lemieux (1986-
12-10). Chemistry Subdisciplines. The Canadian En-
cyclopedia. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
15
[71] Herbst, Eric (May 12, 2005). Chemistry of Star-
Forming Regions. Journal of Physical Chemistry A.
109 (18): 40174029. doi:10.1021/jp050461c. PMID
16833724.
[72] Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014). C&ENs Global Top
50 Chemical Firms For 2014. Chemical & Engineering
News. American Chemical Society. Retrieved 22 August
2014.
1.7 Bibliography
Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2009) [1992]. Ele-
ments of Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). New York:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922672-
6.
Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew;
Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth (2009). Chemistry3 .
Italy: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-
927789-6.
Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008)
[2001]. Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.). Harlow, Es-
sex: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6.
1.8 Further reading
Popular reading
Atkins, P.W. Galileos Finger (Oxford University
Press) ISBN 0-19-860941-8
Atkins, P.W. Atkins Molecules (Cambridge Univer-
sity Press) ISBN 0-521-82397-8
Kean, Sam. The Disappearing Spoon - and other true
tales from the Periodic Table (Black Swan) London,
2010 ISBN 978-0-552-77750-6
Levi, Primo The Periodic Table (Penguin Books)
[1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond
Rosenthal (1984) ISBN 978-0-14-139944-7
Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford Uni-
versity Press) ISBN 0-19-515027-9
Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Archived from
the original on March 10, 2008.
"Chemistry". Encyclopdia Britannica. 6 (11th
ed.). 1911. pp. 3376.
Introductory undergraduate text books
Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M.
and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins inorganic
chemistry (4th edition) 2006 (Oxford University
Press) ISBN 0-19-926463-5
16 CHAPTER 1. CHEMISTRY

Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston: James

M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0-07-115221-0.
Clayden, Jonathan; Greeves, Nick; Warren, Stuart;
Wothers, Peter (2001). Organic Chemistry (1st ed.).
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-850346-
0.
Voet and Voet Biochemistry (Wiley) ISBN 0-471-
58651-X

Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate text books

Atkins, P.W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University

Press) ISBN 0-19-879285-9
Atkins, P.W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics
(Oxford University Press)
McWeeny, R. Coulsons Valence (Oxford Science
Publications) ISBN 0-19-855144-4
Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell
University Press) ISBN 0-8014-0333-2
Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to
Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry
(Dover Publications) ISBN 0-486-64871-0

Smart and Moore Solid State Chemistry: An Intro-

duction (Chapman and Hall) ISBN 0-412-40040-5
Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science
Students (Longman) ISBN 0-582-44416-0

1.9 External links

General Chemistry principles, patterns and applica-
tions.
Chapter 2
Computer engineering
Hardware engineering redirects here. For engineering
of other types of hardware, see mechanical engineering.
For engineering electrical systems, see electrical engi-
neering.
Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates
The motherboard used in a HD DVD player, the result of com-
puter engineering eorts.
several elds of electrical engineering and computer
science required to develop computer hardware and
software.[1] Computer engineers usually have training
in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering),
software design, and hardware-software integration in-
stead of only software engineering or electronic engi-
neering. Computer engineers are involved in many hard-
ware and software aspects of computing, from the design
of individual microcontrollers, microprocessors, personal
computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This
eld of engineering not only focuses on how computer
systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into
the larger picture.[2]
Usual tasks involving computer engineers include writing There are two major specialties in computer engineering:
software and rmware for embedded microcontrollers, software and hardware.
designing VLSI chips, designing analog sensors, design-
ing mixed signal circuit boards, and designing operating
systems. Computer engineers are also suited for robotics
research, which relies heavily on using digital systems
to control and monitor electrical systems like motors,
communications, and sensors.
In many institutions, computer engineering students are
allowed to choose areas of in-depth study in their junior
and senior year, because the full breadth of knowledge
used in the design and application of computers is beyond
the scope of an undergraduate degree. Other institutions
may require engineering students to complete one or two
years of General Engineering before declaring computer
engineering as their primary focus.[3][4][5][6]
2.1 History
The rst computer engineering degree program in the
United States was established at Case Western Reserve
University in 1972. As of 2015, there were 238 ABET-
accredited computer engineering programs in the US.[7]
In Europe, accreditation of computer engineering schools
is done by a variety of agencies part of the EQANIE
network. Due to increasing job requirements for engi-
neers who can concurrently design hardware, software,
rmware, and manage all forms of computer systems
used in industry, some tertiary institutions around the
world oer a bachelors degree generally called computer
engineering. Both computer engineering and electronic
engineering programs include analog and digital circuit
design in their curriculum. As with most engineering dis-
ciplines, having a sound knowledge of mathematics and
science is necessary for computer engineers.
2.2 Work
17
18 CHAPTER 2. COMPUTER ENGINEERING

2.2.1 Computer software engineering 2.3.2 Communications and wireless net-

Main article: Software engineering
Computer software engineers develop, design, and test
software. They construct, and maintain computer pro-
grams, as well as set up networks such as "intranets" for
companies. Software engineers can also design or code
new applications to meet the needs of a business or indi-
vidual. Some software engineers work independently as
freelancers and sell their software products/applications
to an enterprise or individual.[8]
works
Main articles: Communications networks and Wireless
network
Those focusing on communications and wireless net-
works, work advancements in telecommunications sys-
tems and networks (especially wireless networks), modu-
lation and error-control coding, and information theory.
High-speed network design, interference suppression and
modulation, design and analysis of fault-tolerant system,
and storage and transmission schemes are all a part of this
specialty.[10]

2.2.2 Computer hardware engineering 2.3.3 Compilers and operating systems

Most computer hardware engineers research, develop,
design, and test various computer equipment. This can
range from circuit boards and microprocessors to routers.
Some update existing computer equipment to be more ef-
cient and work with newer software. Most computer
hardware engineers work in research laboratories and
high-tech manufacturing rms. Some also work for the
federal government. According to BLS, 95% of com-
puter hardware engineers work in metropolitan areas.
They generally work full-time. Approximately 33% of
their work requires more than 40 hours a week. The me-
dian salary for employed qualied computer hardware en-
gineers (2012) was $100,920 per year or $48.52 per hour.
Computer hardware engineers held 83,300 jobs in 2012
in the USA.[9]
Main articles: Compiler and Operating system
This specialty focuses on compilers and operating sys-
tems design and development. Engineers in this eld de-
velop new operating system architecture, program analy-
sis techniques, and new techniques to assure quality. Ex-
amples of work in this eld includes post-link-time code
transformation algorithm development and new operating
system development.[10]
2.3.4 Computational science and engineer-
ing
Main article: Computational science and engineering

Computational Science and Engineering is a relatively

new discipline. According to the Sloan Career Corner-
2.3 Specialty areas stone Center, individuals working in this area, compu-
tational methods are applied to formulate and solve com-
plex mathematical problems in engineering and the phys-
There are many specialty areas in the eld of computer ical and the social sciences. Examples include aircraft
engineering. design, the plasma processing of nanometer features on
semiconductor wafers, VLSI circuit design, radar detec-
tion systems, ion transport through biological channels,
and much more.[10]
2.3.1 Coding, cryptography, and informa-
tion protection 2.3.5 Computer networks, mobile comput-
ing, and distributed systems
Main article: Information security
Main articles: Computer network, Mobile computing,
Computer engineers work in coding, cryptography, and and Distributed computing
information protection to develop new methods for pro-
tecting various information, such as digital images and In this specialty, engineers build integrated environments
music, fragmentation, copyright infringement and other for computing, communications, and information ac-
forms of tampering. Examples include work on wireless cess. Examples include shared-channel wireless net-
communications, multi-antenna systems, optical trans- works, adaptive resource management in various systems,
mission, and digital watermarking.[10] and improving the quality of service in mobile and ATM
2.4. EDUCATION 19

environments. Some other examples include work on Individuals working in this area design technology for en-
wireless network systems and fast Ethernet cluster wired hancing the speed, reliability, and performance of sys-
systems.[10] tems. Embedded systems are found in many devices
from a small FM radio to the space shuttle. According to
the Sloan Cornerstone Career Center, ongoing develop-
2.3.6 Computer systems: architecture, ments in embedded systems include automated vehicles
parallel processing, and dependabil- and equipment to conduct search and rescue, automated
transportation systems, and human-robot coordination to
ity repair equipment in space.[10]
Main articles: Computer architecture, Parallel comput-
ing, and Dependability 2.3.9 Integrated circuits, VLSI design,
testing and CAD
Engineers working in computer systems work on re-
search projects that allow for reliable, secure, and high- Main articles: Integrated circuit and Very-large-scale
performance computer systems. Projects such as design- integration
ing processors for multi-threading and parallel process-
ing are included in this eld. Other examples of work This specialty of computer engineering requires adequate
in this eld include development of new theories, algo- knowledge of electronics and electrical systems. Engi-
rithms, and other tools that add performance to computer neers working in this area work on enhancing the speed,
systems.[10] reliability, and energy eciency of next-generation very-
large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuits and microsystems.
An example of this specialty is work done on reduc-
2.3.7 Computer vision and robotics ing the power consumption of VLSI algorithms and
architecture.[10]
Main articles: Computer vision and Robotics

2.3.10 Signal, image and speech process-

In this specialty, computer engineers focus on developing
visual sensing technology to sense an environment, rep-
resentation of an environment, and manipulation of the
environment. The gathered three-dimensional informa-
tion is then implemented to perform a variety of tasks.
These include, improved human modeling, image com-
munication, and human-computer interfaces, as well as
devices such as special-purpose cameras with versatile vi-
sion sensors.[10]
2.3.8 Embedded systems
ing
Main articles: Signal processing, Image processing, and
Speech processing
Computer engineers in this area develop improvements
in humancomputer interaction, including speech recog-
nition and synthesis, medical and scientic imaging, or
communications systems. Other work in this area in-
cludes computer vision development such as recognition
of human facial features.[10]

2.4 Education
Most entry-level computer engineering jobs require at
least a bachelors degree in computer engineering. Some-
times a degree in electronic engineering is accepted, due
to the similarity of the two elds. Because hardware
engineers commonly work with computer software sys-
tems, a background in computer programming usually is
needed. According to BLS, a computer engineering ma-
OXYGEN

jor is similar to electrical engineering but with some com-

Examples of devices that use embedded systems.
Main article: Embedded systems
puter science courses added to the curriculum.[9] Some
large rms or specialized jobs require a masters degree.
It is also important for computer engineers to keep up
with rapid advances in technology. Therefore, many con-
tinue learning throughout their careers. This can be help-
ful, especially when it comes to learning new skills or im-
20
proving existing ones. For example, as the relative cost
of xing a bug increases the further along it is in the soft-
ware development cycle, there can be greater cost sav-
ings attributed to developing and testing for quality code
as soon as possible in the process, and particularly before
release.[11]
2.5 Job outlook in the United
States
2.5.1 Computer software engineering
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS),
computer applications software engineers and computer
systems software engineers are projected to be among the
faster than average growing occupations from 201424,
with a projected growth rate of 17%.[12] This is down
from the 2012 to 2022 BLS estimate of 22% for software
developers.[8][12] And, further down from the 30% 2010
to 2020 BLS estimate.[13] In addition, growing concerns
over cyber security add up to put computer software en-
gineering high above the average rate of increase for all
elds. However, some of the work will be outsourced
in foreign countries. Due to this, job growth will not be
as fast as during the last decade, as jobs that would have
gone to computer software engineers in the United States
would instead go to computer software engineers in coun-
tries such as India.[14] In addition the BLS Job Outlook
for Computer Programmers, 2014-24 has an 8% (a de-
cline in their words)[14] for those who program computers
(i.e. embedded systems) who are not computer applica-
tion developers.
2.5.2 Computer hardware engineering
According to the BLS, Job Outlook employment for com-
puter hardware engineers, 2014-24 is 3% (Slower than
average in their own words when compared to other
occupations)"[15] and is down from 7% for 2012 to 2022 [9] Computer Hardware Engineers. Bureau of Labor
BLS estimate[15] and is further down from 9% in the BLS
2010 to 2020 estimate. Today, computer hardware is
[10] Computer Engineering Overview (PDF). Sloan Career
somehow equal to Electronic and Computer Engineering
(ECE) and has divided to many subcategories, the most
signicant of them is Embedded system design.[9] [11] Feabhas_Infographic_FINAL (pdf). feabhas. Feabhas.
2.6 Similar occupations and elds
Computer programming
Electrical engineering
Software development
Systems analyst
CHAPTER 2. COMPUTER ENGINEERING
2.7 See also
List of universities with computer engineering pro-
grams
2.8 References
[1] IEEE Computer Society; ACM (December 12, 2004).
Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for
Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineer-
ing (PDF). p. iii. Retrieved December 17, 2012. Com-
puter System engineering has traditionally been viewed
as a combination of both electronic engineering (EE) and
computer science (CS).
[2] Trinity College Dublin. What is Computer System En-
gineering. Retrieved April 21, 2006., Computer en-
gineers need not only to understand how computer sys-
tems themselves work, but also how they integrate into
the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car con-
tains many separate computer systems for controlling such
things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags.
To be able to design and implement such a car, the com-
puter engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of
all these various subsystems & how they interact.
[3] Changing Majors @ Clemson. Clemson University.
Retrieved September 20, 2011.
[4] Declaring a College of Engineering Major. University
of Arkansas. Retrieved September 20, 2011.
[5] Degree Requirements. Carnegie Mellon University.
Retrieved September 20, 2011.
[6] Programas de Materias (in Spanish). Universidad
Catlica Argentina.
[7] Find an ABET-Accredited Program | ABET.
main.abet.org. Retrieved 2015-11-29.
[8] Computer Software Engineer. Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics. March 19, 2010. Archived from the original on July
26, 2013. Retrieved July 20, 2012.
Statistics. January 8, 2014. Retrieved July 20, 2012.
Cornerstone Center. Retrieved July 20, 2012.
[12] Software Developers: Occupational Outlook Hand-
book. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[13] Software Developers. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Jan-
uary 8, 2014. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
[14] Computer Programmers: Occupational Outlook Hand-
book. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
[15] Computer Hardware Engineers: Occupational Outlook
Handbook. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Chapter 3

Computer science

Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations

of information and computation, together with practical
techniques for the implementation and application of
these foundations.

Computer science is the study of the theory, experimen-

tation, and engineering that form the basis for the de-
sign and use of computers. It is the scientic and prac-
tical approach to computation and its applications and
the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expres-
sion, and mechanization of the methodical procedures
(or algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representa-
tion, processing, storage, communication of, and access
to information. An alternate, more succinct denition of
computer science is the study of automating algorithmic
processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in
the theory of computation and the design of computa-
tional systems.[1]
Charles Babbage is sometimes referred as father of
Its elds can be divided into a variety of theoretical and
computing.[2]
practical disciplines. Some elds, such as computational
complexity theory (which explores the fundamental prop-
erties of computational and intractable problems), are
highly abstract, while elds such as computer graphics isted since antiquity, even before the development of so-
emphasize real-world visual applications. Other elds phisticated computing equipment.
still focus on challenges in implementing computation.
Wilhelm Schickard designed and constructed the rst
For example, programming language theory considers
working mechanical calculator in 1623.[4] In 1673,
various approaches to the description of computation,
Gottfried Leibniz demonstrated a digital mechanical cal-
while the study of computer programming itself investi-
culator, called the Stepped Reckoner.[5] He may be con-
gates various aspects of the use of programming language
sidered the rst computer scientist and information the-
and complex systems. Humancomputer interaction con-
orist, for, among other reasons, documenting the binary
siders the challenges in making computers and computa-
number system. In 1820, Thomas de Colmar launched
tions useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans.
the mechanical calculator industry[note 1] when he released
his simplied arithmometer, which was the rst calcu-
lating machine strong enough and reliable enough to be
used daily in an oce environment. Charles Babbage
3.1 History started the design of the rst automatic mechanical cal-
culator, his Dierence Engine, in 1822, which eventually
Main article: History of computer science gave him the idea of the rst programmable mechanical
The earliest foundations of what would become com- calculator, his Analytical Engine.[6] He started develop-
puter science predate the invention of the modern digital ing this machine in 1834, and in less than two years, he
computer. Machines for calculating xed numerical tasks had sketched out many of the salient features of the mod-
such as the abacus have existed since antiquity, aiding in ern computer".[7] A crucial step was the adoption of a
computations such as multiplication and division. Fur- punched card system derived from the Jacquard loom"[7]
ther, algorithms for performing computations have ex- making it innitely programmable.[note 2] In 1843, dur-

21
22 CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE

able, many applications of computing have become dis-

tinct areas of study in their own rights.
Although many initially believed it was impossible that
computers themselves could actually be a scientic eld
of study, in the late fties it gradually became accepted
among the greater academic population.[15][16] It is the
now well-known IBM brand that formed part of the com-
puter science revolution during this time. IBM (short
for International Business Machines) released the IBM
704[17] and later the IBM 709[18] computers, which were
widely used during the exploration period of such de-
vices. Still, working with the IBM [computer] was frus-
trating [] if you had misplaced as much as one letter in
one instruction, the program would crash, and you would
have to start the whole process over again.[15] During
the late 1950s, the computer science discipline was very
much in its developmental stages, and such issues were
commonplace.[16]
Time has seen signicant improvements in the usability
and eectiveness of computing technology.[19] Modern
society has seen a signicant shift in the users of com-
puter technology, from usage only by experts and pro-
fessionals, to a near-ubiquitous user base. Initially, com-
puters were quite costly, and some degree of human aid
Ada Lovelace is credited with writing the rst algorithm intended was needed for ecient usein part from professional
for processing on a computer.[3] computer operators. As computer adoption became more
widespread and aordable, less human assistance was
needed for common usage.
ing the translation of a French article on the Analyti- See also: History of computing and History of informat-
cal Engine, Ada Lovelace wrote, in one of the many ics
notes she included, an algorithm to compute the Bernoulli
numbers, which is considered to be the rst computer
program.[8] Around 1885, Herman Hollerith invented the
tabulator, which used punched cards to process statisti- 3.1.1 Contributions
cal information; eventually his company became part of
IBM. In 1937, one hundred years after Babbages im- Despite its short history as a formal academic discipline,
possible dream, Howard Aiken convinced IBM, which computer science has made a number of fundamental
was making all kinds of punched card equipment and was contributions to science and societyin fact, along with
also in the calculator business[9] to develop his giant pro-
electronics, it is a founding science of the current epoch
grammable calculator, the ASCC/Harvard Mark I, based of human history called the Information Age and a driver
on Babbages Analytical Engine, which itself used cards of the Information Revolution, seen as the third major
and a central computing unit. When the machine was n- leap in human technological progress after the Industrial
ished, some hailed it as Babbages dream come true.[10] Revolution (17501850 CE) and the Agricultural Revo-
During the 1940s, as new and more powerful computing lution (80005000 BC).
machines were developed, the term computer came These contributions include:
to refer to the machines rather than their human
predecessors.[11] As it became clear that computers could
be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the The start of the "digital revolution", which includes
eld of computer science broadened to study computation the current Information Age and the Internet.[21]
in general. Computer science began to be established
as a distinct academic discipline in the 1950s and early A formal denition of computation and
1960s.[12][13] The worlds rst computer science degree computability, and proof that there are computa-
program, the Cambridge Diploma in Computer Science, tionally unsolvable and intractable problems.[22]
began at the University of Cambridge Computer Labo-
ratory in 1953. The rst computer science degree pro- The concept of a programming language, a tool for
gram in the United States was formed at Purdue Univer- the precise expression of methodological informa-
sity in 1962.[14] Since practical computers became avail- tion at various levels of abstraction.[23]
3.2. ETYMOLOGY
The German military used the Enigma machine (shown here)
during World War II for communications they wanted kept se-
cret. The large-scale decryption of Enigma trac at Bletchley
Park was an important factor that contributed to Allied victory
in WWII.[20]
In cryptography, breaking the Enigma code was an
important factor contributing to the Allied victory in See also: Informatics Etymology
World War II.[20]
Scientic computing enabled practical evaluation of
processes and situations of great complexity, as well
as experimentation entirely by software. It also en-
abled advanced study of the mind, and mapping
of the human genome became possible with the
Human Genome Project.[21] Distributed comput-
ing projects such as Folding@home explore protein
folding.
Algorithmic trading has increased the eciency and
liquidity of nancial markets by using articial in-
telligence, machine learning, and other statistical
and numerical techniques on a large scale.[24] High
frequency algorithmic trading can also exacerbate
volatility.[25]
Computer graphics and computer-generated
imagery have become ubiquitous in modern
entertainment, particularly in television, cinema,
advertising, animation and video games. Even lms
that feature no explicit CGI are usually lmed
now on digital cameras, or edited or post-processed
using a digital video editor.[26][27]
Simulation of various processes, including computa-
tional uid dynamics, physical, electrical, and elec-
23
tronic systems and circuits, as well as societies and
social situations (notably war games) along with
their habitats, among many others. Modern comput-
ers enable optimization of such designs as complete
aircraft. Notable in electrical and electronic circuit
design are SPICE, as well as software for physical
realization of new (or modied) designs. The lat-
ter includes essential design software for integrated
circuits.
Articial intelligence is becoming increasingly im-
portant as it gets more ecient and complex. There
are many applications of AI, some of which can be
seen at home, such as robotic vacuum cleaners. It
is also present in video games and on the modern
battleeld in drones, anti-missile systems, and squad
support robots.
Human-Computer Interaction combines novel algo-
rithms with design strategies that enable rapid hu-
man performance, low error rates, ease in learning,
and high satisfaction. Researchers use ethnographic
observation and automated data collection to un-
derstand user needs, then conduct usability tests to
rene designs. Key innovations include the direct
manipulation, selectable web links, touchscreen de-
signs, mobile applications, and virtual reality.
3.2 Etymology
Although rst proposed in 1956,[16] the term computer
science appears in a 1959 article in Communications of
the ACM,[28] in which Louis Fein argues for the creation
of a Graduate School in Computer Sciences analogous to
the creation of Harvard Business School in 1921,[29] jus-
tifying the name by arguing that, like management sci-
ence, the subject is applied and interdisciplinary in na-
ture, while having the characteristics typical of an aca-
demic discipline.[28] His eorts, and those of others such
as numerical analyst George Forsythe, were rewarded:
universities went on to create such programs, starting
with Purdue in 1962.[30] Despite its name, a signicant
amount of computer science does not involve the study
of computers themselves. Because of this, several al-
ternative names have been proposed.[31] Certain depart-
ments of major universities prefer the term computing sci-
ence, to emphasize precisely that dierence. Danish sci-
entist Peter Naur suggested the term datalogy,[32] to re-
ect the fact that the scientic discipline revolves around
data and data treatment, while not necessarily involv-
ing computers. The rst scientic institution to use the
term was the Department of Datalogy at the University
of Copenhagen, founded in 1969, with Peter Naur being
the rst professor in datalogy. The term is used mainly
in the Scandinavian countries. An alternative term, also
24
proposed by Naur, is data science; this is now used for pal focus of software engineering is the design of specic
a distinct eld of data analysis, including statistics and computations to achieve practical goals, making the two
databases.
Also, in the early days of computing, a number of terms
for the practitioners of the eld of computing were sug-
gested in the Communications of the ACMturingineer,
turologist, ow-charts-man, applied meta-mathematician,
and applied epistemologist.[33] Three months later in the
same journal, comptologist was suggested, followed next
year by hypologist.[34] The term computics has also been
suggested.[35] In Europe, terms derived from contracted
translations of the expression automatic information
(e.g. informazione automatica in Italian) or infor-
mation and mathematics are often used, e.g. informa-
tique (French), Informatik (German), informatica (Ital-
ian, Dutch), informtica (Spanish, Portuguese), infor-
matika (Slavic languages and Hungarian) or pliroforiki
(, which means informatics) in Greek.
Similar words have also been adopted in the UK (as
in the School of Informatics of the University of Edin-
burgh).[36] In the U.S., however, informatics is linked
with applied computing, or computing in the context of
another domain.[37]
A folkloric quotation, often attributed tobut almost
certainly not rst formulated byEdsger Dijkstra, states
that computer science is no more about computers than
astronomy is about telescopes.[note 3] The design and de-
ployment of computers and computer systems is gen-
erally considered the province of disciplines other than
computer science. For example, the study of computer
hardware is usually considered part of computer engi-
neering, while the study of commercial computer sys-
tems and their deployment is often called information
technology or information systems. However, there has
been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the vari-
ous computer-related disciplines. Computer science re- 3.4 Areas of computer science
search also often intersects other disciplines, such as
philosophy, cognitive science, linguistics, mathematics, Further information: Outline of computer science
physics, biology, statistics, and logic.
Computer science is considered by some to have a much
closer relationship with mathematics than many scientic
disciplines, with some observers saying that computing is
a mathematical science.[12] Early computer science was
strongly inuenced by the work of mathematicians such
as Kurt Gdel and Alan Turing, and there continues to be
a useful interchange of ideas between the two elds in ar-
eas such as mathematical logic, category theory, domain
theory, and algebra.[16]
The relationship between computer science and software
engineering is a contentious issue, which is further mud-
died by disputes over what the term software engineer-
ing means, and how computer science is dened.[38]
David Parnas, taking a cue from the relationship between
other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed
that the principal focus of computer science is studying
the properties of computation in general, while the princi-
CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE
separate but complementary disciplines.[39]
The academic, political, and funding aspects of computer
science tend to depend on whether a department formed
with a mathematical emphasis or with an engineering em-
phasis. Computer science departments with a mathemat-
ics emphasis and with a numerical orientation consider
alignment with computational science. Both types of de-
partments tend to make eorts to bridge the eld educa-
tionally if not across all research.
3.3 Philosophy
Main article: Philosophy of computer science
A number of computer scientists have argued for the dis-
tinction of three separate paradigms in computer science.
Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science,
technology, and mathematics.[40] Peter Denning's work-
ing group argued that they are theory, abstraction (mod-
eling), and design.[41] Amnon H. Eden described them as
the rationalist paradigm (which treats computer science
as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theo-
retical computer science, and mainly employs deductive
reasoning), the technocratic paradigm (which might
be found in engineering approaches, most prominently
in software engineering), and the scientic paradigm
(which approaches computer-related artifacts from the
empirical perspective of natural sciences, identiable in
some branches of articial intelligence).[42]
As a discipline, computer science spans a range of top-
ics from theoretical studies of algorithms and the lim-
its of computation to the practical issues of implement-
ing computing systems in hardware and software.[43][44]
CSAB, formerly called Computing Sciences Accredita-
tion Boardwhich is made up of representatives of the
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and the
IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS)[45] identies four
areas that it considers crucial to the discipline of com-
puter science: theory of computation, algorithms and data
structures, programming methodology and languages, and
computer elements and architecture. In addition to these
four areas, CSAB also identies elds such as software
engineering, articial intelligence, computer networking
and communication, database systems, parallel computa-
tion, distributed computation, humancomputer interac-
tion, computer graphics, operating systems, and numer-
ical and symbolic computation as being important areas
3.4. AREAS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
of computer science.[43]
3.4.1 Theoretical computer science
Main article: Theoretical computer science
Theoretical Computer Science is mathematical and ab-
stract in spirit, but it derives its motivation from practical
and everyday computation. Its aim is to understand the
nature of computation and, as a consequence of this un-
derstanding, provide more ecient methodologies. All
papers introducing or studying mathematical, logic and
formal concepts and methods are welcome, provided that
their motivation is clearly drawn from the eld of com-
puting.
Theory of computation
Main article: Theory of computation
According to Peter Denning, the fundamental question
underlying computer science is, What can be (e-
ciently) automated?"[12] Theory of computation is fo-
cused on answering fundamental questions about what
can be computed and what amount of resources are re-
quired to perform those computations. In an eort to
answer the rst question, computability theory examines
which computational problems are solvable on various
theoretical models of computation. The second question
is addressed by computational complexity theory, which
studies the time and space costs associated with dier-
ent approaches to solving a multitude of computational
problems.
The famous P = NP? problem, one of the Millennium
Prize Problems,[46] is an open problem in the theory of
computation.
Information and coding theory
Main articles: Information theory and Coding theory
Information theory is related to the quantication of in-
formation. This was developed by Claude Shannon to
nd fundamental limits on signal processing operations
such as compressing data and on reliably storing and com-
municating data.[47] Coding theory is the study of the
properties of codes (systems for converting information
from one form to another) and their tness for a spe-
cic application. Codes are used for data compression,
cryptography, error detection and correction, and more
recently also for network coding. Codes are studied for
the purpose of designing ecient and reliable data trans-
mission methods.
25
Algorithms and data structures
Algorithms and data structures is the study of commonly
used computational methods and their computational ef-
ciency.
Programming language theory
Main article: Programming language theory
Programming language theory is a branch of computer
science that deals with the design, implementation, anal-
ysis, characterization, and classication of programming
languages and their individual features. It falls within
the discipline of computer science, both depending on
and aecting mathematics, software engineering, and
linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous
dedicated academic journals.
Formal methods
Main article: Formal methods
Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematically
based technique for the specication, development and
verication of software and hardware systems. The use
of formal methods for software and hardware design is
motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering
disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analy-
sis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a
design. They form an important theoretical underpinning
for software engineering, especially where safety or se-
curity is involved. Formal methods are a useful adjunct
to software testing since they help avoid errors and can
also give a framework for testing. For industrial use, tool
support is required. However, the high cost of using for-
mal methods means that they are usually only used in the
development of high-integrity and life-critical systems,
where safety or security is of utmost importance. For-
mal methods are best described as the application of a
fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fun-
damentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages,
automata theory, and program semantics, but also type
systems and algebraic data types to problems in software
and hardware specication and verication.
3.4.2 Applied computer science
Applied computer science aims at identifying certain
computer science concepts that can be used directly in
solving real world problems.
26
Articial intelligence
Main article: Articial intelligence
Articial intelligence (AI) aims to or is required to
synthesize goal-orientated processes such as problem-
solving, decision-making, environmental adaptation,
learning and communication found in humans and an-
imals. From its origins in cybernetics and in the
Dartmouth Conference (1956), articial intelligence re-
search has been necessarily cross-disciplinary, draw-
ing on areas of expertise such as applied mathemat-
ics, symbolic logic, semiotics, electrical engineering,
philosophy of mind, neurophysiology, and social intelli-
gence. AI is associated in the popular mind with robotic
development, but the main eld of practical application
has been as an embedded component in areas of software
development, which require computational understand-
ing. The starting-point in the late 1940s was Alan Tur-
ing's question Can computers think?", and the question
remains eectively unanswered although the Turing test
is still used to assess computer output on the scale of
human intelligence. But the automation of evaluative
and predictive tasks has been increasingly successful as a
substitute for human monitoring and intervention in do-
mains of computer application involving complex real-
world data.
Computer architecture and engineering
Main articles: Computer architecture and Computer
engineering
Computer architecture, or digital computer organiza- in various scientic disciplines.
tion, is the conceptual design and fundamental opera-
tional structure of a computer system. It focuses largely
on the way by which the central processing unit per- Computer networks
forms internally and accesses addresses in memory.[48]
The eld often involves disciplines of computer engineer- Main article: Computer network
ing and electrical engineering, selecting and interconnect-
ing hardware components to create computers that meet
functional, performance, and cost goals.
Computer performance analysis
Main article: Computer performance
Computer performance analysis is the study of work ow-
ing through computers with the general goals of im-
proving throughput, controlling response time, using re-
sources eciently, eliminating bottlenecks, and predict-
ing performance under anticipated peak loads.[49]
CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE
Computer graphics and visualization
Main article: Computer graphics (computer science)
Computer graphics is the study of digital visual contents,
and involves synthesis and manipulation of image data.
The study is connected to many other elds in computer
science, including computer vision, image processing,
and computational geometry, and is heavily applied in the
elds of special eects and video games.
Computer security and cryptography
Main articles: Computer security and Cryptography
Computer security is a branch of computer technology,
whose objective includes protection of information from
unauthorized access, disruption, or modication while
maintaining the accessibility and usability of the sys-
tem for its intended users. Cryptography is the practice
and study of hiding (encryption) and therefore decipher-
ing (decryption) information. Modern cryptography is
largely related to computer science, for many encryption
and decryption algorithms are based on their computa-
tional complexity.
Computational science
Computational science (or scientic computing) is the
eld of study concerned with constructing mathematical
models and quantitative analysis techniques and using
computers to analyze and solve scientic problems. In
practical use, it is typically the application of computer
simulation and other forms of computation to problems
This branch of computer science aims to manage net-
works between computers worldwide.
Concurrent, parallel and distributed systems
Main articles: Concurrency (computer science) and
Distributed computing
Concurrency is a property of systems in which several
computations are executing simultaneously, and poten-
tially interacting with each other. A number of math-
ematical models have been developed for general con-
current computation including Petri nets, process calculi
3.5. THE GREAT INSIGHTS OF COMPUTER SCIENCE 27

and the Parallel Random Access Machine model. A dis- sight: there are only two objects that a computer has
tributed system extends the idea of concurrency onto mul- to deal with in order to represent anything.
tiple computers connected through a network. Comput-
ers within the same distributed system have their own pri- All the information about any
vate memory, and information is often exchanged among computable problem can be rep-
themselves to achieve a common goal. resented using only 0 and 1 (or
any other bistable pair that can
ip-op between two easily distin-
Databases guishable states, such as on/o,
magnetized/de-magnetized,
Main article: Database high-voltage/low-voltage, etc.).

A database is intended to organize, store, and retrieve See also: Digital physics
large amounts of data easily. Digital databases are man-
aged using database management systems to store, create,
maintain, and search data, through database models and Alan Turing's insight: there are only ve actions that
query languages. a computer has to perform in order to do anything.

Every algorithm can be expressed

Human-computer interaction in a language for a computer con-
sisting of only ve basic instruc-
Main article: Human-computer interaction tions:
move left one location;
Research that develops theories, principles, and guide- move right one location;
lines for user interface designers, so they can create satis- read symbol at current loca-
factory user experiences with desktop, laptop, and mobile tion;
devices. print 0 at current location;
print 1 at current location.

Software engineering See also: Turing machine

Main article: Software engineering
See also: Computer programming Corrado Bhm and Giuseppe Jacopini's insight:
there are only three ways of combining these actions
Software engineering is the study of designing, imple- (into more complex ones) that are needed in order
menting, and modifying software in order to ensure it is of for a computer to do anything.
high quality, aordable, maintainable, and fast to build.
It is a systematic approach to software design, involving Only three rules are needed to com-
the application of engineering practices to software. Soft- bine any set of basic instructions
ware engineering deals with the organizing and analyzing into more complex ones:
of softwareit doesn't just deal with the creation or man- sequence: rst do this, then do
ufacture of new software, but its internal maintenance and that;
arrangement. Both computer applications software engi- selection: IF such-and-such is
neers and computer systems software engineers are pro- the case, THEN do this, ELSE
jected to be among the fastest growing occupations from do that;
2008 to 2018. repetition: WHILE such-and-
such is the case DO this.
Note that the three rules of
3.5 The great insights of computer Boehms and Jacopinis insight
science can be further simplied with the
use of goto (which means it is
more elementary than structured
The philosopher of computing Bill Rapaport noted three programming).
Great Insights of Computer Science:[50]
See also: Elementary function arithmetic Friedmans
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's, George Boole's, Alan grand conjecture
Turing's, Claude Shannon's, and Samuel Morse's in-
28
3.6 Academia
Further information: List of computer science confer-
ences and Category:Computer science journals
Conferences are important events for computer science
research. During these conferences, researchers from the
public and private sectors present their recent work and
meet. Unlike in most other academic elds, in computer
science, the prestige of conference papers is greater than
that of journal publications.[51][52] One proposed expla-
nation for this is the quick development of this relatively
new eld requires rapid review and distribution of results,
a task better handled by conferences than by journals.[53]
3.7 Education
Since computer science is a relatively new eld, it is
not as widely taught in schools and universities as other
academic subjects. For example, in 2014, Code.org
estimated that only 10 percent of high schools in the
United States oered computer science education.[54]
A 2010 report by Association for Computing Machin-
ery (ACM) and Computer Science Teachers Associa-
tion (CSTA) revealed that only 14 out of 50 states have
adopted signicant education standards for high school
computer science.[55] However, computer science educa-
tion is growing.[56] Some countries, such as Israel, New
Zealand and South Korea, have already included com-
puter science in their respective national secondary edu-
cation curriculum.[57][58] Several countries are following
suit.[59][60]
In most countries, there is a signicant gender gap
in computer science education. For example, in the
US about 20% of computer science degrees in 2012
were conferred to women.[61] This gender gap also ex-
ists in other Western countries.[62] However, in some
parts of the world, the gap is small or nonexistent. In
2011, approximately half of all computer science de-
grees in Malaysia were conferred to women.[63] In 2001,
women made up 54.5% of computer science graduates in
Guyana.[62]
3.8 See also
Main article: Outline of computer science
Academic genealogy of computer scientists
Association for Computing Machinery
Computer Science Teachers Association
Informatics and Engineering informatics
CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE
List of academic computer science departments
List of computer scientists
List of publications in computer science
List of pioneers in computer science
List of unsolved problems in computer science
Outline of software engineering
Technology transfer in computer science
Turing Award
Computer science Wikipedia book
3.9 Notes
[1] In 1851
[2] The introduction of punched cards into the new engine
was important not only as a more convenient form of con-
trol than the drums, or because programs could now be of
unlimited extent, and could be stored and repeated with-
out the danger of introducing errors in setting the machine
by hand; it was important also because it served to crys-
tallize Babbages feeling that he had invented something
really new, something much more than a sophisticated cal-
culating machine. Bruce Collier, 1970
[3] See the entry "Computer science" on Wikiquote for the
history of this quotation.
3.10 References
[1] WordNet Search3.1. Wordnetweb.princeton.edu.
Retrieved 2012-05-14.
[2] Charles Babbage Institute: Who Was Charles Bab-
bage?". www.cbi.umn.edu. Retrieved 2016-12-28.
[3] Ada Lovelace | Babbage Engine | Computer History Mu-
seum. www.computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2016-12-
28.
[4] Wilhelm Schickard - Ein Computerpionier (PDF).
[5] A Brief History of Computing.
[6] Science MuseumIntroduction to Babbage. Archived
from the original on 2006-09-08. Retrieved 2006-09-24.
[7] Anthony Hyman (1982). Charles Babbage, pioneer of the
computer.
[8] A Selection and Adaptation From Adas Notes found in
Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers, by Betty Alexan-
dra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA.
Archived from the original on February 10, 2006. Re-
trieved 2006-05-04.
3.10. REFERENCES
[9] In this sense Aiken needed IBM, whose technology in-
cluded the use of punched cards, the accumulation of nu-
merical data, and the transfer of numerical data from one
register to another, Bernard Cohen, p.44 (2000)
[10] Brian Randell, p. 187, 1975
[11] The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) was
founded in 1947.
[12] Denning, Peter J. (2000). Computer Science: The
Discipline (PDF). Encyclopedia of Computer Science.
Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-25.
[13] Some EDSAC statistics. Cl.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved
2011-11-19.
[14] Computer science pioneer Samuel D. Conte dies at 85.
Purdue Computer Science. July 1, 2002. Retrieved De-
cember 12, 2014.
[15] Levy, Steven (1984). Hackers: Heroes of the Computer
Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-19195-2.
[16] Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing: Shaping
a Discipline. Taylor and Francis / CRC Press.
[17] IBM 704 Electronic Data Processing SystemCHM
Revolution. Computerhistory.org. Retrieved 2013-07-
07.
[18] IBM 709: a powerful new data processing system
(PDF). Computer History Museum. Retrieved December
12, 2014.
[19] Timeline of Computer History. Computer History Mu-
seum. Retrieved November 24, 2015.
[20] David Kahn, The Codebreakers, 1967, ISBN 0-684-
83130-9.
[21] Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa
2000 (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on
September 11, 2006. Retrieved January 11, 2007.
[22] Constable, R. L. (March 2000). Computer Science:
Achievements and Challenges circa 2000 (PDF).
[23] Abelson, H.; G.J. Sussman with J. Sussman (1996).
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (2nd
ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01153-0. The computer
revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the
way we express what we think. The essence of this change
is the emergence of what might best be called procedural
epistemology the study of the structure of knowledge
from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more
declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical
subjects.
[24] Black box traders are on the march. The Telegraph. Au-
gust 26, 2006. Archived from the original on June 21,
2008.
[25] The Impact of High Frequency Trading on an Electronic
Market. Papers.ssrn.com. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1686004.
SSRN 1686004 .
29
[26] Maly, Timy. How Digital Filmmakers Produced a Gor-
geous Sci-Fi Movie on a Kickstarter Budget. Wired. Re-
trieved November 24, 2015.
[27] Matthau, Charles. How Tech Has Shaped Film Making:
The Film vs. Digital Debate Is Put to Rest. Wired. Re-
trieved November 24, 2015.
[28] Louis Fine (1959). The Role of the Univer-
sity in Computers, Data Processing, and Related
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[29] Stanford University Oral History. Stanford University.
Retrieved May 30, 2013.
[30] Donald Knuth (1972). George Forsythe and the Devel-
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[31] Matti Tedre (2006). The Development of Computer Sci-
ence: A Sociocultural Perspective (PDF). p. 260. Re-
trieved December 12, 2014.
[32] Peter Naur (1966). The science of datal-
ogy. Communications of the ACM. 9 (7): 485.
doi:10.1145/365719.366510.
[33] Weiss, E. A.; Corley, Henry P. T. Communications
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[34] Communications of the ACM 2(1):p.4
[35] IEEE Computer 28(12):p.136
[36] P. Mounier-Kuhn, L'Informatique en France, de la sec-
onde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul. L'mergence d'une
science, Paris, PUPS, 2010, ch. 3 & 4.
[37]
[38] Tedre, M. (2011). Computing as a Science: A Survey
of Competing Viewpoints. Minds and Machines. 21 (3):
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[39] Parnas, D. L. (1998). Software engineering pro-
grammes are not computer science programmes.
Annals of Software Engineering. 6: 1937.
doi:10.1023/A:1018949113292., p. 19: Rather
than treat software engineering as a subeld of computer
science, I treat it as an element of the set, Civil Engineer-
ing, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering,
Electrical Engineering, []"
[40] Wegner, P. (October 1315, 1976). Research paradigms
in computer scienceProceedings of the 2nd international
Conference on Software Engineering. San Francisco, Cal-
ifornia, United States: IEEE Computer Society Press, Los
Alamitos, CA.
[41] Denning, P. J.; Comer, D. E.; Gries, D.; Mulder, M.
C.; Tucker, A.; Turner, A. J.; Young, P. R. (Jan 1989).
Computing as a discipline. Communications of the
ACM. 32: 923. doi:10.1145/63238.63239.
[42] Eden, A. H. (2007). Three Paradigms of Computer Sci-
ence (PDF). Minds and Machines. 17 (2): 135167.
doi:10.1007/s11023-007-9060-8.
30
[43] Computing Sciences Accreditation Board (May 28,
1997). Computer Science as a Profession. Archived
from the original on 2008-06-17. Retrieved 2010-05-23.
[44] Committee on the Fundamentals of Computer Science:
Challenges and Opportunities, National Research Coun-
cil (2004). Computer Science: Reections on the Field, Re-
ections from the Field. National Academies Press. ISBN
978-0-309-09301-9.
[45] CSAB Leading Computer Education. CSAB. 2011-08-
03. Retrieved 2011-11-19.
[46] Clay Mathematics Institute P = NP Archived October 14,
2013, at the Wayback Machine.
[47] P. Collins, Graham (October 14, 2002). Claude E. Shan-
non: Founder of Information Theory. Scientic Ameri-
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[48] A. Thisted, Ronald (April 7, 1997). Computer Architec-
ture (PDF). The University of Chicago.
[49] Wescott, Bob (2013). The Every Computer Performance
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[50] What Is Computation?". bualo.edu.
[51] Meyer, Bertrand (April 2009). Viewpoint: Research
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[52] Patterson, David (August 1999). Evaluating Computer
Scientists and Engineers For Promotion and Tenure.
Computing Research Association.
[53] Fortnow, Lance (August 2009). Viewpoint: Time for
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[54] Computer Science: Not Just an Elective Anymore. Ed-
ucation Week. February 25, 2014.
[55] Running On Empty (PDF). October 2010.
[56] How to Teach Computational ThinkingStephen Wol-
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09-16.
[57] A is for algorithm. The Economist. April 26, 2014.
[58] Computing at School International comparisons (PDF).
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[59] Scott, Michael; Ghinea, Gheorghita (17 April 2013).
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[60] Adding Coding to the Curriculum. New York Times.
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[61] IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?".
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[62] IT gender gap: Where are the female programmers?".
[63] what gender is science (PDF). Retrieved 20 July 2015.
CHAPTER 3. COMPUTER SCIENCE
3.11 Further reading
Overview
Tucker, Allen B. (2004). Computer Science Hand-
book (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC. ISBN 1-
58488-360-X.
Within more than 70 chapters, every one
new or signicantly revised, one can nd any
kind of information and references about com-
puter science one can imagine. [] all in
all, there is absolute nothing about Computer
Science that can not be found in the 2.5
kilogram-encyclopaedia with its 110 survey
articles []. (Christoph Meinel, Zentralblatt
MATH)
van Leeuwen, Jan (1994). Handbook of Theoretical
Computer Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-
72020-5.
"[] this set is the most unique and possibly
the most useful to the [theoretical computer
science] community, in support both of teach-
ing and research []. The books can be used
by anyone wanting simply to gain an under-
standing of one of these areas, or by someone
desiring to be in research in a topic, or by in-
structors wishing to nd timely information on
a subject they are teaching outside their ma-
jor areas of expertise. (Rocky Ross, SIGACT
News)
Ralston, Anthony; Reilly, Edwin D.;
Hemmendinger, David (2000). Encyclopedia
of Computer Science (4th ed.). Groves Dictionar-
ies. ISBN 1-56159-248-X.
Since 1976, this has been the denitive refer-
ence work on computer, computing, and com-
puter science. [] Alphabetically arranged
and classied into broad subject areas, the en-
tries cover hardware, computer systems, infor-
mation and data, software, the mathematics of
computing, theory of computation, method-
ologies, applications, and computing milieu.
The editors have done a commendable job of
blending historical perspective and practical
reference information. The encyclopedia re-
mains essential for most public and academic
library reference collections. (Joe Accardin,
Northeastern Illinois Univ., Chicago)
Edwin D. Reilly (2003). Milestones in Computer Sci-
ence and Information Technology. Greenwood Pub-
lishing Group. ISBN 978-1-57356-521-9.
Selected literature
3.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 31

Knuth, Donald E. (1996). Selected Papers on Com- 3.12 External links

puter Science. CSLI Publications, Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. Computer science at DMOZ

Collier, Bruce. The little engine that could've: The Scholarly Societies in Computer Science
calculating machines of Charles Babbage. Garland
What is Computer Science?
Publishing Inc. ISBN 0-8240-0043-9.
Best Papers Awards in Computer Science since
Cohen, Bernard (2000). Howard Aiken, Portrait of 1996
a computer pioneer. The MIT press. ISBN 978-0-
2625317-9-5. Photographs of computer scientists by Bertrand
Meyer
Tedre, Matti (2014). The Science of Computing:
Shaping a Discipline. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis. EECS.berkeley.edu

Randell, Brian (1973). The origins of Digital com- Bibliography and academic search engines
puters, Selected Papers. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-
540-06169-X. CiteSeerx (article): search engine, digital library and
repository for scientic and academic papers with a
Covering a period from 1966 to 1993, its in- focus on computer and information science.
terest lies not only in the content of each of
these papers still timely today but also in DBLP Computer Science Bibliography (article):
their being put together so that ideas expressed computer science bibliography website hosted at
at dierent times complement each other Universitt Trier, in Germany.
nicely. (N. Bernard, Zentralblatt MATH)
The Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies
(article)
Articles
Professional organizations
Peter J. Denning. Is computer science science?,
Communications of the ACM, April 2005. Association for Computing Machinery

Peter J. Denning, Great principles in computing cur- IEEE Computer Society

ricula, Technical Symposium on Computer Science
Informatics Europe
Education, 2004.
AAAI
Research evaluation for computer science, In-
formatics Europe report. Shorter journal ver- AAAS Computer Science
sion: Bertrand Meyer, Christine Choppy, Jan van
Leeuwen and Jorgen Staunstrup, Research evalua- Misc
tion for computer science, in Communications of the
ACM, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 3134, April 2009. Computer ScienceStack Exchange: a
community-run question-and-answer site for
Curriculum and classication computer science

What is computer science

Association for Computing Machinery. 1998 ACM
Computing Classication System. 1998. Is computer science science?

Computer Science (Software) Must be Considered

Joint Task Force of Association for Computing Ma-
as an Independent Discipline.
chinery (ACM), Association for Information Sys-
tems (AIS) and IEEE Computer Society (IEEE CS).
Computing Curricula 2005: The Overview Report.
September 30, 2005.

Norman Gibbs, Allen Tucker. A model curriculum

for a liberal arts degree in computer science. Com-
munications of the ACM, Volume 29 Issue 3, March
1986.
Chapter 4

Theoretical computer science

This article is about the branch of computer science and
mathematics. For the journal, see Theoretical Computer
Science (journal).
Theoretical computer science, or TCS, is a division
economic models, and networks.[2] Despite this broad
scope, the theory people in computer science self-
identify as dierent from the applied people. Some
characterize themselves as doing the "(more fundamen-
tal) 'science(s)' underlying the eld of computing.[3]
Other theory-applied people suggest that it is impos-
sible to separate theory and application. This means that
the so-called theory people regularly use experimental
science(s) done in less-theoretical areas such as software
system research. It also means that there is more coopera-
tion than mutually exclusive competition between theory
and application.

4.1 History
An artistic representation of a Turing machine. Turing machines
are used to model general computing devices.
Main article: History of computer science
or subset of general computer science and mathematics
that focuses on more abstract or mathematical aspects of While logical inference and mathematical proof had ex-
computing and includes the theory of computation. isted previously, in 1931 Kurt Gdel proved with his
incompleteness theorem that there were fundamental lim-
It is not easy to circumscribe the theoretical areas pre-
itations on what statements could be proved or disproved.
cisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms
and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the follow- These developments have led to the modern study of
ing description:[1] logic and computability, and indeed the eld of theoret-
ical computer science as a whole. Information theory
TCS covers a wide variety of top- was added to the eld with a 1948 mathematical the-
ics including algorithms, data structures, ory of communication by Claude Shannon. In the same
computational complexity, parallel and decade, Donald Hebb introduced a mathematical model
distributed computation, probabilistic compu- of learning in the brain. With mounting biological data
tation, quantum computation, automata theory, supporting this hypothesis with some modication, the
information theory, cryptography, program elds of neural networks and parallel distributed process-
semantics and verication, machine learn- ing were established. In 1971, Stephen Cook and, work-
ing, computational biology, computational ing independently, Leonid Levin, proved that there exist
economics, computational geometry, and practically relevant problems that are NP-complete a
computational number theory and algebra. landmark result in computational complexity theory.
Work in this eld is often distinguished by With the development of quantum mechanics in the be-
its emphasis on mathematical technique and ginning of the 20th century came the concept that math-
rigor. ematical operations could be performed on an entire par-
ticle wavefunction. In other words, one could compute
To this list, the ACMs journal Transactions on Com- functions on multiple states simultaneously. This led to
putation Theory adds coding theory and computational the concept of a quantum computer in the latter half of
learning theory, as well as theoretical computer science the 20th century that took o in the 1990s when Peter
aspects of areas such as databases, information retrieval, Shor showed that such methods could be used to fac-

32
4.2. TOPICS 33

tor large numbers in polynomial time, which, if imple- Computational complexity theory is a branch of the
mented, would render most modern public key cryptog- theory of computation that focuses on classifying
raphy systems uselessly insecure. computational problems according to their inherent dif-
Modern theoretical computer science research is based culty, and relating those classes to each other. A com-
on these basic developments, but includes many other putational problem is understood to be a task that is in
mathematical and interdisciplinary problems that have principle amenable to being solved by a computer, which
been posed. is equivalent to stating that the problem may be solved by
mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an
algorithm.
4.2 Topics A problem is regarded as inherently dicult if its solution
requires signicant resources, whatever the algorithm
used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing
4.2.1 Algorithms mathematical models of computation to study these prob-
lems and quantifying the amount of resources needed to
Main article: Algorithm solve them, such as time and storage. Other complexity
measures are also used, such as the amount of communi-
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for calculations. cation (used in communication complexity), the number
Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the
automated reasoning. number of processors (used in parallel computing). One
of the roles of computational complexity theory is to de-
An algorithm is an eective method expressed as a
[4] [5] termine the practical limits on what computers can and
nite list of well-dened instructions for calculat-
[6] cannot do.
ing a function. Starting from an initial state and ini-
[7]
tial input (perhaps empty), the instructions describe
a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a
nite[8] number of well-dened successive states, eventu-
4.2.4 Distributed computation
[9]
ally producing output and terminating at a nal end-
Main article: Distributed computation
ing state. The transition from one state to the next is
not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as
randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.[10] Distributed computing studies distributed systems. A
distributed system is a software system in which com-
ponents located on networked computers communicate
4.2.2 Data structures and coordinate their actions by passing messages.[13] The
components interact with each other in order to achieve
Main article: Data structure a common goal. Three signicant characteristics of dis-
tributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of
[13]
A data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a global clock, and independent failure of components.
a computer so that it can be used eciently.[11][12] Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based
systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-
Dierent kinds of data structures are suited to dierent to-peer applications.
kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to
specic tasks. For example, databases use B-tree indexes A computer program that runs in a distributed system
for small percentages of data retrieval and compilers and is called a distributed program, and distributed pro-
databases use dynamic hash tables as look up tables. gramming is the process of writing such programs.[14]
There are many alternatives for the message passing
Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts mechanism, including RPC-like connectors and message
of data eciently for uses such as large databases and queues. An important goal and challenge of distributed
internet indexing services. Usually, ecient data struc- systems is location transparency.
tures are key to designing ecient algorithms. Some for-
mal design methods and programming languages empha-
size data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key or- 4.2.5 Parallel computation
ganizing factor in software design. Storing and retrieving
can be carried out on data stored in both main memory Main article: Parallel computation
and in secondary memory.

Parallel computing is a form of computation in which

4.2.3 Computational complexity theory many calculations are carried out simultaneously,[15] op-
erating on the principle that large problems can often be
Main article: Computational complexity theory divided into smaller ones, which are then solved in par-
allel. There are several dierent forms of parallel com-
34 CHAPTER 4. THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE

puting: bit-level, instruction level, data, and task paral- learning and pattern recognition can be viewed as two
lelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, facets of the same eld.[21]:vii
mainly in high-performance computing, but interest in it
has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing
frequency scaling.[16] As power consumption (and conse- 4.2.8 Computational biology
quently heat generation) by computers has become a con-
cern in recent years,[17] parallel computing has become Main article: Computational biology
the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly
in the form of multi-core processors.[18]
Computational biology involves the development and
Parallel computer programs are more dicult to write application of data-analytical and theoretical meth-
than sequential ones,[19] because concurrency introduces ods, mathematical modeling and computational sim-
several new classes of potential software bugs, of which ulation techniques to the study of biological, behav-
race conditions are the most common. Communication ioral, and social systems.[25] The eld is broadly de-
and synchronization between the dierent subtasks are ned and includes foundations in computer science,
typically some of the greatest obstacles to getting good applied mathematics, animation, statistics, biochemistry,
parallel program performance. chemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, genetics,
The maximum possible speed-up of a single program as genomics, ecology, evolution, anatomy, neuroscience,
a result of parallelization is known as Amdahls law. and visualization.[26]
Computational biology is dierent from biological com-
putation, which is a subeld of computer science and
4.2.6 Very-large-scale integration computer engineering using bioengineering and biology
to build computers, but is similar to bioinformatics, which
Main article: VLSI
is an interdisciplinary science using computers to store
and process biological data.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of cre-
ating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining thousands
of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s 4.2.9 Computational geometry
when complex semiconductor and communication tech-
nologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a Main article: Computational geometry
VLSI device. Before the introduction of VLSI technol-
ogy most ICs had a limited set of functions they could
perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, Computational geometry is a branch of computer sci-
ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI allows IC mak- ence devoted to the study of algorithms that can be stated
ers to add all of these circuits into one chip. in terms of geometry. Some purely geometrical prob-
lems arise out of the study of computational geometric
algorithms, and such problems are also considered to be
4.2.7 Machine learning part of computational geometry. While modern compu-
tational geometry is a recent development, it is one of the
Main article: Machine learning oldest elds of computing with history stretching back to
antiquity. An ancient precursor is the Sanskrit treatise
Shulba Sutras , or Rules of the Chord, that is a book
Machine learning is a scientic discipline that deals with
the construction and study of algorithms that can learn of algorithms written in 800 BCE. The book prescribes
step-by-step procedures for constructing geometric ob-
from data.[20] Such algorithms operate by building a
model based on inputs [21]:2
and using that to make pre- jects like altars using a peg and chord.
dictions or decisions, rather than following only explicitly The main impetus for the development of computa-
programmed instructions. tional geometry as a discipline was progress in computer
Machine learning can be considered a subeld of com- graphics and computer-aided design and manufactur-
puter science and statistics. It has strong ties to articial ing (CAD/CAM), but many problems in computational
intelligence and optimization, which deliver methods, geometry are classical in nature, and may come from
theory and application domains to the eld. Machine mathematical visualization.
learning is employed in a range of computing tasks Other important applications of computational geome-
where designing and programming explicit, rule-based try include robotics (motion planning and visibility prob-
algorithms is infeasible. Example applications include lems), geographic information systems (GIS) (geometri-
spam ltering, optical character recognition (OCR),[22] cal location and search, route planning), integrated circuit
search engines and computer vision. Machine learning is design (IC geometry design and verication), computer-
sometimes conated with data mining,[23] although that aided engineering (CAE) (mesh generation), computer
focuses more on exploratory data analysis.[24] Machine vision (3D reconstruction).
4.2. TOPICS 35

4.2.10 Information theory practical means. These schemes are therefore termed
computationally secure; theoretical advances, e.g., im-
Main article: Information theory provements in integer factorization algorithms, and faster
computing technology require these solutions to be con-
Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics, tinually adapted. There exist information-theoretically
electrical engineering, and computer science involving secure schemes that provably cannot be broken even with
the quantication of information. Information theory was unlimited computing poweran example is the one-time
developed by Claude E. Shannon to nd fundamental lim- padbut these schemes are more dicult to implement
its on signal processing operations such as compressing than the best theoretically breakable but computationally
data and on reliably storing and communicating data. secure mechanisms.
Since its inception it has broadened to nd applications in
many other areas, including statistical inference, natural
language processing, cryptography, neurobiology,[27] the
evolution[28] and function[29] of molecular codes, model
4.2.12 Quantum computation
[30] [31]
selection in ecology, thermal physics, quantum
computing, linguistics, plagiarism detection,[32] pattern Main article: Quantum computation
recognition, anomaly detection and other forms of data
analysis.[33] A quantum computer is a computation system that makes
Applications of fundamental topics of information the- direct use of quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as
ory include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP les), superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on
[37]
lossy data compression (e.g. MP3s and JPEGs), and data. Quantum computers are dierent from digital
channel coding (e.g. for Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)). computers based on transistors. Whereas digital comput-
The eld is at the intersection of mathematics, statistics, ers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits),
computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical each of which is always in one of two denite states (0
engineering. Its impact has been crucial to the success or 1), quantum computation uses qubits (quantum bits),
of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention which can be in superpositions of states. A theoretical
of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones, model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as
the development of the Internet, the study of linguistics the universal quantum computer. Quantum computers
and of human perception, the understanding of black share theoretical similarities with non-deterministic and
holes, and numerous other elds. Important sub-elds probabilistic computers; one example is the ability to be
of information theory are source coding, channel coding, in more than one state simultaneously. The eld of quan-
algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information tum computing was rst introduced by Yuri Manin in
[38] [39][40]
theory, information-theoretic security, and measures of 1980 and Richard Feynman in 1982. A quantum
information. computer with spins as quantum bits was also formulated
for use as a quantum spacetime in 1968.[41]
As of 2014, quantum computing is still in its infancy
4.2.11 Cryptography but experiments have been carried out in which quan-
tum computational operations were executed on a very
Main article: Cryptography small number of qubits.[42] Both practical and theoretical
research continues, and many national governments and
Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques military funding agencies support quantum computing re-
for secure communication in the presence of third search to develop quantum computers for both civilian
[43]
parties (called adversaries).[34] More generally, it is and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.
about constructing and analyzing protocols that over-
come the inuence of adversaries[35] and that are related
to various aspects in information security such as data
condentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non- 4.2.13 Information-based complexity
repudiation.[36] Modern cryptography intersects the dis-
ciplines of mathematics, computer science, and electrical Main article: Information-based complexity
engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM
cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce. Information-based complexity (IBC) studies optimal al-
Modern cryptography is heavily based on mathematical gorithms and computational complexity for continuous
theory and computer science practice; cryptographic al- problems. IBC has studied continuous problems as path
gorithms are designed around computational hardness as- integration, partial dierential equations, systems of or-
sumptions, making such algorithms hard to break in prac- dinary dierential equations, nonlinear equations, inte-
tice by any adversary. It is theoretically possible to break gral equations, xed points, and very-high-dimensional
such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known integration.
36
4.2.14 Computational number theory
Main article: Computational number theory
Computational number theory, also known as algorith-
mic number theory, is the study of algorithms for per-
forming number theoretic computations. The best known
problem in the eld is integer factorization.
4.2.15 Symbolic computation
Main article: Symbolic computation
Computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or
algebraic computation is a scientic area that refers to
the study and development of algorithms and software
for manipulating mathematical expressions and other
mathematical objects. Although, properly speaking,
computer algebra should be a subeld of scientic com-
puting, they are generally considered as distinct elds be-
cause scientic computing is usually based on numerical
computation with approximate oating point numbers,
while symbolic computation emphasizes exact computa-
tion with expressions containing variables that have not
any given value and are thus manipulated as symbols
(therefore the name of symbolic computation).
Software applications that perform symbolic calculations
are called computer algebra systems, with the term sys-
tem alluding to the complexity of the main applications
that include, at least, a method to represent mathemat-
ical data in a computer, a user programming language
(usually dierent from the language used for the imple-
mentation), a dedicated memory manager, a user inter-
face for the input/output of mathematical expressions, a
large set of routines to perform usual operations, like sim-
plication of expressions, dierentiation using chain rule,
polynomial factorization, indenite integration, etc.
4.2.16 Program semantics
Main article: Program semantics
In programming language theory, semantics is the eld
concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the
meaning of programming languages. It does so by evalu-
ating the meaning of syntactically legal strings dened by
a specic programming language, showing the computa-
tion involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be
of syntactically illegal strings, the result would be non-
computation. Semantics describes the processes a com-
puter follows when executing a program in that specic
language. This can be shown by describing the relation- 4.2.20 Computational learning theory
ship between the input and output of a program, or an
explanation of how the program will execute on a certain Main article: Computational learning theory
platform, hence creating a model of computation.
CHAPTER 4. THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE
4.2.17 Formal methods
Main article: Formal methods
Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematics
based techniques for the specication, development and
verication of software and hardware systems.[44] The use
of formal methods for software and hardware design is
motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering
disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analy-
sis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a
design.[45]
Formal methods are best described as the application of a
fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fun-
damentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages,
automata theory, and program semantics, but also type
systems and algebraic data types to problems in software
and hardware specication and verication.[46]
4.2.18 Automata theory
Main article: Automata theory
Automata theory is the study of abstract machines and
automata, as well as the computational problems that can
be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical com-
puter science, under Discrete mathematics (a section of
Mathematics and also of Computer Science). Automata
comes from the Greek word meaning self-
acting.
Automata Theory is the study of self-operating virtual
machines to help in logical understanding of input and
output process, without or with intermediate stage(s) of
computation (or any function / process).
4.2.19 Coding theory
Main article: Coding theory
Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and
their tness for a specic application. Codes are used
for data compression, cryptography, error-correction and
more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied
by various scientic disciplinessuch as information the-
ory, electrical engineering, mathematics, and computer
sciencefor the purpose of designing ecient and reli-
able data transmission methods. This typically involves
the removal of redundancy and the correction (or detec-
tion) of errors in the transmitted data.
4.5. CONFERENCES
Theoretical results in machine learning mainly deal with
a type of inductive learning called supervised learning.
In supervised learning, an algorithm is given samples that
are labeled in some useful way. For example, the sam-
ples might be descriptions of mushrooms, and the labels
could be whether or not the mushrooms are edible. The
algorithm takes these previously labeled samples and uses
them to induce a classier. This classier is a function
that assigns labels to samples including the samples that
have never been previously seen by the algorithm. The
goal of the supervised learning algorithm is to optimize
some measure of performance such as minimizing the
number of mistakes made on new samples.
4.3 Organizations
European Association for Theoretical Computer
Science
SIGACT
4.4 Journals and newsletters
Information and Computation
Theory of Computing (open access journal)
Formal Aspects of Computing
Journal of the ACM
SIAM Journal on Computing (SICOMP)
SIGACT News
Theoretical Computer Science
Theory of Computing Systems
International Journal of Foundations of Computer
Science
Chicago Journal of Theoretical Computer Science
(open access journal)
Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer
Science
Journal of Automata, Languages and Combinatorics
Acta Informatica
Fundamenta Informaticae
ACM Transactions on Computation Theory
Computational Complexity
Journal of Complexity
ACM Transactions on Algorithms
Information Processing Letters
37
4.5 Conferences
Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing
(STOC)[47]
Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Com-
puter Science (FOCS)[47]
ACMSIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms
(SODA)[47]
IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science
(LICS)[47]
Computational Complexity Conference (CCC)[48]
International Colloquium on Automata, Languages
and Programming (ICALP)[48]
Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry
(SoCG)[48]
ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed
Computing (PODC)[47]
ACM Symposium on Parallelism in Algorithms and
Architectures (SPAA)[48]
Annual Conference on Learning Theory (COLT)[48]
Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer
Science (STACS)[48]
European Symposium on Algorithms (ESA)[48]
Workshop on Approximation Algorithms for Com-
binatorial Optimization Problems (APPROX)[48]
Workshop on Randomization and Computation
(RANDOM)[48]
International Symposium on Algorithms and Com-
putation (ISAAC)[48]
International Symposium on Fundamentals of Com-
putation Theory (FCT)[49]
International Workshop on Graph-Theoretic Con-
cepts in Computer Science (WG)
4.6 See also
Formal science
Unsolved problems in computer science
List of important publications in theoretical com-
puter science
38
4.7 Notes
[1] SIGACT. Retrieved 2017-01-19.
[2] ToCT. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
[3] Challenges for Theoretical Computer Science: Theory
as the Scientic Foundation of Computing. Retrieved
2009-03-29.
[4] Any classical mathematical algorithm, for example, can
be described in a nite number of English words (Rogers
1987:2).
[5] Well dened with respect to the agent that executes the
algorithm: There is a computing agent, usually human,
which can react to the instructions and carry out the com-
putations (Rogers 1987:2).
[6] an algorithm is a procedure for computing a function
(with respect to some chosen notation for integers) ... this
limitation (to numerical functions) results in no loss of
generality, (Rogers 1987:1).
[7] An algorithm has zero or more inputs, i.e., quantities
which are given to it initially before the algorithm begins
(Knuth 1973:5).
[8] A procedure which has all the characteristics of an algo-
rithm except that it possibly lacks niteness may be called
a 'computational method'" (Knuth 1973:5).
[9] An algorithm has one or more outputs, i.e. quanti-
ties which have a specied relation to the inputs (Knuth
1973:5).
[10] Whether or not a process with random interior processes
(not including the input) is an algorithm is debatable.
Rogers opines that: a computation is carried out in a dis-
crete stepwise fashion, without use of continuous methods
or analogue devices . . . carried forward deterministically,
without resort to random methods or devices, e.g., dice
Rogers 1987:2.
[11] Paul E. Black (ed.), entry for data structure in Dictionary
of Algorithms and Data Structures. U.S. National Institute
of Standards and Technology. 15 December 2004. Online
version Accessed May 21, 2009.
[12] Entry data structure in the Encyclopdia Britannica
(2009) Online entry accessed on May 21, 2009.
[13] Coulouris, George; Jean Dollimore; Tim Kindberg; Gor-
don Blair (2011). Distributed Systems: Concepts and De-
sign (5th Edition). Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-
132-14301-1.
[14] Andrews (2000). Dolev (2000). Ghosh (2007), p. 10.
[15] Gottlieb, Allan; Almasi, George S. (1989). Highly
parallel computing. Redwood City, Calif.: Ben-
jamin/Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-0177-1.
[16] S.V. Adve et al. (November 2008). Parallel Computing
Research at Illinois: The UPCRC Agenda (PDF). Paral-
lel@Illinois, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
The main techniques for these performance benets
increased clock frequency and smarter but increasingly
CHAPTER 4. THEORETICAL COMPUTER SCIENCE
complex architectures are now hitting the so-called
power wall. The computer industry has accepted that fu-
ture performance increases must largely come from in-
creasing the number of processors (or cores) on a die,
rather than making a single core go faster.
[17] Asanovic et al. Old [conventional wisdom]: Power is free,
but transistors are expensive. New [conventional wisdom]
is [that] power is expensive, but transistors are free.
[18] Asanovic, Krste et al. (December 18, 2006). The
Landscape of Parallel Computing Research: A View
from Berkeley (PDF). University of California, Berke-
ley. Technical Report No. UCB/EECS-2006-183. Old
[conventional wisdom]: Increasing clock frequency is the
primary method of improving processor performance.
New [conventional wisdom]: Increasing parallelism is the
primary method of improving processor performance ...
Even representatives from Intel, a company generally as-
sociated with the 'higher clock-speed is better' position,
warned that traditional approaches to maximizing perfor-
mance through maximizing clock speed have been pushed
to their limit.
[19] Hennessy, John L.; Patterson, David A.; Larus, James
R. (1999). Computer organization and design : the hard-
ware/software interface (2. ed., 3rd print. ed.). San Fran-
cisco: Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-428-6.
[20] Ron Kovahi; Foster Provost (1998). Glossary of terms.
Machine Learning. 30: 271274.
[21] C. M. Bishop (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine
Learning. Springer. ISBN 0-387-31073-8.
[22] Wernick, Yang, Brankov, Yourganov and Strother, Ma-
chine Learning in Medical Imaging, IEEE Signal Process-
ing Magazine, vol. 27, no. 4, July 2010, pp. 25-38
[23] Mannila, Heikki (1996). Data mining: machine learning,
statistics, and databases. Int'l Conf. Scientic and Statis-
tical Database Management. IEEE Computer Society.
[24] Friedman, Jerome H. (1998). Data Mining and Statistics:
Whats the connection?". Computing Science and Statistics.
29 (1): 39.
[25] NIH working denition of bioinformatics and compu-
tational biology (PDF). Biomedical Information Science
and Technology Initiative. 17 July 2000. Retrieved 18
August 2012.
[26] About the CCMB. Center for Computational Molecular
Biology. Retrieved 18 August 2012.
[27] F. Rieke; D. Warland; R Ruyter van Steveninck; W Bialek
(1997). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT
press. ISBN 978-0262681087.
[28] cf. Huelsenbeck, J. P., F. Ronquist, R. Nielsen and J. P.
Bollback (2001) Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its
impact on evolutionary biology, Science 294:2310-2314
[29] Rando Allikmets, Wyeth W. Wasserman, Amy Hutchin-
son, Philip Smallwood, Jeremy Nathans, Peter K. Rogan,
Thomas D. Schneider, Michael Dean (1998) Organization
of the ABCR gene: analysis of promoter and splice junc-
tion sequences, Gene 215:1, 111-122
4.8. FURTHER READING 39

[30] Burnham, K. P. and Anderson D. R. (2002) Model Selec-
tion and Multimodel Inference: A Practical Information-
Theoretic Approach, Second Edition (Springer Science,
New York) ISBN 978-0-387-95364-9.
[31] Jaynes, E. T. (1957) Information Theory and Statistical
Mechanics, Phys. Rev. 106:620
[32] Charles H. Bennett, Ming Li, and Bin Ma (2003) Chain
Letters and Evolutionary Histories, Scientic American
288:6, 76-81
4.8 Further reading
Martin Davis, Ron Sigal, Elaine J. Weyuker, Com-
putability, complexity, and languages: fundamen-
tals of theoretical computer science, 2nd ed., Aca-
demic Press, 1994, ISBN 0-12-206382-1. Covers
theory of computation, but also program semantics
and quantication theory. Aimed at graduate stu-
dents.

[33] David R. Anderson (November 1, 2003). Some back-

ground on why people in the empirical sciences may want
to better understand the information-theoretic methods 4.9 External links
(pdf). Retrieved 2010-06-23.
SIGACT directory of additional theory links
[34] Rivest, Ronald L. (1990). Cryptology. In J. Van
Leeuwen. Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. 1. Theory Matters Wiki Theoretical Computer Science
Elsevier. (TCS) Advocacy Wiki
[35] Bellare, Mihir; Rogaway, Phillip (21 September 2005).
Usenet comp.theory
Introduction. Introduction to Modern Cryptography. p.
10. List of academic conferences in the area of theoret-
[36] Menezes, A. J.; van Oorschot, P. C.; Vanstone, S. A. ical computer science at confsearch
Handbook of Applied Cryptography. ISBN 0-8493-8523-
7. Theoretical Computer Science - StackExchange, a
Question and Answer site for researchers in theoret-
[37] "Quantum Computing with Molecules" article in Scientic ical computer science
American by Neil Gershenfeld and Isaac L. Chuang
Computer Science Animated
[38] Manin, Yu. I. (1980). Vychislimoe i nevychislimoe [Com-
putable and Noncomputable] (in Russian). Sov.Radio. pp. http://theory.csail.mit.edu/ @ Massachusetts Insti-
1315. Retrieved 4 March 2013. tute of Technology
[39] Feynman, R. P. (1982). Simulating physics with com-
puters. International Journal of Theoretical Physics. 21
(6): 467488. doi:10.1007/BF02650179.
[40] Deutsch, David (1992-01-06). Quantum computation.
Physics World.
[41] Finkelstein, David (1968). Space-Time Structure in
High Energy Interactions. In Gudehus, T.; Kaiser, G.
Fundamental Interactions at High Energy. New York:
Gordon & Breach.
[42] New qubit control bodes well for future of quantum com-
puting. Retrieved 26 October 2014.
[43] Quantum Information Science and Technology Roadmap
for a sense of where the research is heading.
[44] R. W. Butler (2001-08-06). What is Formal Methods?".
Retrieved 2006-11-16.
[45] C. Michael Holloway. Why Engineers Should Consider
Formal Methods (PDF). 16th Digital Avionics Systems
Conference (2730 October 1997). Retrieved 2006-11-
16.
[46] Monin, pp.3-4
[47] The 2007 Australian Ranking of ICT Conferences: tier
A+.
[48] The 2007 Australian Ranking of ICT Conferences: tier
A.
[49] FCT 2011 (retrieved 2013-06-03)
Chapter 5

Physics

This article is about the eld of science. For other uses, ing of electromagnetism or nuclear physics led directly
see Physics (disambiguation). to the development of new products that have dramati-
Not to be confused with Physical science. cally transformed modern-day society, such as television,
computers, domestic appliances, and nuclear weapons;[6]
advances in thermodynamics led to the development of
industrialization, and advances in mechanics inspired the
development of calculus.
The United Nations named 2005 the World Year of
Physics.

5.1 History
Main article: History of physics

Various examples of physical phenomena 5.1.1 Ancient astronomy

Physics (from Ancient Greek: () Main article: History of astronomy

phusik (epistm) knowledge of nature, from Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The ear-
phsis nature[1][2][3] ) is the natural science that involves
the study of matter[4] and its motion and behavior through
space and time, along with related concepts such as
energy and force.[5] One of the most fundamental scien-
tic disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand
how the universe behaves.[lower-alpha 1][6][7][8]
Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, per-
haps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy.[9]
Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural
philosophy along with chemistry, biology, and certain
branches of mathematics, but during the scientic rev-
olution in the 17th century, the natural sciences emerged
as unique research programs in their own right.[lower-alpha 2] Ancient Egyptian astronomy is evident in monuments like the
Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of re- ceiling of Senemuts tomb from the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.
search, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and
the boundaries of physics are not rigidly dened. New liest civilizations dating back to beyond 3000 BCE, such
ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mecha- as the Sumerians, ancient Egyptians, and the Indus Valley
nisms of other sciences[6] while opening new avenues of Civilization, all had a predictive knowledge and a basic
research in areas such as mathematics and philosophy. understanding of the motions of the Sun, Moon, and stars.
Physics also makes signicant contributions through ad- The stars and planets were often a target of worship, be-
vances in new technologies that arise from theoretical lieved to represent their gods. While the explanations for
breakthroughs. For example, advances in the understand- these phenomena were often unscientic and lacking in

40
5.1. HISTORY 41

evidence, these early observations laid the foundation for Optics (also known as Kitb al-Manir), written by Ibn
later astronomy.[9] Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the rst to disprove
According to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western as- the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with
tronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all West- a new theory. In the book, he was also the rst to study
ern eorts in the exact sciences are descended from the phenomenon of the pinhole camera and delved fur-
late Babylonian astronomy.[11] Egyptian astronomers left ther into the way the eye itself works. Using dissections
monuments showing knowledge of the constellations and and the knowledge of previous scholars, he was able to
the motions of the celestial bodies,[12] while Greek poet begin to explain how light enters the eye, is focused, and
is projected to the back of the eye: and built then the
Homer wrote of various celestial objects in his Iliad and
Odyssey; later Greek astronomers provided names, which worlds rst camera obscura hundreds [17] of years before the
modern development of photography.
are still used today, for most constellations visible from
the northern hemisphere.[13]

5.1.2 Natural philosophy

Main article: Natural philosophy

Natural philosophy has its origins in Greece during

the Archaic period, (650 BCE 480 BCE), when
pre-Socratic philosophers like Thales rejected non-
naturalistic explanations for natural phenomena and pro-
claimed that every event had a natural cause.[14] They pro-
posed ideas veried by reason and observation, and many
of their hypotheses proved successful in experiment;[15]
for example, atomism was found to be correct approxi-
mately 2000 years after it was rst proposed by Leucippus
and his pupil Democritus.[16]

5.1.3 Physics in the medieval Islamic world

Main article: Physics in the medieval Islamic world
Islamic scholarship had inherited Aristotelian physics
Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965 - c. 1040), the pioneer of optics

The seven-volume Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manathir)

hugely inuenced thinking across disciplines from the
theory of visual perception to the nature of perspective
in medieval art, in both the East and the West, for more
than 600 years. Many later European scholars and fel-
low polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo
da Vinci to Ren Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac
Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the inuence of Ibn al-
Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work
of the same title, published 700 years later.
The translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact
on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to
The basic way a pinhole camera works build the same devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did, and
understand the way light works. From this, such impor-
from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age de- tant things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes,
veloped it further, especially placing emphasis on obser- and cameras were developed.
vation and a priori reasoning, developing early forms of
the scientic method.
The most notable innovations were in the eld of optics 5.1.4 Classical physics
and vision, which came from the works of many scien-
tists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi Main article: Classical physics
and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Physics became a separate science when early modern
42
Sir Isaac Newton (16431727), whose laws of motion and
universal gravitation were major milestones in classical physics
Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods eect and the theory of relativity led to a revolution in 20th cen-
to discover what are now considered to be the laws of tury physics
physics.[18]
Major developments in this period include the replace-
ment of the geocentric model of the solar system with
the heliocentric Copernican model, the laws governing
the motion of planetary bodies determined by Johannes
Kepler between 1609 and 1619, pioneering work on
telescopes and observational astronomy by Galileo Galilei
in the 16th and 17th Centuries, and Isaac Newton's dis-
covery and unication of the laws of motion and universal
gravitation that would come to bear his name.[19] New-
ton also developed calculus,[lower-alpha 3] the mathematical
study of change, which provided new mathematical meth-
ods for solving physical problems.[20]
The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics,
chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater
research eorts during the Industrial Revolution as
energy needs increased.[21] The laws comprising classical
physics remain very widely used for objects on everyday
scales travelling at non-relativistic speeds, since they
provide a very close approximation in such situations,
and theories such as quantum mechanics and the theory
of relativity simplify to their classical equivalents at such
scales. However, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for
very small objects and very high velocities led to the
development of modern physics in the 20th century.
CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS
5.1.5 Modern physics
Main article: Modern physics
See also: History of special relativity and History of quan-
tum mechanics
Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the
Albert Einstein (18791955), whose work on the photoelectric
work of Max Planck in quantum theory and Albert Ein-
stein's theory of relativity. Both of these theories came
about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in cer-
tain situations. Classical mechanics predicted a varying
speed of light, which could not be resolved with the con-
stant speed predicted by Maxwells equations of electro-
magnetism; this discrepancy was corrected by Einsteins
theory of special relativity, which replaced classical me-
chanics for fast-moving bodies and allowed for a con-
stant speed of light.[22] Black body radiation provided an-
other problem for classical physics, which was corrected
when Planck proposed that the excitation of material os-
cillators is possible only in discrete steps proportional to
their frequency; this, along with the photoelectric eect
and a complete theory predicting discrete energy levels of
electron orbitals, led to the theory of quantum mechanics
taking over from classical physics at very small scales.[23]
Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered
by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrdinger and Paul
Dirac.[23] From this early work, and work in related
elds, the Standard Model of particle physics was
derived.[24] Following the discovery of a particle with
properties consistent with the Higgs boson at CERN in
2012,[25] all fundamental particles predicted by the stan-
5.3. CORE THEORIES 43

and the use of Bayesian inference to measure the validity

of a given theory.[29]
The development of physics has answered many questions
of early philosophers, but has also raised new questions.
Study of the philosophical issues surrounding physics, the
philosophy of physics, involves issues such as the nature
of space and time, determinism, and metaphysical out-
looks such as empiricism, naturalism and realism.[30]
Many physicists have written about the philosophical im-
plications of their work, for instance Laplace, who cham-
pioned causal determinism,[31] and Erwin Schrdinger,
who wrote on quantum mechanics.[32][33] The mathemat-
ical physicist Roger Penrose has been called a Platonist
by Stephen Hawking,[34] a view Penrose discusses in his
book, The Road to Reality.[35] Hawking refers to himself
as an unashamed reductionist and takes issue with Pen-
roses views.[36]

5.3 Core theories

Further information: Branches of physics and Outline of
physics

Max Planck (18581947), the originator of the theory of Though physics deals with a wide variety of systems, cer-
quantum mechanics
tain theories are used by all physicists. Each of these
theories were experimentally tested numerous times and
found to be an adequate approximation of nature. For
dard model, and no others, appear to exist; however,
instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately de-
physics beyond the Standard Model, with theories such
scribes the motion of objects, provided they are much
as supersymmetry, is an active area of research.[26] Areas
larger than atoms and moving at much less than the speed
of mathematics in general are important to this eld, such
of light. These theories continue to be areas of active re-
as the study of probabilities and groups.
search today. Chaos theory, a remarkable aspect of clas-
sical mechanics was discovered in the 20th century, three
centuries after the original formulation of classical me-
5.2 Philosophy chanics by Isaac Newton (16421727).
These central theories are important tools for research
Main article: Philosophy of physics into more specialised topics, and any physicist, regard-
less of their specialisation, is expected to be literate
in them. These include classical mechanics, quantum
In many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philos- mechanics, thermodynamics and statistical mechanics,
ophy. From Thales' rst attempt to characterise mat- electromagnetism, and special relativity.
ter, to Democritus' deduction that matter ought to re-
duce to an invariant state, the Ptolemaic astronomy of
a crystalline rmament, and Aristotles book Physics (an 5.3.1 Classical physics
early book on physics, which attempted to analyze and
dene motion from a philosophical point of view), var- Main article: Classical physics
ious Greek philosophers advanced their own theories of Classical physics includes the traditional branches
nature. Physics was known as natural philosophy until the and topics that were recognised and well-developed
late 18th century.[27] before the beginning of the 20th centuryclassical
By the 19th century, physics was realised as a discipline mechanics, acoustics, optics, thermodynamics, and
distinct from philosophy and the other sciences. Physics, electromagnetism. Classical mechanics is concerned
as with the rest of science, relies on philosophy of sci- with bodies acted on by forces and bodies in motion
ence and its scientic method to advance our knowl- and may be divided into statics (study of the forces
edge of the physical world.[28] The scientic method em- on a body or bodies not subject to an accelera-
ploys a priori reasoning as well as a posteriori reasoning tion), kinematics (study of motion without regard to
44
Classical physics implemented in an acoustic engineering model
of sound reecting from an acoustic diuser
its causes), and dynamics (study of motion and the
forces that aect it); mechanics may also be divided
into solid mechanics and uid mechanics (known to-
gether as continuum mechanics), the latter include such
branches as hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, aerodynamics,
and pneumatics. Acoustics is the study of how sound is
produced, controlled, transmitted and received.[37] Im-
portant modern branches of acoustics include ultrasonics,
the study of sound waves of very high frequency beyond
the range of human hearing; bioacoustics, the physics of
animal calls and hearing,[38] and electroacoustics, the ma-
nipulation of audible sound waves using electronics.[39]
Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with
visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radia-
tion, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light
except visibility, e.g., reection, refraction, interference,
diraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat
is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by
the particles of which a substance is composed; ther-
modynamics deals with the relationships between heat
and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism
have been studied as a single branch of physics since
the intimate connection between them was discovered in
the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to
CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS
a magnetic eld, and a changing magnetic eld induces
an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric
charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and
magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.
5.3.2 Modern physics
Main article: Modern physics
Classical physics is generally concerned with matter and
Solvay Conference of 1927, with prominent physicists such
as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Max Planck, Hendrik
Lorentz, Niels Bohr, Marie Curie, Erwin Schrdinger and Paul
Dirac
energy on the normal scale of observation, while much of
modern physics is concerned with the behavior of matter
and energy under extreme conditions or on a very large or
very small scale. For example, atomic and nuclear physics
studies matter on the smallest scale at which chemical
elements can be identied. The physics of elementary
particles is on an even smaller scale since it is concerned
with the most basic units of matter; this branch of physics
is also known as high-energy physics because of the ex-
tremely high energies necessary to produce many types of
particles in particle accelerators. On this scale, ordinary,
commonsense notions of space, time, matter, and energy
are no longer valid.[40]
The two chief theories of modern physics present a dif-
ferent picture of the concepts of space, time, and mat-
ter from that presented by classical physics. Classi-
cal mechanics approximates nature as continuous, while
quantum theory is concerned with the discrete nature of
many phenomena at the atomic and subatomic level and
with the complementary aspects of particles and waves
in the description of such phenomena. The theory of rel-
ativity is concerned with the description of phenomena
that take place in a frame of reference that is in motion
with respect to an observer; the special theory of relativ-
ity is concerned with relative uniform motion in a straight
line and the general theory of relativity with accelerated
motion and its connection with gravitation. Both quan-
tum theory and the theory of relativity nd applications
in all areas of modern physics.[41]
5.4. RELATION TO OTHER FIELDS
5.3.3 Dierence between classical and 5.4.1 Prerequisites
modern physics
Far less than Comparable to
Far larger than
Near or less than
The basic domains of physics
While physics aims to discover universal laws, its theories
lie in explicit domains of applicability. Loosely speak-
ing, the laws of classical physics accurately describe sys-
tems whose important length scales are greater than the
atomic scale and whose motions are much slower than
the speed of light. Outside of this domain, observations
do not match predictions provided by classical mechan-
ics. Albert Einstein contributed the framework of special
relativity, which replaced notions of absolute time and
space with spacetime and allowed an accurate description
of systems whose components have speeds approaching
the speed of light. Max Planck, Erwin Schrdinger, and
others introduced quantum mechanics, a probabilistic no-
tion of particles and interactions that allowed an accu-
rate description of atomic and subatomic scales. Later,
quantum eld theory unied quantum mechanics and
special relativity. General relativity allowed for a dynam-
ical, curved spacetime, with which highly massive sys-
tems and the large-scale structure of the universe can be
well-described. General relativity has not yet been unied
with the other fundamental descriptions; several candi-
date theories of quantum gravity are being developed.
5.4 Relation to other elds
This parabola-shaped lava ow illustrates the application of
mathematics in physicsin this case, Galileo's law of falling
bodies.
45
Mathematics provides a compact and exact language used
to describe of the order in nature. This was noted and
advocated by Pythagoras,[42] Plato,[43] Galileo,[44] and
Newton.
Physics uses mathematics[45] to organise and formu-
late experimental results. From those results, precise
or estimated solutions, quantitative results from which
new predictions can be made and experimentally con-
rmed or negated. The results from physics experiments
are numerical measurements. Technologies based on
mathematics, like computation have made computational
physics an active area of research.
Ontology is a prerequisite for physics, but not for math-
ematics. It means physics is ultimately concerned with
descriptions of the real world, while mathematics is con-
cerned with abstract patterns, even beyond the real world.
Thus physics statements are synthetic, while mathemat-
ical statements are analytic. Mathematics contains hy-
potheses, while physics contains theories. Mathematics
statements have to be only logically true, while predic-
tions of physics statements must match observed and ex-
perimental data.
The distinction is clear-cut, but not always obvious.
For example, mathematical physics is the application of
mathematics in physics. Its methods are mathematical,
but its subject is physical.[46] The problems in this eld
start with a "mathematical model of a physical situation"
(system) and a mathematical description of a physical
law that will be applied to that system. Every mathemat-
ical statement used for solving has a hard-to-nd physical
meaning. The nal mathematical solution has an easier-
to-nd meaning, because it is what the solver is looking
for.
Physics is a branch of fundamental science, not practical
science. Physics is also called the fundamental science
because the subject of study of all branches of natural sci-
ence like chemistry, astronomy, geology, and biology are
constrained by laws of physics,[47] similar to how chem-
istry is often called the central science because of its role
in linking the physical sciences. For example, chem-
istry studies properties, structures, and reactions of mat-
ter (chemistrys focus on the atomic scale distinguishes it
from physics). Structures are formed because particles
exert electrical forces on each other, properties include
physical characteristics of given substances, and reactions
are bound by laws of physics, like conservation of energy,
mass, and charge.
Physics is applied in industries like engineering and
medicine.
46 CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS

5.4.2 Application and inuence ciple of some theory, such as Newtons law of universal
gravitation.[49]
Main article: Applied physics
Applied physics is a general term for physics research
which is intended for a particular use. An applied physics 5.5.2 Theory and experiment
curriculum usually contains a few classes in an applied
discipline, like geology or electrical engineering. It usu- Main articles: Theoretical physics and Experimental
ally diers from engineering in that an applied physicist physics
may not be designing something in particular, but rather Theorists seek to develop mathematical models that both
is using physics or conducting physics research with the agree with existing experiments and successfully predict
aim of developing new technologies or solving a problem. future experimental results, while experimentalists de-
vise and perform experiments to test theoretical predic-
The approach is similar to that of applied mathematics.
tions and explore new phenomena. Although theory and
Applied physicists use physics in scientic research. For
experiment are developed separately, they are strongly
instance, people working on accelerator physics might
dependent upon each other. Progress in physics fre-
seek to build better particle detectors for research in the-
quently comes about when experimentalists make a dis-
oretical physics.
covery that existing theories cannot explain, or when new
Physics is used heavily in engineering. For example, theories generate experimentally testable predictions,
statics, a subeld of mechanics, is used in the building which inspire new experiments.[50]
of bridges and other static structures. The understanding
Physicists who work at the interplay of theory and
and use of acoustics results in sound control and better
experiment are called phenomenologists, who study com-
concert halls; similarly, the use of optics creates better
plex phenomena observed in experiment and work to re-
optical devices. An understanding of physics makes for
late them to a fundamental theory.[51]
more realistic ight simulators, video games, and movies,
and is often critical in forensic investigations. Theoretical physics has historically taken inspiration
from philosophy; electromagnetism was unied this
With the standard consensus that the laws of physics
way.[lower-alpha 4] Beyond the known universe, the eld
are universal and do not change with time, physics can
of theoretical physics also deals with hypothetical
be used to study things that would ordinarily be mired
issues,[lower-alpha 5] such as parallel universes, a multiverse,
in uncertainty. For example, in the study of the ori-
and higher dimensions. Theorists invoke these ideas in
gin of the earth, one can reasonably model earths mass,
hopes of solving particular problems with existing theo-
temperature, and rate of rotation, as a function of time
ries. They then explore the consequences of these ideas
allowing one to extrapolate forward or backward in time
and work toward making testable predictions.
and so predict future or prior events. It also allows for
simulations in engineering which drastically speed up the Experimental physics expands, and is expanded by,
development of a new technology. engineering and technology. Experimental physicists in-
volved in basic research design and perform experiments
But there is also considerable interdisciplinarity in the
with equipment such as particle accelerators and lasers,
physicists methods, so many other important elds are
whereas those involved in applied research often work in
inuenced by physics (e.g., the elds of econophysics and
industry developing technologies such as magnetic reso-
sociophysics).
nance imaging (MRI) and transistors. Feynman has noted
that experimentalists may seek areas which are not well-
explored by theorists.[52]
5.5 Research
5.5.3 Scope and aims
5.5.1 Scientic method
Physics covers a wide range of phenomena, from
Physicists use the scientic method to test the validity elementary particles (such as quarks, neutrinos, and elec-
of a physical theory. By using a methodical approach trons) to the largest superclusters of galaxies. Included in
to compare the implications of a theory with the con- these phenomena are the most basic objects composing
clusions drawn from its related experiments and obser- all other things. Therefore, physics is sometimes called
vations, physicists are better able to test the validity of the "fundamental science".[47] Physics aims to describe
a theory in a logical, unbiased, and repeatable way. To the various phenomena that occur in nature in terms of
that end, experiments are performed and observations are simpler phenomena. Thus, physics aims to both connect
made in order to determine the validity or invalidity of the the things observable to humans to root causes, and then
theory.[48] connect these causes together.
A scientic law is a concise verbal or mathematical state- For example, the ancient Chinese observed that certain
ment of a relation which expresses a fundamental prin- rocks (lodestone and magnetite) were attracted to one an-
5.5. RESEARCH 47

other by an invisible force. This eect was later called
magnetism, which was rst rigorously studied in the 17th
century. But even before the Chinese discovered mag-
netism, the ancient Greeks knew of other objects such as
amber, that when rubbed with fur would cause a simi-
lar invisible attraction between the two.[53] This was also
rst studied rigorously in the 17th century and came to be
called electricity. Thus, physics had come to understand
two observations of nature in terms of some root cause
(electricity and magnetism). However, further work in
the 19th century revealed that these two forces were just
two dierent aspects of one forceelectromagnetism.
This process of unifying forces continues today, and
electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are now
considered to be two aspects of the electroweak interac-
tion. Physics hopes to nd an ultimate reason (Theory of
Everything) for why nature is as it is (see section Current
research below for more information).[54]
respectively).[62] The Standard Model also predicts a par-
ticle known as the Higgs boson.[61] In July 2012 CERN,
the European laboratory for particle physics, announced
the detection of a particle consistent with the Higgs
boson,[63] an integral part of a Higgs mechanism.
Nuclear physics is the eld of physics that studies the
constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The
most commonly known applications of nuclear physics
are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons
technology, but the research has provided application
in many elds, including those in nuclear medicine
and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in
materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology
and archaeology.
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
Main article: Atomic, molecular, and optical physics

5.5.4 Research elds Atomic, molecular, and optical physics (AMO) is the
study of mattermatter and lightmatter interactions on
Contemporary research in physics can be broadly di- the scale of single atoms and molecules. The three areas
vided into nuclear and particle physics; condensed mat- are grouped together because of their interrelationships,
ter physics; atomic, molecular, and optical physics; the similarity of methods used, and the commonality of
astrophysics; and applied physics. Some physics depart- their relevant energy scales. All three areas include both
ments also support physics education research and physics classical, semi-classical and quantum treatments; they can
outreach.[55] treat their subject from a microscopic view (in contrast to
Since the 20th century, the individual elds of physics a macroscopic view).
have become increasingly specialised, and today most Atomic physics studies the electron shells of atoms. Cur-
physicists work in a single eld for their entire careers.rent research focuses on activities in quantum control,
Universalists such as Albert Einstein (18791955) and cooling and trapping of atoms and ions,[64][65][66] low-
Lev Landau (19081968), who worked in multiple elds temperature collision dynamics and the eects of elec-
of physics, are now very rare.[lower-alpha 6] tron correlation on structure and dynamics. Atomic
The major elds of physics, along with their subelds and physics is inuenced by the nucleus (see, e.g., hyperne
the theories and concepts they employ, are shown in the splitting), but intra-nuclear phenomena such as ssion and
following table. fusion are considered part of nuclear physics.
Molecular physics focuses on multi-atomic structures and
their internal and external interactions with matter and
Nuclear and particle physics light. Optical physics is distinct from optics in that it
tends to focus not on the control of classical light elds
Main articles: Particle physics and Nuclear physics by macroscopic objects but on the fundamental proper-
Particle physics is the study of the elementary con- ties of optical elds and their interactions with matter in
stituents of matter and energy and the interactions be- the microscopic realm.
tween them.[56] In addition, particle physicists design and
develop the high energy accelerators,[57] detectors,[58] and
computer programs[59] necessary for this research. The Condensed matter physics
eld is also called high-energy physics because many el-
ementary particles do not occur naturally but are created Main article: Condensed matter physics
only during high-energy collisions of other particles.[60] Condensed matter physics is the eld of physics that deals
Currently, the interactions of elementary particles and with the macroscopic physical properties of matter.[67] In
elds are described by the Standard Model.[61] The particular, it is concerned with the condensed phases
model accounts for the 12 known particles of matter that appear whenever the number of particles in a system
(quarks and leptons) that interact via the strong, weak, is extremely[68]
large and the interactions between them are
and electromagnetic fundamental forces. [61]
Dynamics strong.
are described in terms of matter particles exchanging The most familiar examples of condensed phases are
gauge bosons (gluons, W and Z bosons, and photons, solids and liquids, which arise from the bonding by way of
48 CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS

the electromagnetic force between atoms.[69] More exotic emerge from new data from the Fermi Gamma-ray Space
condensed phases include the superuid[70] and the Bose Telescope over the upcoming decade and vastly revise or
Einstein condensate[71] found in certain atomic systems atclarify existing models of the universe.[77][78] In partic-
very low temperature, the superconducting phase exhib- ular, the potential for a tremendous discovery surround-
ited by conduction electrons in certain materials,[72] anding dark matter is possible over the next several years.[79]
the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins Fermi will search for evidence that dark matter is com-
on atomic lattices.[73] posed of weakly interacting massive particles, comple-
Condensed matter physics is the largest eld of contem- menting similar experiments with the Large Hadron Col-
lider and other underground detectors.
porary physics. Historically, condensed matter physics
grew out of solid-state physics, which is now considered IBEX is already yielding new astrophysical discoveries:
one of its main subelds.[74] The term condensed matter No one knows what is creating the ENA (energetic
physics was apparently coined by Philip Anderson when neutral atoms) ribbon along the termination shock of
he renamed his research grouppreviously solid-state the solar wind, but everyone agrees that it means the
theoryin 1967.[75] In 1978, the Division of Solid State textbook picture of the heliospherein which the Solar
Physics of the American Physical Society was renamed Systems enveloping pocket lled with the solar winds
as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.[74] Con- charged particles is plowing through the onrushing 'galac-
densed matter physics has a large overlap with chemistry, tic wind' of the interstellar medium in the shape of a
materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.[68] cometis wrong.[80]

Astrophysics 5.6 Current research

Main articles: Astrophysics and Physical cosmology
Astrophysics and astronomy are the application of the Further information: List of unsolved problems in physics
theories and methods of physics to the study of stellar Research in physics is continually progressing on a large
structure, stellar evolution, the origin of the Solar System, number of fronts.
and related problems of cosmology. Because astrophysics In condensed matter physics, an important unsolved theo-
is a broad subject, astrophysicists typically apply many retical problem is that of high-temperature superconduc-
disciplines of physics, including mechanics, electromag- tivity.[81] Many condensed matter experiments are aiming
netism, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, quantum to fabricate workable spintronics and quantum comput-
mechanics, relativity, nuclear and particle physics, and ers.[68][82]
atomic and molecular physics.[76] In particle physics, the rst pieces of experimental evi-
The discovery by Karl Jansky in 1931 that radio sig- dence for physics beyond the Standard Model have be-
nals were emitted by celestial bodies initiated the science gun to appear. Foremost among these are indications
of radio astronomy. Most recently, the frontiers of as- that neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimen-
tronomy have been expanded by space exploration. Per- tal results appear to have solved the long-standing solar
turbations and interference from the earths atmosphere neutrino problem, and the physics of massive neutrinos
make space-based observations necessary for infrared, remains an area of active theoretical and experimental
ultraviolet, gamma-ray, and X-ray astronomy. research. Large Hadron Collider had already found the
Physical cosmology is the study of the formation and Higgs Boson. Future research aims to prove or disprove
evolution of the universe on its largest scales. Albert the supersymmetry, which extends the Standard Model
Einsteins theory of relativity plays a central role in all of particle physics. The research on dark matter and dark
modern cosmological theories. In the early 20th cen- energy is also on the agenda.[83]
tury, Hubble's discovery that the universe is expanding, Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and
as shown by the Hubble diagram, prompted rival expla- general relativity into a single theory of quantum grav-
nations known as the steady state universe and the Big ity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not
Bang. yet been decisively resolved. The current leading candi-
The Big Bang was conrmed by the success of Big Bang dates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum
nucleosynthesis and the discovery of the cosmic mi- gravity.
crowave background in 1964. The Big Bang model rests Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have
on two theoretical pillars: Albert Einsteins general rela- yet to be satisfactorily explained, including the existence
tivity and the cosmological principle. Cosmologists have of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry,
recently established the CDM model of the evolution the acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rota-
of the universe, which includes cosmic ination, dark en- tion rates of galaxies.
ergy, and dark matter. Although much progress has been made in high-
Numerous possibilities and discoveries are anticipated to energy, quantum, and astronomical physics, many ev-
5.9. REFERENCES
eryday phenomena involving complexity,[84] chaos,[85] or
turbulence[86] are still poorly understood. Complex prob-
lems that seem like they could be solved by a clever appli-
cation of dynamics and mechanics remain unsolved; ex-
amples include the formation of sandpiles, nodes in trick-
ling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of
surface tension catastrophes, and self-sorting in shaken
heterogeneous collections.[87]
These complex phenomena have received growing at-
tention since the 1970s for several reasons, including
the availability of modern mathematical methods and
computers, which enabled complex systems to be mod-
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1932 Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Horace Lamb
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I am an old man now, and when I die and
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tion of uids. And about the former I am rather
optimistic.
5.7 See also
5.8 Notes
[1] The term 'universe' is dened as everything that physi-
cally exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of
matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and
constants that govern them. However, the term 'universe'
may also be used in slightly dierent contextual senses,
denoting concepts such as the cosmos or the philosophical
world.
[2] Francis Bacon's 1620 Novum Organum was critical in the
development of scientic method.[10]
[3] Calculus was independently developed at around the same
time by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; while Leibniz was the
rst to publish his work and develop much of the nota-
tion used for calculus today, Newton was the rst to de-
velop calculus and apply it to physical problems. See also
LeibnizNewton calculus controversy
[4] See, for example, the inuence of Kant and Ritter on
rsted.
[5] Concepts which are denoted hypothetical can change
with time. For example, the atom of nineteenth-century
physics was denigrated by some, including Ernst Mach's
critique of Ludwig Boltzmann's formulation of statistical
mechanics. By the end of World War II, the atom was no
longer deemed hypothetical.
49
[6] Yet, universalism is encouraged in the culture of physics.
For example, the World Wide Web, which was innovated
at CERN by Tim Berners-Lee, was created in service to
the computer infrastructure of CERN, and was/is intended
for use by physicists worldwide. The same might be said
for arXiv.org
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sity Press.
Halpern, P. (2010). Collider: The Search for the
Worlds Smallest Particles. John Wiley & Sons.
ISBN 978-0-470-64391-4.
Hawking, S.; Penrose, R. (1996). The Nature of
Space and Time. ISBN 0-691-05084-8.
Holzner, S. (2006). Physics for Dummies. John
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-61841-8. Physics is
the study of your world and the world and universe
around you.
CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS
Honderich, T. (editor) (1995). The Oxford Compan-
ion to Philosophy (1 ed.). Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press. pp. 474476. ISBN 0-19-866132-0.
Howard, Ian; Rogers, Brian (1995). Binocular Vi-
sion and Stereopsis. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-508476-4.
Kellert, S.H. (1993). In the Wake of Chaos: Unpre-
dictable Order in Dynamical Systems. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-42976-8.
Kerr, R.A. (16 October 2009). Tying Up the So-
lar System With a Ribbon of Charged Particles.
Science. 326 (5951). pp. 350351. Retrieved 27
November 2009.
Krupp, E.C. (2003). Echoes of the Ancient Skies:
The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations. Dover Publi-
cations. ISBN 0-486-42882-6. Retrieved 31 March
2014.
Laplace, P.S. (1951). A Philosophical Essay on
Probabilities. Translated from the 6th French edi-
tion by Truscott, F.W. and Emory, F.L. New York:
Dover Publications.
Leggett, A.J. (1999). Superuidity. Re-
views of Modern Physics. 71 (2): S318
S323. Bibcode:1999RvMPS..71..318L.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.71.S318.
Levy, B.G. (December 2001). Cornell, Ket-
terle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for
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54 (12): 14. Bibcode:2001PhT....54l..14L.
doi:10.1063/1.1445529.
Lloyd, G.E.R. (1970). Early Greek Science: Thales
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dus; W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-
00583-6.
Mattis, D.C. (2006). The Theory of Magnetism
Made Simple. World Scientic. ISBN 978-981-
238-579-6.
Maxwell, J.C. (1878). Matter and Motion. D. Van
Nostrand. ISBN 0-486-66895-9.
Moore, J.T. (2011). Chemistry For Dummies (2 ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-00730-3.
National Research Council; Committee on Technol-
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20002035 Becoming a 21st-Century Force: Vol-
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05928-2.
5.11. FURTHER READING 53

O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1996a). 5.11 Further reading

Special Relativity. MacTutor History of Mathe-
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1 April 2014.
O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (May 1996b). A
History of Quantum Mechanics. MacTutor History 5.12 External links
of Mathematics archive. University of St Andrews.
Retrieved 1 April 2014. General
Oerter, R. (2006). The Theory of Almost Every-
thing: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Encyclopedia of Physics at Scholarpedia
Modern Physics. Pi Press. ISBN 978-0-13-236678-
6. de Haas, Paul, Historic Papers in Physics (20th Cen-
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S. (1997). The Large, the Small and the Human
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78572-3. Physical Society
Penrose, R. (2004). The Road to Reality. ISBN 0- Physics.org Web portal run by the Institute of
679-45443-8. Physics
Rosenberg, Alex (2006). Philosophy of Science. The Skeptics Guide to Physics
Routledge. ISBN 0-415-34317-8.
Usenet Physics FAQ A FAQ compiled by
Schrdinger, E. (1983). My View of the World. Ox
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Bow Press. ISBN 0-918024-30-7.
Schrdinger, E. (1995). The Interpretation of Quan- Website of the Nobel Prize in physics
tum Mechanics. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 1-881987-09-
World of Physics An online encyclopedic dictionary
4.
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Singer, C. (2008). A Short History of Science to the
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Stajic, Jelena; Coontz, R.; Osborne, I.
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21474747.
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Thurston, H. (1994). Early Astronomy. Springer.
Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2003). Modern
Physics. W. H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4345-
3.
Toraldo Di Francia, G. (1976). The Investigation of
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Walsh, K.M. (1 June 2012). Plotting the Future for
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Zemanskys University Physics with Modern Physics
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ISBN 978-1-292-02063-1.
Physics announced 17 July 2008 by the American
Physical Society
Physics/Publications at DMOZ
Physicsworld.com News website from Institute of
Physics Publishing
Physics Central includes articles on astronomy,
particle physics, and mathematics.
The Vega Science Trust science videos, including
physics
Video: Physics Lightning Tour with Justin Mor-
gan
52-part video course: The Mechanical Uni-
verse...and Beyond Note: also available at 01 In-
troduction at Google Videos
HyperPhysics website HyperPhysics, a physics and
astronomy mind-map from Georgia State University
AIP.org Website of the American Institute of
Physics
54 CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS

APS.org Website of the American Physical Soci-

ety
IOP.org Website of the Institute of Physics

PlanetPhysics.org
Royal Society Although not exclusively a physics
institution, it has a strong history of physics
SPS National Website of the Society of Physics
Students
5.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 55

The distinction between mathematics and physics is clear-cut, but

not always obvious, especially in mathematical physics.

Archimedes screw, a simple machine for lifting

The application of physical laws in lifting liquids

Mathematics and ontology are used in physics. Physics is used in

chemistry and cosmology.
56 CHAPTER 5. PHYSICS

Physics involves modeling the natural world with theory, usually

quantitative. Here, the path of a particle is modeled with the
mathematics of calculus to explain its behavior: the purview of
the branch of physics known as mechanics.

The astronaut and Earth are both in free-fall

A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Col-

lider, featuring a possible appearance of the Higgs boson.

Lightning is an electric current

Velocity-distribution data of a gas of rubidium atoms, conrm-

ing the discovery of a new phase of matter, the BoseEinstein
condensate
5.12. EXTERNAL LINKS 57

The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra

Deep Field

Feynman diagram signed by R. P. Feynman.

A typical event described by physics: a magnet levitating above a

superconductor demonstrates the Meissner eect.
Chapter 6

Mechanical engineering

Mechanical Engineering redirects here. For the

publication, see ASME.

Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the

principles of engineering, physics, and materials science
for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance
of mechanical systems. It is the branch of engineering
that involves the design, production, and operation of
machinery.[1][2] It is one of the oldest and broadest of the
engineering disciplines.
The mechanical engineering eld requires an under-
standing of core areas including mechanics, kinematics,
thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis,
W16
and electricity. Mechanical engineers use these core
engine of the Bugatti Veyron. Mechanical engineers
principles along with tools like computer-aided design,
design and build engines, power plants, other machines...
and product lifecycle management to design and an-
alyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment and
machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport sys-
tems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics, medical devices,
weapons, and others.
Mechanical engineering emerged as a eld during the
Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century; how- ...structures,
ever, its development can be traced back several thousand and vehicles of all sizes.
years around the world. Mechanical engineering science
emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments
in the eld of physics. The eld has continually evolved
to incorporate advancements in technology, and mechan-
ical engineers today are pursuing developments in such 6.1 History
elds as composites, mechatronics, and nanotechnology.
Mechanical engineering overlaps with aerospace en- Mechanical engineering nds its application in the
gineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineer- archives of various ancient and medieval societies
ing, electrical engineering, manufacturing engineering, throughout mankind. In ancient Greece, the works of
chemical engineering, industrial engineering, and other Archimedes (287212 BC) deeply inuenced mechan-
engineering disciplines to varying amounts. Mechanical ics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria (c.
engineers may also work in the eld of biomedical en- 1070 AD) created the rst steam engine (Aeolipile).[3]
gineering, specically with biomechanics, transport phe- In China, Zhang Heng (78139 AD) improved a water
nomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology, and mod- clock and invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200265
eling of biological systems. AD) invented a chariot with dierential gears. The me-
dieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020
1101 AD) incorporated an escapement mechanism into
his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any es-
capement can be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as
well as the worlds rst known endless power-transmitting
chain drive.[4]

58
6.2. EDUCATION 59

During the 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic
Golden Age, there were remarkable contributions from
Muslim inventors in the eld of mechanical technology.
Al-Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book
of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices in 1206,
and presented many mechanical designs. He is also con-
sidered to be the inventor of such mechanical devices
which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as
the crankshaft and camshaft.[5]
Important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechani-
cal engineering occurred in England during the 17th cen-
tury when Sir Isaac Newton both formulated the three
Newtons Laws of Motion and developed Calculus, the
mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to Archimedes screw was operated by hand and could eciently
publish his methods and laws for years, but he was nally raise water, as the animated red ball demonstrates.
persuaded to do so by his colleagues, such as Sir Edmund
Halley, much to the benet of all mankind. Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz is also credited with creating Calculus lor of Mechanical Engineering (B.M.E.), or Bachelor of
during the same time frame. Applied Science (B.A.Sc.) degree, in or with emphasis
in mechanical engineering. In Spain, Portugal and most
During the early 19th century in England, Germany and
of South America, where neither B.Sc. nor B.Tech. pro-
Scotland, the development of machine tools led mechan-
grams have been adopted, the formal name for the degree
ical engineering to develop as a separate eld within
is Mechanical Engineer, and the course work is based
engineering, providing manufacturing machines and the
on ve or six years of training. In Italy the course work is
engines to power them.[6] The rst British professional
based on ve years of education, and training, but in or-
society of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847
der to qualify as an Engineer one has to pass a state exam
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, thirty years after the
at the end of the course. In Greece, the coursework is
civil engineers formed the rst such professional society
based on a ve-year curriculum and the requirement of a
Institution of Civil Engineers.[7] On the European conti-
'Diploma' Thesis, which upon completion a 'Diploma' is
nent, Johann von Zimmermann (18201901) founded the
awarded rather than a B.Sc.
rst factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, Germany
in 1848. In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are
awarded as Bachelor of Engineering (Mechanical) or
In the United States, the American Society of Mechan-
similar nomenclature[10] although there are an increasing
ical Engineers (ASME) was formed in 1880, becom-
number of specialisations. The degree takes four years of
ing the third such professional engineering society, after
full-time study to achieve. To ensure quality in engineer-
the American Society of Civil Engineers (1852) and the
[8] ing degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering
American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871). The
degrees awarded by Australian universities in accordance
rst schools in the United States to oer an engineer-
with the global Washington Accord. Before the degree
ing education were the United States Military Academy
can be awarded, the student must complete at least 3
in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich Uni-
months of on the job work experience in an engineering
versity in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in
rm. Similar systems are also present in South Africa
1825. Education in mechanical engineering has histori-
and are overseen by the Engineering Council of South
cally been based on a strong foundation in mathematics
[9] Africa (ECSA).
and science.
In the United States, most undergraduate mechanical en-
gineering programs are accredited by the Accreditation
Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to en-
6.2 Education sure similar course requirements and standards among
universities. The ABET web site lists 302 accredited me-
[11]
Degrees in mechanical engineering are oered at vari- chanical engineering programs as of 11 March 2014.
ous universities worldwide. In Brazil, Ireland, Philip- Mechanical engineering programs in Canada are accred-
pines, Pakistan, China, Greece, Turkey, North America, ited by the [12]
Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board
South Asia, Nepal, India, Dominican Republic, Iran and (CEAB), and most other countries oering engineer-
the United Kingdom, mechanical engineering programs ing degrees have similar accreditation societies.
typically take four to ve years of study and result in a In India, to become an engineer, one needs to have an en-
Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng. or B.E.), Bachelor of gineering degree like a B.Tech or B.E or have a diploma
Science (B.Sc. or B.S.), Bachelor of Science Engineering in engineering or by completing a course in an engineer-
(B.Sc.Eng.), Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech.), Bache- ing trade like tter from the Industrial Training Institute
60 CHAPTER 6. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(ITIs) to receive a ITI Trade Certicate and also have to Manufacturing engineering, technology, or pro-
pass the All India Trade Test (AITT) with an engineering cesses
trade conducted by the National Council of Vocational
Training (NCVT) by which one is awarded a National Vibration, control theory and control engineering
Trade Certicate. Similar systems are used in Nepal. Hydraulics, and pneumatics
Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgrad-
Mechatronics, and robotics
uate degree such as a Master of Engineering, Master of
Technology, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Engineering design and product design
Management (M.Eng.Mgt. or M.E.M.), a Doctor of Phi-
losophy in engineering (Eng.D. or Ph.D.) or an engineers Drafting, computer-aided design (CAD) and
degree. The masters and engineers degrees may or may computer-aided manufacturing (CAM)[15][16]
not include research. The Doctor of Philosophy includes
a signicant research component and is often viewed as Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand
the entry point to academia.[13] The Engineers degree ex- and be able to apply basic concepts from chemistry,
ists at a few institutions at an intermediate level betweenphysics, chemical engineering, civil engineering, and
the masters degree and the doctorate. electrical engineering. All mechanical engineering pro-
grams include multiple semesters of mathematical classes
including calculus, and advanced mathematical concepts
6.2.1 Coursework including dierential equations, partial dierential equa-
tions, linear algebra, abstract algebra, and dierential ge-
Standards set by each countrys accreditation society are ometry, among others.
intended to provide uniformity in fundamental subject
material, promote competence among graduating engi- In addition to the core mechanical engineering curricu-
neers, and to maintain condence in the engineering pro- lum, many mechanical engineering programs oer more
fession as a whole. Engineering programs in the U.S., for specialized programs and classes, such as control systems,
example, are required by ABET to show that their stu- robotics, transport and logistics, cryogenics, fuel tech-
dents can work professionally in both thermal and me- nology, automotive engineering, biomechanics, vibration,
chanical systems areas.[14] The specic courses required optics and others, [17]if a separate department does not exist
to graduate, however, may dier from program to pro- for these subjects.
gram. Universities and Institutes of technology will of- Most mechanical engineering programs also require vary-
ten combine multiple subjects into a single class or split ing amounts of research or community projects to gain
a subject into multiple classes, depending on the faculty practical problem-solving experience. In the United
available and the universitys major area(s) of research. States it is common for mechanical engineering students
The fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering to complete one or more internships while studying,
usually include: though this is not typically mandated by the university.
Cooperative education is another option. Future work
skills[18] research puts demand on study components that
Mathematics (in particular, calculus, dierential feed students creativity and innovation.[19]
equations, and linear algebra)

Basic physical sciences (including physics and

6.2.2 License and regulation
chemistry)

Statics and dynamics Engineers may seek license by a state, provincial, or

Strength of materials and solid mechanics
Materials Engineering, Composites
Thermodynamics, heat transfer, energy conversion,
and HVAC
Fuels, combustion, Internal combustion engine
Fluid mechanics (including uid statics and uid dy- neer (in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engi-
namics)
Mechanism and Machine design (including
kinematics and dynamics)
Instrumentation and measurement
national government. The purpose of this process is
to ensure that engineers possess the necessary techni-
cal knowledge, real-world experience, and knowledge of
the local legal system to practice engineering at a pro-
fessional level. Once certied, the engineer is given
the title of Professional Engineer (in the United States,
Canada, Japan, South Korea, Bangladesh and South
Africa), Chartered Engineer (in the United Kingdom, Ire-
land, India and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engi-
neer (much of the European Union), or Professional En-
gineer in Philippines and Pakistan.
In the U.S., to become a licensed Professional Engi-
neer (PE), an engineer must pass the comprehensive FE
(Fundamentals of Engineering) exam, work a minimum
6.4. MODERN TOOLS 61

of 4 years as an Engineering Intern (EI) or Engineer-in-

Training (EIT), and pass the Principles and Practice
or PE (Practicing Engineer or Professional Engineer) ex-
ams. The requirements and steps of this process are set
forth by the National Council of Examiners for Engineer-
ing and Surveying (NCEES), a composed of engineering
and land surveying licensing boards representing all U.S.
states and territories.
In the UK, current graduates require a BEng plus an ap-
propriate masters degree or an integrated MEng degree,
a minimum of 4 years post graduate on the job com-
petency development, and a peer reviewed project re-
port in the candidates specialty area in order to become
a Chartered Mechanical Engineer (CEng, MIMechE)
through the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. CEng
MIMechE can also be obtained via an examination route
administered by the City and Guilds of London Institute. An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons
In most developed countries, certain engineering tasks,
such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and 6.4 Modern tools
chemical plants, must be approved by a professional en-
gineer or a chartered engineer. Only a licensed engi-
Many mechanical engineering companies, especially
neer, for instance, may prepare, sign, seal and submit en-
those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate
gineering plans and drawings to a public authority for ap-
computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their
proval, or to seal engineering work for public and private
existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and
clients.[20] This requirement can be written into state and
3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This
provincial legislation, such as in the Canadian provinces,
method has many benets, including easier and more ex-
for example the Ontario or Quebecs Engineer Act.[21]
haustive visualization of products, the ability to create vir-
In other countries, such as Australia, and the UK, no tual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing
such legislation exists; however, practically all certifying mating interfaces and tolerances.
bodies maintain a code of ethics independent of legis-
Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical
lation, that they expect all members to abide by or risk
[22] engineers include product lifecycle management (PLM)
expulsion.
tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simula-
Further information: FE Exam, Professional Engineer, tions. Analysis tools may be used to predict product re-
Incorporated Engineer, and Washington Accord sponse to expected loads, including fatigue life and man-
ufacturability. These tools include nite element anal-
ysis (FEA), computational uid dynamics (CFD), and
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).
Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can
quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop
a product that better meets cost, performance, and other
constraints. No physical prototype need be created until
6.3 Salaries and workforce statis- the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thou-
tics sands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative
few. In addition, CAE analysis programs can model com-
plicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by
The total number of engineers employed in the U.S. in hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between
2015 was roughly 1.6 million. Of these, 278,340 were mating parts, or non-Newtonian ows.
mechanical engineers (17.28%), the largest discipline by As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other
size.[23] In 2012, the median annual income of mechan- disciplines, as seen in mechatronics, multidisciplinary de-
ical engineers in the U.S. workforce was $80,580. The sign optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE
median income was highest when working for the govern- programs to automate and improve the iterative design
ment ($92,030), and lowest in education ($57,090).[24] In process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE pro-
2014, the total number of mechanical engineering jobs cesses, allowing product evaluation to continue even after
was projected to grow 5% over the next decade.[25] As the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize so-
of 2009, the average starting salary was $58,800 with a phisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently
bachelors degree.[26] explore possible designs, often nding better, innovative
62 CHAPTER 6. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

solutions to dicult multidisciplinary design problems. Mechanics of materials, the study of how dierent
materials deform under various types of stress
Fluid mechanics, the study of how uids react to
6.5 Subdisciplines forces[27]

The eld of mechanical engineering can be thought of
as a collection of many mechanical engineering science
disciplines. Several of these subdisciplines which are typ-
ically taught at the undergraduate level are listed below,
with a brief explanation and the most common applica-
tion of each. Some of these subdisciplines are unique to
mechanical engineering, while others are a combination
of mechanical engineering and one or more other disci-
plines. Most work that a mechanical engineer does uses
skills and techniques from several of these subdisciplines,
as well as specialized subdisciplines. Specialized subdis-
ciplines, as used in this article, are more likely to be the
subject of graduate studies or on-the-job training than un-
dergraduate research. Several specialized subdisciplines
are discussed in this section.
6.5.1 Mechanics
(shear)
max
(xx(),xy())
xy()
Kinematics, the study of the motion of bodies (ob-
jects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignor-
ing the forces that cause the motion. Kinematics is
often used in the design and analysis of mechanisms.
Continuum mechanics, a method of applying me-
chanics that assumes that objects are continuous
(rather than discrete)
Mechanical engineers typically use mechanics in the de-
sign or analysis phases of engineering. If the engineering
project were the design of a vehicle, statics might be em-
ployed to design the frame of the vehicle, in order to eval-
uate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics
might be used when designing the cars engine, to evalu-
ate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles.
Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appro-
priate materials for the frame and engine. Fluid mechan-
ics might be used to design a ventilation system for the
vehicle (see HVAC), or to design the intake system for
the engine.
6.5.2 Mechatronics and robotics

yy() 2 (normal)
xx()
min
(yy(),-xy())
(max+min)/2
max

Mohrs circle, a common tool to study stresses in a mechanical

element

Main article: Mechanics

Training FMS with learning robot SCORBOT-ER 4u, workbench

Mechanics is, in the most general sense, the study of
CNC Mill and CNC Lathe
forces and their eect upon matter. Typically, engineer-
ing mechanics is used to analyze and predict the accelera- Main articles: Mechatronics and Robotics
tion and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects
under known forces (also called loads) or stresses. Sub-
disciplines of mechanics include Mechatronics is a combination of mechanics and elec-
tronics. It is an interdisciplinary branch of mechani-
Statics, the study of non-moving bodies under cal engineering, electrical engineering and software en-
known loads, how forces aect static bodies gineering that is concerned with integrating electrical
and mechanical engineering to create hybrid systems. In
Dynamics the study of how forces aect moving this way, machines can be automated through the use of
bodies. Dynamics includes kinematics (about move- electric motors, servo-mechanisms, and other electrical
ment, velocity, and acceleration) and kinetics (about systems in conjunction with special software. A common
forces and resulting accelerations). example of a mechatronics system is a CD-ROM drive.
6.5. SUBDISCIPLINES 63

Mechanical systems open and close the drive, spin the ing parts, in the eld to analyze failed parts, or in labora-
CD and move the laser, while an optical system reads the tories where parts might undergo controlled failure tests.
data on the CD and converts it to bits. Integrated soft-
ware controls the process and communicates the contents
of the CD to the computer. 6.5.4 Thermodynamics and thermo-
Robotics is the application of mechatronics to create science
robots, which are often used in industry to perform tasks
that are dangerous, unpleasant, or repetitive. These Main article: Thermodynamics
robots may be of any shape and size, but all are prepro-
grammed and interact physically with the world. To cre- Thermodynamics is an applied science used in several
ate a robot, an engineer typically employs kinematics (to branches of engineering, including mechanical and chem-
determine the robots range of motion) and mechanics (to ical engineering. At its simplest, thermodynamics is the
determine the stresses within the robot). study of energy, its use and transformation through a
Robots are used extensively in industrial engineering. system. Typically, engineering thermodynamics is con-
They allow businesses to save money on labor, perform cerned with changing energy from one form to another.
tasks that are either too dangerous or too precise for As an example, automotive engines convert chemical en-
humans to perform them economically, and to ensure ergy (enthalpy) from the fuel into heat, and then into me-
better quality. Many companies employ assembly lines chanical work that eventually turns the wheels.
of robots, especially in Automotive Industries and some Thermodynamics principles are used by mechanical en-
factories are so robotized that they can run by them- gineers in the elds of heat transfer, thermouids, and
selves. Outside the factory, robots have been employed in energy conversion. Mechanical engineers use thermo-
bomb disposal, space exploration, and many other elds. science to design engines and power plants, heating, ven-
Robots are also sold for various residential applications, tilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems, heat ex-
from recreation to domestic applications. changers, heat sinks, radiators, refrigeration, insulation,
and others.

6.5.3 Structural analysis

6.5.5 Design and drafting
Main articles: Structural analysis and Failure analysis

Structural analysis is the branch of mechanical engineer-

ing (and also civil engineering) devoted to examining why
and how objects fail and to x the objects and their per-
formance. Structural failures occur in two general modes:
static failure, and fatigue failure. Static structural failure
occurs when, upon being loaded (having a force applied)
the object being analyzed either breaks or is deformed
plastically, depending on the criterion for failure. Fa-
tigue failure occurs when an object fails after a number
of repeated loading and unloading cycles. Fatigue failure
occurs because of imperfections in the object: a micro-
scopic crack on the surface of the object, for instance,
will grow slightly with each cycle (propagation) until the
crack is large enough to cause ultimate failure.
Failure is not simply dened as when a part breaks, how-
ever; it is dened as when a part does not operate as in- A CAD model of a mechanical double seal
tended. Some systems, such as the perforated top sections
of some plastic bags, are designed to break. If these sys- Main articles: Technical drawing and CNC
tems do not break, failure analysis might be employed to
determine the cause.
Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which me-
Structural analysis is often used by mechanical engineers chanical engineers design products and create instruc-
after a failure has occurred, or when designing to prevent tions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can
failure. Engineers often use online documents and books be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing
such as those published by ASM[28] to aid them in deter- all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as
mining the type of failure and possible causes. well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and
Structural analysis may be used in the oce when design- other pertinent information. A U.S. mechanical engineer
64 CHAPTER 6. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be ets. Current uses of this technology to date include weld-
referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has his- ing the seams of the aluminum main Space Shuttle exter-
torically been a two-dimensional process, but computer- nal tank, Orion Crew Vehicle test article, Boeing Delta
aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the
create in three dimensions. SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket, armor plating for amphibious
Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to assault ships, and welding the wings and fuselage pan-
the necessary machinery, either manually, through pro- els of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation
[29][30][31]
grammed instructions, or through the use of a computer- among an increasingly growing pool of uses.
aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM
program. Optionally, an engineer may also manually 6.6.3 Composites
manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but
this is becoming an increasing rarity, with the advent of
computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing.
Engineers primarily manually manufacture parts in the
areas of applied spray coatings, nishes, and other pro-
cesses that cannot economically or practically be done by
a machine.
Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechani-
cal engineering, and by many other branches of engineer-
ing and architecture. Three-dimensional models created
using CAD software are also commonly used in nite el-
ement analysis (FEA) and computational uid dynamics
(CFD).

6.6 Areas of research Composite cloth consisting of woven carbon ber

Mechanical engineers are constantly pushing the bound- Main article: Composite material
aries of what is physically possible in order to produce
safer, cheaper, and more ecient machines and me- Composites or composite materials are a combination of
chanical systems. Some technologies at the cutting edge materials which provide dierent physical characteristics
of mechanical engineering are listed below (see also than either material separately. Composite material re-
exploratory engineering). search within mechanical engineering typically focuses
on designing (and, subsequently, nding applications for)
stronger or more rigid materials while attempting to re-
6.6.1 Micro electro-mechanical systems duce weight, susceptibility to corrosion, and other unde-
(MEMS) sirable factors. Carbon ber reinforced composites, for
instance, have been used in such diverse applications as
Micron-scale mechanical components such as springs, spacecraft and shing rods.
gears, uidic and heat transfer devices are fabricated from
a variety of substrate materials such as silicon, glass and
polymers like SU8. Examples of MEMS components are 6.6.4 Mechatronics
the accelerometers that are used as car airbag sensors,
modern cell phones, gyroscopes for precise positioning Main article: Mechatronics
and microuidic devices used in biomedical applications.
Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of mechani-
6.6.2 Friction stir welding (FSW) cal engineering, electronic engineering, and software en-
gineering. The purpose of this interdisciplinary engineer-
Main article: Friction stir welding ing eld is the study of automation from an engineering
perspective and serves the purposes of controlling ad-
vanced hybrid systems.
Friction stir welding, a new type of welding, was dis-
covered in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI). The
innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique 6.6.5 Nanotechnology
joins materials previously un-weldable, including several
aluminum alloys. It plays an important role in the fu- Main article: Nanotechnology
ture construction of airplanes, potentially replacing riv-
6.7. RELATED FIELDS 65

At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes
nanotechnologyone speculative goal of which is to cre-
ate a molecular assembler to build molecules and ma-
terials via mechanosynthesis. For now that goal re-
mains within exploratory engineering. Areas of current
mechanical engineering research in nanotechnology in-
clude nanolters,[32] nanolms,[33] and nanostructures,[34]
among others.
See also: Picotechnology
response of an anatomy, without being subject to ethi-
cal restrictions.[36] This has led FE modelling to the point
of becoming ubiquitous in several elds of Biomechanics
while several projects have even adopted an open source
philosophy (e.g. BioSpine).
6.6.8 Computational uid dynamics
Main article: Computational uid dynamics

Computational uid dynamics, usually abbreviated as

6.6.6 Finite element analysis CFD, is a branch of uid mechanics that uses numerical
methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems
Main article: Finite element analysis that involve uid ows. Computers are used to perform
the calculations required to simulate the interaction of liq-
uids and gases with surfaces dened by boundary condi-
This eld is not new, as the basis of Finite Element tions. With high-speed supercomputers, better solutions
Analysis (FEA) or Finite Element Method (FEM) dates can be achieved. Ongoing research yields software that
back to 1941. But the evolution of computers has improves the accuracy and speed of complex simulation
made FEA/FEM a viable option for analysis of struc- scenarios such as transonic or turbulent ows. Initial val-
tural problems. Many commercial codes such as ANSYS, idation of such software is performed using a wind tunnel
NASTRAN, and ABAQUS are widely used in industry with the nal validation coming in full-scale testing, e.g.
for research and the design of components. Some 3D ight tests.
modeling and CAD software packages have added FEA
modules. In the recent times, cloud simulation platforms
like SimScale are becoming more common. 6.6.9 Acoustical engineering
Other techniques such as nite dierence method (FDM)
and nite-volume method (FVM) are employed to solve Main article: Acoustical engineering
problems relating heat and mass transfer, uid ows, uid
surface interaction, etc. In recent years meshfree meth- Acoustical engineering is one of many other sub disci-
ods like Nogrid points become more popular in case of plines of mechanical engineering and is the application of
solving problems involving complex geometries, free sur- acoustics. Acoustical engineering is the study of Sound
faces, moving boundaries, and adaptive renement. and Vibration. These engineers work eectively to re-
duce noise pollution in mechanical devices and in build-
ings by soundproong or removing sources of unwanted
6.6.7 Biomechanics noise. The study of acoustics can range from designing
a more ecient hearing aid, microphone, headphone, or
Main article: Biomechanics recording studio to enhancing the sound quality of an or-
chestra hall. Acoustical engineering also deals with the
[37]
Biomechanics is the application of mechanical principles vibration of dierent mechanical systems.
to biological systems, such as humans, animals, plants,
organs, and cells.[35] Biomechanics also aids in creating
prosthetic limbs and articial organs for humans. 6.7 Related elds
Biomechanics is closely related to engineering, because it
often uses traditional engineering sciences to analyse bio- Manufacturing engineering, Aerospace engineering and
logical systems. Some simple applications of Newtonian Automotive engineering are sometimes grouped with me-
mechanics and/or materials sciences can supply correct chanical engineering. A bachelors degree in these ar-
approximations to the mechanics of many biological sys- eas will typically have a dierence of a few specialized
tems. classes.
Over the past decade the Finite element method (FEM)
has also entered the Biomedical sector highlighting fur-
ther engineering aspects of Biomechanics. FEM has
6.8 See also
since then established itself as an alternative to in vivo
surgical assessment and gained the wide acceptance of Lists
academia. The main advantage of Computational Biome-
chanics lies in its ability to determine the endo-anatomical Glossary of mechanical engineering
66 CHAPTER 6. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

List of historic mechanical engineering landmarks 6.9 Notes and references

List of inventors [1] engineering mechanical engineering. The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edi-
List of mechanical engineering topics tion. Retrieved: 19 September 2014.

[2] mechanical engineering. Webster dictionary. Re-

List of mechanical engineers trieved: 19 September 2014.

List of related journals [3] Heron of Alexandria. Encyclopdia Britannica 2010 -

Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Accessed: 9 May 2010.
List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equip- [4] Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in
ment manufacturing companies by revenue China: Volume 4. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.

[5] Al-Jazar. The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechan-

Associations ical Devices: Kitb f ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya.
Springer, 1973. ISBN 90-277-0329-9.

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and [6] Engineering - Encyclopdia Britannica, accessed 6 May
Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 2008

[7] R. A. Buchanan. The Economic History Review, New

American Society of Mechanical Engineers Series, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Feb., 1985), pp. 4260.
(ASME)
[8] ASME history, accessed 6 May 2008.
Pi Tau Sigma (Mechanical Engineering honor soci- [9] The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-07, en-
ety) gineering, accessed 6 May 2008

[10] Mechanical Engineering. Retrieved 8 December 2011.

Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
[11] ABET searchable database of accredited engineering pro-
Society of Women Engineers (SWE) grams, Accessed 11 March 2014.

[12] Accredited engineering programs in Canada by the Cana-

Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) dian Council of Professional Engineers, Accessed 18
(British) April 2007.

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers [13] Types of post-graduate degrees oered at MIT - Accessed
(CIBSE) (British) 19 June 2006.

[14] 2008-2009 ABET Criteria, p. 15.

Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI) (Germany)
[15] University of Tulsa Required ME Courses - Undergradu-
ate Majors and Minors. Department of Mechanical En-
Wikibooks gineering, University of Tulsa, 2010. Accessed: 17 De-
cember 2010.

Engineering Mechanics [16] Harvard Mechanical Engineering Page. Harvard.edu.

Accessed: 19 June 2006.
Engineering Thermodynamics [17] Mechanical Engineering courses, MIT. Accessed 14 June
2008.
Engineering Acoustics
[18] . Apollo Research Institute, Future Work Skills 2020, Ac-
cessed 5 November 2012.
Fluid Mechanics
[19] Aalto University School of Engineering, Design Factory
Heat Transfer - Researchers Blog, Accessed 5 November 2012.

[20] Why Get Licensed?". National Society of Professional

Microtechnology Engineers. Retrieved 6 May 2008.

Nanotechnology [21] Engineers Act. Quebec Statutes and Regulations (Can-

LII). Retrieved 24 July 2005.
Pro/Engineer (ProE CAD) [22] Codes of Ethics and Conduct. Online Ethics Center.
Archived from the original on 19 June 2005. Retrieved
Strength of Materials/Solid Mechanics 24 July 2005.
6.10. FURTHER READING 67

[23] May 2015 National Occupational Employment and Wage

Estimates. U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor
Statistics. Retrieved 3 March 2017.

[24] Occupational Employment and Wages, 17-2141 Mechan-

ical Engineers. U.S. Bureau of Labor, May 2012. Ac-
cessed: 15 February 2014.

[25] Mechanical Engineers. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,

December 17, 2015. Accessed: 3 March 2017.

[26] 2010-11 Edition, Engineers. Bureau of Labor Statistics,

U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Hand-
book, Accessed: 9 May 2010.

[27] Note: uid mechanics can be further split into uid statics
and uid dynamics, and is itself a subdiscipline of con-
tinuum mechanics. The application of uid mechanics in
engineering is called hydraulics and pneumatics.

[28] ASM International's site containing more than 20,000

searchable documents, including articles from the ASM
Handbook series and Advanced Materials & Processes

[29] Advances in Friction Stir Welding for Aerospace Appli-

cations

[30] PROPOSAL NUMBER: 08-1 A1.02-9322 - NASA 2008

SBIR

[31] Military Applications.

[32] Nilsen, Kyle. (2011) Development of Low Pressure Fil-

ter Testing Vessel and Analysis of Electrospun Nanober
Membranes for Water Treatment

[33] Mechanical Characterization of Aluminium Nanolms,

Microelectronic Engineering, Volume 88, Issue 5, May
2011, pp. 844847.

[34] http://www.cise.columbia.edu/nsec/ Columbia University

and National Science Foundation, Accessed 20 June 2012.

[35] R. McNeill Alexander (2005) Mechanics of animal

movement, Current Biology Volume 15, Issue 16, 23 Au-
gust 2005, pp. R616-R619.

[36] Tsouknidas, A., Savvakis, S., Asaniotis, Y., Anagnos-

tidis, K., Lontos, A., Michailidis, N. (2013) The eect
of kyphoplasty parameters on the dynamic load transfer
within the lumbar spine considering the response of a bio-
realistic spine segment. Clinical Biomechanics 28 (9-10),
pp. 949-955.

[37] What is the Job Description of an Acoustic Engineer?".

learn.org.

6.10 Further reading

Burstall, Aubrey F. (1965). A History of Mechanical
Engineering. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-52001-
X.
Marks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engi-
neers (11 ed.). McGraw-Hill. 2007. ISBN
9780071428675.
Chapter 7

Science

This article is about the general term. For other uses, see
Science (disambiguation).

Science[nb 1][1]:58[2] is a systematic enterprise that builds

and organizes knowledge in the form of testable
explanations and predictions about the universe.[nb 2]
Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the
natural sciences, which study the material universe; the
social sciences, which study people and societies; and the
formal sciences, which study logic and mathematics. The
formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend
on empirical observations.[3] Disciplines which use sci-
ence, like engineering and medicine, may also be consid-
ered to be applied sciences.[4] The scale of the universe mapped to the branches of science, with
[14]: Vol.1, Chaps.1,2,&3.
From classical antiquity through the 19th century, sci- formal sciences as the foundation.
ence as a type of knowledge was more closely linked
to philosophy than it is now, and in the Western world
the term "natural philosophy" once encompassed elds
of study that are today associated with science, such as
astronomy, medicine, and physics.[5][nb 3] However, dur- 7.1 History
ing the Islamic Golden Age foundations for the scientic
method were laid by Ibn al-Haytham in his Book of Op-
tics.[6][7][8][9][10] While the classication of the material
Main article: History of science
world by the ancient Indians and Greeks into air, earth,
re and water was more philosophical, medieval Middle
Easterns used practical and experimental observation to Science in a broad sense existed before the modern era
classify materials.[11] and in many historical civilizations.[nb 4] Modern science
is distinct in its approach and successful in its results, so
In the 17th and 18th centuries, scientists increasingly
it now denes what science is in the strictest sense of the
sought to formulate knowledge in terms of physical laws.
term.[15]
Over the course of the 19th century, the word science
became increasingly associated with the scientic method Science in its original sense was a word for a type of
itself as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It knowledge rather than a specialized word for the pur-
was during this time that scientic disciplines such as suit of such knowledge. In particular, it was the type of
biology, chemistry, and physics reached their modern knowledge which people can communicate to each other
shapes. That same time period also included the origin and share. For example, knowledge about the working of
of the terms "scientist" and "scientic community", the natural things was gathered long before recorded history
founding of scientic institutions, and the increasing sig- and led to the development of complex abstract thought.
nicance of their interactions with society and other as- This is shown by the construction of complex calendars,
pects of culture.[12][13] techniques for making poisonous plants edible, and build-
ings such as the Pyramids. However, no consistent con-
scientious distinction was made between knowledge of
such things, which are true in every community, and other
types of communal knowledge, such as mythologies and
legal systems.

68
7.1. HISTORY 69

7.1.1 Antiquity
See also: Nature (philosophy)
Before the invention or discovery of the concept of

Maize, known in some English-speaking countries as corn,

is a large grain plant domesticated by indigenous peoples in
Mesoamerica in prehistoric times

"nature" (ancient Greek phusis) by the Pre-Socratic

philosophers, the same words tend to be used to de-
scribe the natural way in which a plant grows,[16]
and the way in which, for example, one tribe wor- Aristotle, 384 BCE 322 BCE, one of the early gures in the
ships a particular god. For this reason, it is claimed development of the scientic method[20]
these men were the rst philosophers in the strict sense,
and also the rst people to clearly distinguish nature
and convention.[17]: p.209 Science was therefore distin-
guished as the knowledge of nature and things which
are true for every community, and the name of the spe-
cialized pursuit of such knowledge was philosophy
the realm of the rst philosopher-physicists. They were
ecuted as a heretic.[21]: 30e Aristotle later created a less
mainly speculators or theorists, particularly interested in
astronomy. In contrast, trying to use knowledge of nature controversial systematic programme of Socratic philoso-
to imitate nature (artice or technology, Greek techn) phy which was teleological and human-centred. He re-
was seen by classical scientists as a more appropriate in-jected many of the conclusions of earlier scientists. For
terest for lower class artisans.[18] A clear-cut distinction
example, in his physics, the sun goes around the earth,
between formal (eon) and empirical science (doxa) was and many things have it as part of their nature that they
made by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides (. late are for humans. Each thing has a formal cause and nal
sixth or early fth century BCE). Although his work Peri cause and a role in the rational cosmic order. Motion and
Physeos (On Nature) is a poem, it may be viewed as an change is described as the actualization of potentials al-
epistemological essay on method in natural science. Par- ready in things, according to what types of things they
menides may refer to a formal system or calculus are. While the Socratics insisted that philosophy should
which can describe nature more precisely than natural be used to consider the practical question of the best way
languages. Physis may be identical to .[19] to live for a human being (a study Aristotle divided into
A major turning point in the history of early philosoph- ethics and political philosophy), they did not argue for
ical science was the controversial but successful attempt any other types of applied science.
by Socrates to apply philosophy to the study of human Aristotle maintained the sharp distinction between sci-
things, including human nature, the nature of political ence and the practical knowledge of artisans, treating the-
communities, and human knowledge itself. He criticized oretical speculation as the highest type of human activ-
the older type of study of physics as too purely specu- ity, practical thinking about good living as something less
lative and lacking in self-criticism. He was particularly lofty, and the knowledge of artisans as something only
concerned that some of the early physicists treated na- suitable for the lower classes. In contrast to modern sci-
ture as if it could be assumed that it had no intelligent ence, Aristotles inuential emphasis was upon the the-
order, explaining things merely in terms of motion and oretical steps of deducing universal rules from raw data
matter. The study of human things had been the realm and did not treat the gathering of experience and raw data
of mythology and tradition, however, so Socrates was ex- as part of science itself.[nb 5]
70
De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor Reisch (1504) Margarita
philosophica. Medieval science postulated a ventricle of the
brain as the location for our common sense,[22] where the forms phasizing experimental data.
from our sensory systems commingled.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), 9651039 Basra, Buyid Emirate.
The Muslim scholar who is considered by some to be the father
of modern scientic methodology due to his emphasis on experi-
mental data and reproducibility of its results.[23][nb 6]
CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE
7.1.2 Medieval science
During late antiquity and the early Middle Ages, the
Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenom-
ena was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in
some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Ro-
man Empire and periodic political struggles. However,
the general elds of science (or "natural philosophy" as
it was called) and much of the general knowledge from
the ancient world remained preserved through the works
of the early Latin encyclopedists like Isidore of Seville.
In the Byzantine empire, many Greek science texts were
preserved in Syriac translations done by groups such as
the Nestorians and Monophysites.[24] Many of these were
later on translated into Arabic under the Caliphate, dur-
ing which many types of classical learning were preserved
and in some cases improved upon.[24][nb 7]
The House of Wisdom was established in Abbasid-era
Baghdad, Iraq.[25] It is considered to have been a ma-
jor intellectual center during the Islamic Golden Age,
where Muslim scholars such as al-Kindi and Ibn Sahl in
Baghdad and Ibn al-Haytham in Cairo ourished from the
ninth to the thirteenth centuries until the Mongol sack of
Baghdad. Ibn al-Haytham, known later to the West as
Alhazen, furthered the Aristotelian viewpoint[26] by em-
[nb 8][27]
In the later medieval period, as demand for translations
grew (for example, from the Toledo School of Transla-
tors), western Europeans began collecting texts written
not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek,
Arabic, and Hebrew. In particular, the texts of Aristo-
tle, Ptolemy,[nb 9] and Euclid, preserved in the Houses
of Wisdom, were sought amongst Catholic scholars. In
Europe, the Latin translation of Alhazens Book of Op-
tics directly inuenced Roger Bacon (13th century) in
England, who argued for more experimental science as
demonstrated by Alhazen. By the late Middle Ages, a
synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as
Scholasticism was ourishing in western Europe, which
had become a new geographic center of science, but all
aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and
16th centuries.
7.1.3 Renaissance and early modern sci-
ence
Main article: Scientic revolution
Medieval science carried on the views of the Hellenist
civilization of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, as shown by
Alhazens lost work A Book in which I have Summarized
the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and
Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First
Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemys Book from Ibn
Abi Usaibia's catalog, as cited in (Smith 2001).:91(vol.1),p.xv
Alhazen conclusively disproved Ptolemys theory of vi-
sion, but he retained Aristotles ontology; Roger Bacon,
7.1. HISTORY
Galen (129c. 216) noted the optic chiasm is X-shaped. (En-
graving from Vesalius, 1543)
Vitello, and John Peckham each built up a scholastic on-
tology upon Alhazens Book of Optics, a causal chain be-
ginning with sensation, perception, and nally appercep-
tion of the individual and universal forms of Aristotle.[28]
This model of vision became known as Perspectivism,
which was exploited and studied by the artists of the Re-
naissance.
Galileo Galilei, father of modern science.[29]: Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36 sions of Aristotelian "energeia and potentia"). In the style
A. Mark Smith points out the perspectivist theory of vi- work according to the same general laws of nature, with
sion, which pivots on three of Aristotles four causes, for- no special formal or nal causes for each type of thing.
71
mal, material, and nal, is remarkably economical, rea-
sonable, and coherent.[30] Although Alhacen knew that
a scene imaged through an aperture is inverted, he ar-
gued that vision is about perception. This was overturned
by Kepler,[31]:p.102 who modelled the eye as a water-lled
glass sphere with an aperture in front of it to model the
entrance pupil. He found that all the light from a single
point of the scene was imaged at a single point at the back
of the glass sphere. The optical chain ends on the retina
at the back of the eye and the image is inverted.[nb 10]
Copernicus formulated a heliocentric model of the so-
lar system unlike the geocentric model of Ptolemy's
Almagest.
Galileo made innovative use of experiment and mathe-
matics. However, he became persecuted after Pope Ur-
ban VIII blessed Galileo to write about the Copernican
system. Galileo had used arguments from the Pope and
put them in the voice of the simpleton in the work Dia-
logue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which
greatly oended him.[32]
In Northern Europe, the new technology of the printing
press was widely used to publish many arguments, includ-
ing some that disagreed widely with contemporary ideas
of nature. Ren Descartes and Francis Bacon published
philosophical arguments in favor of a new type of non-
Aristotelian science. Descartes argued that mathematics
could be used in order to study nature, as Galileo had
done, and Bacon emphasized the importance of exper-
iment over contemplation. Bacon questioned the Aris-
totelian concepts of formal cause and nal cause, and pro-
moted the idea that science should study the laws of sim-
ple natures, such as heat, rather than assuming that there
is any specic nature, or "formal cause, of each complex
type of thing. This new modern science began to see itself
as describing "laws of nature". This updated approach to
studies in nature was seen as mechanistic. Bacon also ar-
gued that science should aim for the rst time at practical
inventions for the improvement of all human life.
7.1.4 Age of Enlightenment
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the project of modernity,
as had been promoted by Bacon and Descartes, led to
rapid scientic advance and the successful development
of a new type of natural science, mathematical, method-
ically experimental, and deliberately innovative. Newton
and Leibniz succeeded in developing a new physics, now
referred to as classical mechanics, which could be con-
rmed by experiment and explained using mathemat-
ics. Leibniz also incorporated terms from Aristotelian
physics, but now being used in a new non-teleological
way, for example, "energy" and "potential" (modern ver-
of Bacon, he assumed that dierent types of things all
72 CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE

Charles Darwin in 1854, by then working towards publication of

Isaac Newton, shown here in a 1689 portrait, made seminal con- On the Origin of Species
tributions to classical mechanics, gravity, and optics. Newton
shares credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of cal-
culus.

It is during this period that the word science gradually

became more commonly used to refer to a type of pursuit
of a type of knowledge, especially knowledge of nature
coming close in meaning to the old term "natural phi-
losophy.

7.1.5 19th century

Both John Herschel and William Whewell systematized

methodology: the latter coined the term scientist.[33]
When Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species
he established evolution as the prevailing explanation
of biological complexity. His theory of natural selec-
tion provided a natural explanation of how species orig-
inated, but this only gained wide acceptance a century
later. John Dalton developed the idea of atoms. The
laws of thermodynamics and the electromagnetic theory
were also established in the 19th century, which raised
new questions which could not easily be answered using
Newtons framework. The phenomena that would allow Combustion and chemical reactions were studied by Michael
the deconstruction of the atom were discovered in the last Faraday and reported in his lectures before the Royal Institution:
decade of the 19th century: the discovery of X-rays in- The Chemical History of a Candle, 1861
spired the discovery of radioactivity. In the next year
came the discovery of the rst subatomic particle, the
electron.
7.1. HISTORY 73

11

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

A simulated event in the CMS detector of the Large Hadron Col- 3
lider, featuring a possible appearance of the Higgs boson
2

7.1.6 20th century and beyond 1

Einstein's theory of relativity and the development of 0
quantum mechanics led to the replacement of classical cosmic expansion
mechanics with a new physics which contains two parts Earliest light
that describe dierent types of events in nature. cosmic speed-up
In the rst half of the century, the development of Solar System
articial fertilizer made global human population growth water
possible. At the same time, the structure of the atom Single-celled life
and its nucleus was discovered, leading to the release of photosynthesis
"atomic energy" (nuclear power). In addition, the exten- Multicellular
sive use of scientic innovation stimulated by the wars life
of this century led to antibiotics and increased life ex- Land life
pectancy, revolutions in transportation (automobiles and Earliest gravity
aircraft), the development of ICBMs, a space race, and a Dark energy
nuclear arms race, all giving a widespread public appre- Dark matter
ciation of the importance of modern science.
Earliest universe (13.80)
Widespread use of integrated circuits in the last quarter
of the 20th century combined with communications satel- Earliest galaxy
lites led to a revolution in information technology and the
rise of the global internet and mobile computing, includ- Earliest quasar
ing smartphones.
More recently, it has been argued that the ultimate pur- Omega Centauri forms
pose of science is to make sense of human beings and
our nature. For example, in his book Consilience, E. O. Andromeda Galaxy forms
Wilson said: The human condition is the most important
frontier of the natural sciences.[1]:334 Milky Way Galaxy
spiral arms form

Alpha Centauri forms
7.1.7 Scientic method

Earliest Earth (4.54)
Nature timeline

view discuss
Earliest life
13

Earliest oxygen
12
74 CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE

commonly, a large number of hypotheses can be logically

Atmospheric oxygen bound together by a single theory. Thus a theory is a
hypothesis explaining various other hypotheses. In that
Earliest sexual reproduction vein, theories are formulated according to most of the
same scientic principles as hypotheses. In addition to
Cambrian explosion testing hypotheses, scientists may also generate a model,
an attempt to describe or depict the phenomenon in terms
Earliest humans of a logical, physical or mathematical representation and
to generate new hypotheses that can be tested, based on
observable phenomena.[35]
L While performing experiments to test hypotheses, scien-
i tists may have a preference for one outcome over another,
f and so it is important to ensure that science as a whole can
e eliminate this bias.[36][37] This can be achieved by careful
experimental design, transparency, and a thorough peer
P review process of the experimental results as well as any
r conclusions.[38][39] After the results of an experiment are
i announced or published, it is normal practice for indepen-
m dent researchers to double-check how the research was
o performed, and to follow up by performing similar ex-
r periments to determine how dependable the results might
d be.[40] Taken in its entirety, the scientic method allows
i for highly creative problem solving while minimizing any
a eects of subjective bias on the part of its users (espe-
l cially the conrmation bias).[41]

Axis scale: billions of years.

Also see: Human timeline and Life timeline 7.1.8 Mathematics and formal sciences
Main article: Scientic method
Main article: Mathematics
Mathematics is essential to the sciences. One important
The scientic method seeks to explain the events of
nature in a reproducible way.[nb 11] An explanatory
thought experiment or hypothesis is put forward as ex-
planation using principles such as parsimony (also known
as "Occams Razor") and are generally expected to seek
consiliencetting well with other accepted facts related
to the phenomena.[1] This new explanation is used to
make falsiable predictions that are testable by experi-
ment or observation. The predictions are to be posted
A AB B
before a conrming experiment or observation is sought,
as proof that no tampering has occurred. Disproof of
a prediction is evidence of progress.[nb 12][nb 13] This is
done partly through observation of natural phenomena,
but also through experimentation that tries to simulate
natural events under controlled conditions as appropriate
to the discipline (in the observational sciences, such as as- A Venn diagram illustrating the intersection of two sets.
tronomy or geology, a predicted observation might take
the place of a controlled experiment). Experimentation function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in
is especially important in science to help establish causal the expression of scientic models. Observing and col-
relationships (to avoid the correlation fallacy). lecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and pre-
When a hypothesis proves unsatisfactory, it is either mod- dicting, often require extensive use of mathematics. For
ied or discarded.[34] If the hypothesis survived testing, example, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry,
it may become adopted into the framework of a scientic and calculus are all essential to physics. Virtually every
theory, a logically reasoned, self-consistent model or branch of mathematics has applications in science, in-
framework for describing the behavior of certain natu- cluding pure areas such as number theory and topology.
ral phenomena. A theory typically describes the behav- Statistical methods, which are mathematical techniques
ior of much broader sets of phenomena than a hypothesis; for summarizing and analyzing data, allow scientists to
7.2. SCIENTIFIC COMMUNITY
assess the level of reliability and the range of variation 7.2.1 Branches and elds
in experimental results. Statistical analysis plays a fun-
damental role in many areas of both the natural sciences Main article: Branches of science
and social sciences.
Computational science applies computing power to sim-
ulate real-world situations, enabling a better understand-
ing of scientic problems than formal mathematics alone
can achieve. According to the Society for Industrial
and Applied Mathematics, computation is now as im-
portant as theory and experiment in advancing scientic
knowledge.[42]
A great amount of interest was taken in the study of
formal logic in the early 20th century among mathe-
maticians and philosophers with the rise of set theory
and its use for the foundations of mathematics. No-
table mathematicians and philosophers who contributed
to this eld include: Gottlob Frege, Giuseppe Peano,
George Boole, Ernst Zermelo, Abraham Fraenkel, David
Hilbert, Bertrand Russell, and Alfred Whitehead among
many others. Various axiomatic systems such as Peano
arithmetic, the ZermeloFraenkel system of set theory,
as well as the system in Principia Mathematica, were
thought by many to prove the foundations of math. How-
ever, in 1931, with the publication of Kurt Gdels
incompleteness theorem, much of their eorts were
undermined.[43] Formal logic is still studied today at uni-
versities by students of mathematics, philosophy, and
computer science. For example, boolean algebra is
employed by all modern computers to function, and
thus is an extremely useful branch of knowledge for
programmers.
Whether mathematics itself is properly classied as sci-
ence has been a matter of some debate. Some thinkers
see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical ex-
periments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equiv-
alent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as
a science because it does not require an experimental test
of its theories and hypotheses. Mathematical theorems
and formulas are obtained by logical derivations which
presume axiomatic systems, rather than the combination
of empirical observation and logical reasoning that has
come to be known as the scientic method. In general,
mathematics is classied as formal science, while natural
and social sciences are classied as empirical sciences.[44]
7.2 Scientic community
Main article: Scientic community
The scientic community is the group of all interacting
scientists. It includes many sub-communities working
on particular scientic elds, and within particular insti- 7.2.2 Institutions
tutions; interdisciplinary and cross-institutional activities
are also signicant.
75
Scientic elds are commonly divided into two major
somatomotor cortex somatosensory cortex
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
occipital lobe
cerebellum
temporal lobe
medulla oblongata
spinal cord
The somatosensory system is located throughout our bodies but
is integrated in the brain.
groups: natural sciences, which study natural phenom-
ena (including biological life), and social sciences, which
study human behavior and societies. These are both
empirical sciences, which means their knowledge must
be based on observable phenomena and capable of being
tested for its validity by other researchers working un-
der the same conditions.[45] There are also related disci-
plines that are grouped into interdisciplinary applied sci-
ences, such as engineering and medicine. Within these
categories are specialized scientic elds that can include
parts of other scientic disciplines but often possess their
own nomenclature and expertise.[46]
Mathematics, which is classied as a formal sci-
ence,[47][48] has both similarities and dierences with
the empirical sciences (the natural and social sciences).
It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an
objective, careful and systematic study of an area of
knowledge; it is dierent because of its method of ver-
ifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empiri-
cal methods.[49] The formal sciences, which also include
statistics and logic, are vital to the empirical sciences.
Major advances in formal science have often led to major
advances in the empirical sciences. The formal sciences
are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and
laws,[50] both in discovering and describing how things
work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (so-
cial sciences).
Apart from its broad meaning, the word science some-
times may specically refer to fundamental sciences
(maths and natural sciences) alone. Science schools or
faculties within many institutions are separate from those
for medicine or engineering, each of which is an applied
science.
Learned societies for the communication and promotion
76 CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE

of scientic thought and experimentation have existed Recent eorts to intensify or develop links between sci-
since the Renaissance period.[51] The oldest surviving in- ence and non-scientic disciplines such as literature or
stitution is the Italian Accademia dei Lincei which was es- more specically, poetry, include the Creative Writing
tablished in 1603.[52] The respective National Academies Science resource developed through the Royal Literary
of Science are distinguished institutions that exist in a Fund.[58]
number of countries, beginning with the British Royal So-
ciety in 1660[53] and the French Acadmie des Sciences in
1666.[54] 7.3 Science and society
International scientic organizations, such as the
International Council for Science, have since been
7.3.1 Women in science
formed to promote cooperation between the scientic
communities of dierent nations. Many governments
Main article: Women in science
have dedicated agencies to support scientic research.
Science has historically been a male-dominated eld,
Prominent scientic organizations include the National
Science Foundation in the U.S., the National Scientic
and Technical Research Council in Argentina, CSIRO
in Australia, Centre national de la recherche scienti-
que in France, the Max Planck Society and Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft in Germany, and CSIC in
Spain.

7.2.3 Literature

Main article: Scientic literature

An enormous range of scientic literature is published.[55]

Scientic journals communicate and document the results
of research carried out in universities and various other
research institutions, serving as an archival record of sci-
ence. The rst scientic journals, Journal des Savans
followed by the Philosophical Transactions, began publi-
cation in 1665. Since that time the total number of ac-
tive periodicals has steadily increased. In 1981, one esti-
mate for the number of scientic and technical journals
in publication was 11,500.[56] The United States National
Library of Medicine currently indexes 5,516 journals that
contain articles on topics related to the life sciences. Al-
Marie Curie was the rst person to be awarded two Nobel Prizes:
though the journals are in 39 languages, 91 percent of the Physics in 1903 and Chemistry in 1911[59]
indexed articles are published in English.[57]
Most scientic journals cover a single scientic eld and with some notable exceptions.[nb 14] Women faced consid-
publish the research within that eld; the research is nor- erable discrimination in science, much as they did in other
mally expressed in the form of a scientic paper. Science areas of male-dominated societies, such as frequently be-
has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is gen- ing passed over for job opportunities and denied credit
erally considered necessary to communicate the achieve- for their work.[nb 15] For example, Christine Ladd (1847
ments, news, and ambitions of scientists to a wider pop- 1930) was able to enter a PhD program as C. Ladd";
ulace. Christine Kitty Ladd completed the requirements in
Science magazines such as New Scientist, Science & Vie, 1882, but was awarded her degree only in 1926, after a
and Scientic American cater to the needs of a much wider career which spanned the algebra of logic (see truth ta-
readership and provide a non-technical summary of pop- ble), color vision, and psychology. Her work preceded
ular areas of research, including notable discoveries and notable researchers like Ludwig Wittgenstein and Charles
advances in certain elds of research. Science books en- Sanders Peirce. The achievements of women in science
gage the interest of many more people. Tangentially, the have been attributed to their deance of their traditional
science ction genre, primarily fantastic in nature, en- role as laborers within the domestic sphere.[60]
gages the public imagination and transmits the ideas, if In the late 20th century, active recruitment of women and
not the methods, of science. elimination of institutional discrimination on the basis of
7.3. SCIENCE AND SOCIETY 77

sex greatly increased the number of women scientists, but the public.
large gender disparities remain in some elds; over half of State policy has inuenced the funding of public works
new biologists are female, while 80% of PhDs in physics and science for thousands of years, dating at least from the
are given to men. Feminists claim this is the result of cul- time of the Mohists, who inspired the study of logic dur-
ture rather than an innate dierence between the sexes, ing the period of the Hundred Schools of Thought, and
and some experiments have shown that parents challenge the study of defensive fortications during the Warring
and explain more to boys than girls, asking them to reect States period in China. In Great Britain, governmental
more deeply and logically.[61]: 258261. In the early part approval of the Royal Society in the 17th century rec-
of the 21st century, in America, women earned 50.3%
ognized a scientic community which exists to this day.
bachelors degrees, 45.6% masters degrees, and 40.7% The professionalization of science, begun in the 19th cen-
of PhDs in science and engineering elds with women
tury, was partly enabled by the creation of scientic or-
earning more than half of the degrees in three elds: Psy- ganizations such as the National Academy of Sciences,
chology (about 70%), Social Sciences (about 50%), and
the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute, and state funding of uni-
Biology (about 50-60%). However, when it comes to versities of their respective nations. Public policy can di-
the Physical Sciences, Geosciences, Math, Engineering,
rectly aect the funding of capital equipment and intel-
and Computer Science, women earned less than half the lectual infrastructure for industrial research by providing
degrees.[62] However, lifestyle choice also plays a major tax incentives to those organizations that fund research.
role in female engagement in science; women with young Vannevar Bush, director of the Oce of Scientic Re-
children are 28% less likely to take tenure-track positions search and Development for the United States govern-
due to work-life balance issues,[63] and female graduate ment, the forerunner of the National Science Foundation,
students interest in careers in research declines dramati- wrote in July 1945 that Science is a proper concern of
cally over the course of graduate school, whereas that of government.[65]
their male colleagues remains unchanged.[64]
Science and technology research is often funded through
a competitive process in which potential research projects
7.3.2 Science policy are evaluated and only the most promising receive fund-
ing. Such processes, which are run by government, cor-
Main articles: Science policy, History of science policy, porations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. To-
Funding of science, and Economics of science tal research funding in most developed countries is be-
[66]
Science policy is an area of public policy concerned tween 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around
two-thirds of research and development in scientic and
technical elds is carried out by industry, and 20%
and 10% respectively by universities and government.
The government funding proportion in certain industries
is higher, and it dominates research in social science
and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g.
biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds
for basic scientic research. In commercial research and
development, all but the most research-oriented corpora-
tions focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation
possibilities rather than "blue-sky" ideas or technologies
(such as nuclear fusion).

President Clinton meets the 1998 U.S. Nobel Prize winners in the
White House

with the policies that aect the conduct of the scien-

tic enterprise, including research funding, often in pur-
suance of other national policy goals such as technologi-
cal innovation to promote commercial product develop-
ment, weapons development, health care and environ-
mental monitoring. Science policy also refers to the act of
applying scientic knowledge and consensus to the devel-
opment of public policies. Science policy thus deals with
the entire domain of issues that involve the natural sci-
ences. In accordance with public policy being concerned
about the well-being of its citizens, science policys goal
is to consider how science and technology can best serve
7.3.3 Media perspectives
The mass media face a number of pressures that can pre-
vent them from accurately depicting competing scientic
claims in terms of their credibility within the scientic
community as a whole. Determining how much weight
to give dierent sides in a scientic debate may require
considerable expertise regarding the matter.[67] Few jour-
nalists have real scientic knowledge, and even beat re-
porters who know a great deal about certain scientic is-
sues may be ignorant about other scientic issues that they
are suddenly asked to cover.[68][69]
78
7.3.4 Political usage
See also: Politicization of science
Many issues damage the relationship of science to the consciousness is the most basic
media and the use of science and scientic arguments
by politicians. As a very broad generalisation, many
politicians seek certainties and facts whilst scientists typ- minds.
ically oer probabilities and caveats. However, politi-
cians ability to be heard in the mass media frequently
distorts the scientic understanding by the public. Exam-
ples in the United Kingdom include the controversy over
the MMR inoculation, and the 1988 forced resignation of
a Government Minister, Edwina Currie, for revealing the
high probability that battery farmed eggs were contami-
nated with Salmonella.[70]
John Horgan, Chris Mooney, and researchers from the
US and Canada have described Scientic Certainty Ar-
gumentation Methods (SCAMs), where an organization
or think tank makes it their only goal to cast doubt
on supported science because it conicts with political
agendas.[71][72][73][74] Hank Campbell and microbiologist
Alex Berezow have described feel-good fallacies used
in politics, especially on the left, where politicians frame
their positions in a way that makes people feel good about
supporting certain policies even when scientic evidence
shows there is no need to worry or there is no need for dra-
matic change on current programs.[75]: Vol. 78, No. 1. 238
7.3.5 Science and the public
Various activities are developed to facilitate communi-
cation between the general public and science/scientists,
such as science outreach, public awareness of science,
science communication, science festivals, citizen science,
science journalism, public science, and popular science.
See Science and the public for related concepts.
Science is represented by the 'S' in STEM elds.
7.4 Philosophy of science
See also: Philosophy of science
Working scientists usually take for granted a set of ba-
sic assumptions that are needed to justify the scientic
method: (1) that there is an objective reality shared
by all rational observers; (2) that this objective real-
ity is governed by natural laws; (3) that these laws
can be discovered by means of systematic observation
and experimentation.[15] Philosophy of science seeks a
deep understanding of what these underlying assumptions
mean and whether they are valid.
The belief that scientic theories should and do repre-
sent metaphysical reality is known as realism. It can
CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE
be contrasted with anti-realism, the view that the suc-
cess of science does not depend on it being accurate
about unobservable entities such as electrons. One form
of anti-realism is idealism, the belief that the mind or
essence, and that each
[nb 16]
mind generates its own reality. In an idealistic world
view, what is true for one mind need not be true for other
The Sand Reckoner is a work by Archimedes in which he sets out
to determine an upper bound for the number of grains of sand
that t into the universe. In order to do this, he had to estimate
the size of the universe according to the contemporary model, and
invent a way to analyze extremely large numbers.
There are dierent schools of thought in philosophy of
science. The most popular position is empiricism,[nb 17]
which holds that knowledge is created by a process in-
volving observation and that scientic theories are the
result of generalizations from such observations.[76] Em-
piricism generally encompasses inductivism, a position
that tries to explain the way general theories can be jus-
tied by the nite number of observations humans can
make and hence the nite amount of empirical evidence
available to conrm scientic theories. This is necessary
because the number of predictions those theories make
is innite, which means that they cannot be known from
the nite amount of evidence using deductive logic only.
Many versions of empiricism exist, with the predom-
inant ones being Bayesianism[77] and the hypothetico-
deductive method.[78]:p236
Empiricism has stood in contrast to rationalism, the po-
sition originally associated with Descartes, which holds
that knowledge is created by the human intellect, not
by observation.[78]:p20 Critical rationalism is a contrast-
ing 20th-century approach to science, rst dened by
Austrian-British philosopher Karl Popper. Popper re-
jected the way that empiricism describes the connection
between theory and observation. He claimed that theories
are not generated by observation, but that observation is
made in the light of theories and that the only way a theory
can be aected by observation is when it comes in con-
ict with it.[78]:pp637 Popper proposed replacing veria-
bility with falsiability as the landmark of scientic the-
ories and replacing induction with falsication as the em-
pirical method.[78]:p68 Popper further claimed that there
7.4. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 79

is actually only one universal method, not specic to sci- 7.4.1 Certainty and science
ence: the negative method of criticism, trial and error.[79]
It covers all products of the human mind, including sci-
ence, mathematics, philosophy, and art.[80]
Another approach, instrumentalism, colloquially termed
shut up and multiply,[81] emphasizes the utility of
theories as instruments for explaining and predicting
phenomena.[82] It views scientic theories as black boxes
with only their input (initial conditions) and output (pre-
dictions) being relevant. Consequences, theoretical en-
tities, and logical structure are claimed to be something
that should simply be ignored and that scientists shouldn't
make a fuss about (see interpretations of quantum me-
chanics). Close to instrumentalism is constructive em-
piricism, according to which the main criterion for the
success of a scientic theory is whether what it says about
observable entities is true.
Paul Feyerabend advanced the idea of epistemological
anarchism, which holds that there are no useful
and exception-free methodological rules governing the
progress of science or the growth of knowledge and that
the idea that science can or should operate according to
universal and xed rules are unrealistic, pernicious and
detrimental to science itself.[83] Feyerabend advocates
treating science as an ideology alongside others such as
religion, magic, and mythology, and considers the dom-
inance of science in society authoritarian and unjusti-
ed. He also contended (along with Imre Lakatos) that
the demarcation problem of distinguishing science from
pseudoscience on objective grounds is not possible and
thus fatal to the notion of science running according to
xed, universal rules.[83] Feyerabend also stated that sci-
ence does not have evidence for its philosophical pre-
cepts, particularly the notion of uniformity of law and The DNA double helix is a molecule that encodes the genetic in-
process across time and space.[84] structions used in the development and functioning of all known
Finally, another approach often cited in debates of living organisms and many viruses.
scientic skepticism against controversial movements like
"creation science" is methodological naturalism. Its main A scientic theory is empirical[nb 17][86] and is always
point is that a dierence between natural and supernatural open to falsication if new evidence is presented. That
explanations should be made and that science should be is, no theory is ever considered strictly certain as science
restricted methodologically to natural explanations.[nb 18] accepts the concept of fallibilism.[nb 19] The philosopher
That the restriction is merely methodological (rather of science Karl Popper sharply distinguished truth from
than ontological) means that science should not consider certainty. He wrote that scientic knowledge consists
supernatural explanations itself, but should not claim in the search for truth, but it is not the search for cer-
them to be wrong either. Instead, supernatural explana- tainty ... All human knowledge is fallible and therefore
tions should be left a matter of personal belief outside uncertain.[87]:p4
the scope of science. Methodological naturalism main- New scientic knowledge rarely results in vast changes
tains that proper science requires strict adherence to in our understanding. According to psychologist Keith
empirical study and independent verication as a pro- Stanovich, it may be the medias overuse of words like
cess for properly developing and evaluating explanations breakthrough that leads the public to imagine that sci-
for observable phenomena.[85] The absence of these stan- ence is constantly proving everything it thought was true
dards, arguments from authority, biased observational to be false.[88]:119138 While there are such famous cases
studies and other common fallacies are frequently cited as the theory of relativity that required a complete recon-
by supporters of methodological naturalism as character- ceptualization, these are extreme exceptions. Knowledge
istic of the non-science they criticize. in science is gained by a gradual synthesis of informa-
tion from dierent experiments by various researchers
across dierent branches of science; it is more like a
80 CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE

climb than a leap.[88]:123 Theories vary in the extent to credit for a discovery to the wrong person.[95]
which they have been tested and veried, as well as
their acceptance in the scientic community.[nb 20] For
example, heliocentric theory, the theory of evolution, 7.5 Scientic practice
relativity theory, and germ theory still bear the name
theory even though, in practice, they are considered
factual.[89] Philosopher Barry Stroud adds that, although
the best denition for "knowledge" is contested, being
skeptical and entertaining the possibility that one is incor-
rect is compatible with being correct. Ironically, then,
the scientist adhering to proper scientic approaches will
doubt themselves even once they possess the truth.[90] The
fallibilist C. S. Peirce argued that inquiry is the strug-
gle to resolve actual doubt and that merely quarrelsome,
verbal, or hyperbolic doubt is fruitless[91] but also that
the inquirer should try to attain genuine doubt rather than
resting uncritically on common sense.[92] He held that the
successful sciences trust not to any single chain of infer-
ence (no stronger than its weakest link) but to the cable of
multiple and various arguments intimately connected.[93]
Stanovich also asserts that science avoids searching for
a magic bullet"; it avoids the single-cause fallacy. This
means a scientist would not ask merely What is the cause
of ..., but rather What are the most signicant causes of
.... This is especially the case in the more macroscopic
elds of science (e.g. psychology, physical cosmol-
ogy).[88]:141147 Of course, research often analyzes few
factors at once, but these are always added to the long list
of factors that are most important to consider.[88]:141147
For example, knowing the details of only a persons genet-
ics, or their history and upbringing, or the current situa-
tion may not explain a behavior, but a deep understanding
of all these variables combined can be very predictive.
Astronomy became much more accurate after Tycho Brahe de-
vised his scientic instruments for measuring angles between two
celestial bodies, before the invention of the telescope. Brahes
7.4.2 Fringe science, pseudoscience, and observations were the basis for Keplers laws.
junk science
Although encyclopedias such as Plinys (. 77 AD)
An area of study or speculation that masquerades as sci- Natural History oered purported fact, they proved un-
ence in an attempt to claim a legitimacy that it would reliable. A skeptical point of view, demanding a method
not otherwise be able to achieve is sometimes referred to of proof, was the practical position taken to deal with un-
as pseudoscience, fringe science, or junk science.[nb 21] reliable knowledge. As early as 1000 years ago, scholars
Physicist Richard Feynman coined the term "cargo cult such as Alhazen (Doubts Concerning Ptolemy), Roger Ba-
science" for cases in which researchers believe they are con, Witelo, John Pecham, Francis Bacon (1605), and C.
doing science because their activities have the outward S. Peirce (18391914) provided the community to ad-
appearance of science but actually lack the kind of ut- dress these points of uncertainty. In particular, fallacious
ter honesty that allows their results to be rigorously reasoning can be exposed, such as "arming the conse-
evaluated.[94] Various types of commercial advertising, quent.
ranging from hype to fraud, may fall into these categories.
If a man will begin with certainties, he
There can also be an element of political or ideological shall end in doubts; but if he will be content to
bias on all sides of scientic debates. Sometimes, re- begin with doubts, he shall end in certainties.
search may be characterized as bad science, research Francis Bacon, "The Advancement of
that may be well-intended but is actually incorrect, obso- Learning", Book 1, v, 8
lete, incomplete, or over-simplied expositions of scien-
tic ideas. The term "scientic misconduct" refers to sit-
uations such as where researchers have intentionally mis- The methods of inquiry into a problem have been known
represented their published data or have purposely given for thousands of years,[96] and extend beyond theory to
7.6. SEE ALSO 81

practice. The use of measurements, for example, is a used by researchers today and the amount of research
practical approach to settle disputes in the community. generated so far, creation of new disciplines or revolu-
John Ziman points out that intersubjective pattern recog- tions within a discipline may no longer be possible as it is
nition is fundamental to the creation of all scientic unlikely that some phenomenon that merits its own dis-
knowledge.[97]:p44 Ziman shows how scientists can iden- cipline has been overlooked. Hybridizing of disciplines
tify patterns to each other across centuries; he refers to and nessing
[100]
knowledge is, in his view, the future of
this ability as perceptual consensibility.[98]:p46
He then science.
makes consensibility, leading to consensus, the touch-
stone of reliable knowledge.[98]:p104
7.5.3 Practical impacts of scientic re-
search
7.5.1 Basic and applied research
Discoveries in fundamental science can be world-
changing. For example:

7.6 See also

Antiquarian science books

Criticism of science

Human timeline

Index of branches of science

Anthropogenic pollution has an eect on the Earths environment Life timeline

and climate
Normative science
Although some scientic research is applied research
into specic problems, a great deal of our understanding Outline of science
comes from the curiosity-driven undertaking of basic re-
Pathological science
search. This leads to options for technological advance
that were not planned or sometimes even imaginable. Protoscience
This point was made by Michael Faraday when allegedly
in response to the question what is the use of basic re-
search?" he responded: Sir, what is the use of a new-
born child?".[99] For example, research into the eects of Science wars
red light on the human eyes rod cells did not seem to have
Scientic dissent
any practical purpose; eventually, the discovery that our
night vision is not troubled by red light would lead search Sociology of scientic knowledge
and rescue teams (among others) to adopt red light in the
cockpits of jets and helicopters.[88]:106110 In a nutshell,
basic research is the search for knowledge and applied
research is the search for solutions to practical problems 7.7 Notes
using this knowledge. Finally, even basic research can
take unexpected turns, and there is some sense in which [1] From Latin scientia, meaning knowledge. science.
the scientic method is built to harness luck. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved September 20,
2014.

science. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary.

7.5.2 Research in practice
Due to the increasing complexity of information and spe-
cialization of scientists, most of the cutting-edge research
today is done by well-funded groups of scientists, rather
than individuals.[100] D.K. Simonton notes that due to the
breadth of very precise and far reaching tools already
Merriam-Webster, Inc. Retrieved October 16,
2011. 3 a: knowledge or a system of knowledge
covering general truths or the operation of general
laws especially as obtained and tested through sci-
entic method b: such knowledge or such a system
of knowledge concerned with the physical world
and its phenomena.
82
[2] "... modern science is a discovery as well as an inven-
tion. It was a discovery that nature generally acts regularly
enough to be described by laws and even by mathematics;
and required invention to devise the techniques, ab-
stractions, apparatus, and organization for exhibiting the
regularities and securing their law-like descriptions.
Heilbron 2003, p. vii
[3] Isaac Newtons Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathe-
matica (1687), for example, is translated Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy, and reects the then-
current use of the words "natural philosophy", akin to
systematic study of nature
[4] The historian ... requires a very broad denition of sci-
ence one that ... will help us to understand the modern
scientic enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive,
rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should ex-
pect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we
will need to be. David Pingree (1992), Hellenophilia
versus the History of Science Isis 83 55463, as cited in
(Lindberg 2007, p. 3), The beginnings of Western science:
the European Scientic tradition in philosophical, religious,
and institutional context, Second ed. Chicago: Univ. of
Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7
See Edward Grant (1997) When did modern sci-
ence begin?" The American Scholar pp.105-113 in
JSTOR:
History of science#Early cultures
History of science#Ancient Near East,
Mesopotamia
History of science#Ancient Near East, Egypt
History of Science in China
History of science#India
[5] "... [A] man knows a thing scientically when he pos-
sesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when
the rst principles on which that conviction rests are
known to him with certaintyfor unless he is more cer-
tain of his rst principles than of the conclusion drawn
from them he will only possess the knowledge in ques-
tion accidentally. Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics 6 (H.
Rackham, ed.) Aristot. Nic. Eth. 1139b
[6] Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010). Mind, Brain, and
Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New
Brain-Based Teaching. W. W. Norton & Company. p.
39. ISBN 978-0-393-70607-9. Alhazen (or Al-Haytham;
9651039 C.E.) was perhaps one of the greatest physicists
of all times and a product of the Islamic Golden Age or
Islamic Renaissance (7th13th centuries). He made sig-
nicant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineer-
ing, mathematics, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy,
physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primar-
ily attributed as the inventor of the scientic method, for
which author Bradley Steens (2006) describes him as the
rst scientist.
[7] Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and
Ptolemy, as is shown by the title of his lost work A Book
in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the
Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added
the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from
CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE
Ptolemys Book From Ibn Abi Usaibia's catalog, as cited
in (Smith 2001):91(vol.1),p.xv
[8] "[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemys bridge building ...
into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his ef-
fort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind
probed before but now undertaken on larger scale.
Cohen 2010, p. 59
[9] The translator, Gerard of Cremona (c. 111487), in-
spired by his love of the Almagest, came to Toledo, where
he knew he could nd the Almagest in Arabic. There
he found Arabic books of every description, and learned
Arabic in order to translate these books into Latin, be-
ing aware of 'the poverty of the Latins. As cited by
Charles Burnett (2001) The Coherence of the Arabic-
Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Cen-
tury, pp. 250, 255, & 257, Science in Context 14(1/2),
249288 (2001). DOI: 10.1017/0269889701000096
[10] Kepler, Johannes (1604) Ad Vitellionem paralipomena,
quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur (Supplements to
Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated)
as cited in Smith, A. Mark (2004) What is the history of
Medieval Optics Really About?" Proceedings of the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society 148(2 Jun. 2004), pp. 180-
194 p.192 via JSTOR
The full title translation is from p.60 of James
R. Voelkel (2001) Johannes Kepler and the New
Astronomy Oxford University Press. Kepler was
driven to this experiment after observing the par-
tial solar eclipse at Graz, July 10, 1600. He used
Tycho Brahes method of observation, which was
to project the image of the sun on a piece of pa-
per through a pinhole aperture, instead of looking
directly at the sun. He disagreed with Brahes con-
clusion that total eclipses of the sun were impossi-
ble, because there were historical accounts of to-
tal eclipses. Instead he deduced that the size of the
aperture controls the sharpness of the projected im-
age (the larger the aperture, the more accurate the
image this fact is now fundamental for optical
system design). Voelkel, p.61, notes that Keplers
experiments produced the rst correct account of
vision and the eye, because he realized he could not
accurately write about astronomical observation by
ignoring the eye.
[11] di Francia 1976, p. 13: The amazing point is that for the
rst time since the discovery of mathematics, a method
has been introduced, the results of which have an inter-
subjective value!" (Authors punctuation)
[12] di Francia 1976, pp. 45: One learns in a laboratory; one
learns how to make experiments only by experimenting,
and one learns how to work with his hands only by using
them. The rst and fundamental form of experimenta-
tion in physics is to teach young people to work with their
hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and
taught to work with measuring instruments each stu-
dent carrying out real experiments in physics. This form
of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book.
7.7. NOTES
[13] Fara 2009, p. 204: Whatever their discipline, scientists
claimed to share a common scientic method that ... dis-
tinguished them from non-scientists.
[14] Women in science have included:
Hypatia (c. 350415 CE), of the Library of
Alexandria.
Trotula of Salerno, a physician c. 1060 CE.
Caroline Herschel, one of the rst professional as-
tronomers of the 18th and 19th centuries.
Christine Ladd-Franklin, a doctoral student of C.
S. Peirce, who published Wittgensteins proposi-
tion 5.101 in her dissertation, 40 years before
Wittgensteins publication of Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus.
Henrietta Leavitt, a professional human computer
and astronomer, who rst published the signicant
relationship between the luminosity of Cepheid
variable stars and their distance from Earth. This
allowed Hubble to make the discovery of the ex-
panding universe, which led to the Big Bang theory.
Emmy Noether, who proved the conservation of en-
ergy and other constants of motion in 1915.
Marie Curie, who made discoveries relating to ra-
dioactivity along with her husband, and for whom
Curium is named.
Rosalind Franklin, who worked with X-ray dirac-
tion.
[15] Nina Byers, Contributions of 20th Century Women to
Physics which provides details on 83 female physicists of
the 20th century. By 1976, more women were physicists,
and the 83 who were detailed were joined by other women
in noticeably larger numbers.
[16] This realization is the topic of intersubjective veriabil-
ity, as recounted, for example, by Max Born (1949, 1965)
Natural Philosophy of Cause and Chance, who points out
that all knowledge, including natural or social science, is
also subjective. p. 162: Thus it dawned upon me that
fundamentally everything is subjective, everything with-
out exception. That was a shock.
[17] In his investigation of the law of falling bodies, Galileo
(1638) serves as example for scientic investigation: Two
New Sciences A piece of wooden moulding or scantling,
about 12 cubits long, half a cubit wide, and three nger-
breadths thick, was taken; on its edge was cut a channel a
little more than one nger in breadth; having made this
groove very straight, smooth, and polished, and having
lined it with parchment, also as smooth and polished as
possible, we rolled along it a hard, smooth, and very round
bronze ball. Having placed this board in a sloping posi-
tion, by lifting one end some one or two cubits above the
other, we rolled the ball, as I was just saying, along the
channel, noting, in a manner presently to be described,
the time required to make the descent. We . . . now
rolled the ball only one-quarter the length of the channel;
and having measured the time of its descent, we found it
precisely one-half of the former. Next we tried other dis-
tances, comparing the time for the whole length with that
for the half, or with that for two-thirds, or three-fourths,
83
or indeed for any fraction; in such experiments, repeated
many, many, times. Galileo solved the problem of time
measurement by weighing a jet of water collected during
the descent of the bronze ball, as stated in his Two New
Sciences.
[18] Godfrey-Smith 2003, p. 151 credits Willard Van Or-
man Quine (1969) Epistemology Naturalized Ontolog-
ical Relativity and Other Essays New York: Columbia
University Press, as well as John Dewey, with the ba-
sic ideas of naturalism Naturalized Epistemology, but
Godfrey-Smith diverges from Quines position: according
to Godfrey-Smith, A naturalist can think that science can
contribute to answers to philosophical questions, without
thinking that philosophical questions can be replaced by
science questions..
[19] No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right;
a single experiment can prove me wrong. Albert Ein-
stein, noted by Alice Calaprice (ed. 2005) The New
Quotable Einstein Princeton University Press and Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, ISBN 0-691-12074-9 p. 291.
Calaprice denotes this not as an exact quotation, but as a
paraphrase of a translation of A. Einsteins Induction and
Deduction. Collected Papers of Albert Einstein 7 Docu-
ment 28. Volume 7 is The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918
1921. A. Einstein; M. Janssen, R. Schulmann, et al., eds.
[20] Fleck, Ludwik (1979). Trenn, Thaddeus J.; Merton,
Robert K, eds. Genesis and Development of a Scientic
Fact. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-
226-25325-2. Claims that before a specic fact existed,
it had to be created as part of a social agreement within
a community. Steven Shapin (1980) A view of scientic
thought Science ccvii (Mar 7, 1980) 106566 states "[To
Fleck,] facts are invented, not discovered. Moreover, the
appearance of scientic facts as discovered things is itself
a social construction: a made thing. "
[21] "Pseudoscientic pretending to be scientic, falsely rep-
resented as being scientic", from the Oxford Ameri-
can Dictionary, published by the Oxford English Dic-
tionary; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996)."Dening Pseudo-
science, Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169176, as cited
in Science and Pseudo-science (2008) in Stanford En-
cyclopedia of Philosophy. The Stanford article states:
Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that
pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The fore-
most modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears
the title Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Ac-
cording to Brian Baigrie (1988, 438), "[w]hat is objec-
tionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as gen-
uinely scientic ones. These and many other authors as-
sume that to be pseudoscientic, an activity or a teaching
has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996):
(1) it is not scientic, and (2) its major proponents try to
create the impression that it is scientic.
For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Sci-
ence Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003)
ISBN 0-321-05173-4, Bennett et al. The Cosmic
Perspective 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25,
2003) ISBN 0-8053-8738-2; See also, e.g., Gauch
HG Jr. Scientic Method in Practice (2003).
84
A 2006 National Science Foundation report on Sci-
ence and engineering indicators quoted Michael
Shermer's (1997) denition of pseudoscience:
'"claims presented so that they appear [to be] sci-
entic even though they lack supporting evidence
and plausibility"(p. 33). In contrast, science is a
set of methods designed to describe and interpret
observed and inferred phenomena, past or present,
and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge
open to rejection or conrmation"(p. 17)'.Sher-
mer M. (1997). Why People Believe Weird Things:
Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions
of Our Time. New York: W. H. Freeman and Com-
pany. ISBN 0-7167-3090-1. as cited by National
Science Board. National Science Foundation, Di-
vision of Science Resources Statistics (2006). Sci-
ence and Technology: Public Attitudes and Under-
standing. Science and engineering indicators 2006.
A pretended or spurious science; a collection of
related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded
as being based on scientic method or as having
the status that scientic truths now have, from the
Oxford English Dictionary, second edition 1989.
[22] Evicting Einstein, March 26, 2004, NASA. Both [relativ-
ity and quantum mechanics] are extremely successful. The
Global Positioning System (GPS), for instance, wouldn't
be possible without the theory of relativity. Computers,
telecommunications, and the Internet, meanwhile, are spin-
os of quantum mechanics.
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[99] To Live at All Is Miracle Enough Richard Dawkins.
RichardDawkins.net. May 10, 2006. Archived from the
original on January 19, 2012. Retrieved February 5, 2012.
tic genius is extinct. Nature. 493 (7434): 602602.
doi:10.1038/493602a.
7.9 Sources
Crease, Robert P. (2009). The Great Equations.
New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-06204-
5.
7.10. FURTHER READING
di Francia, Giuliano Toraldo (1976). The Investi-
gation of the Physical World. Originally published
in Italian as L'Indagine del Mondo Fisico by Giulio
Einaudi editore 1976; rst published in English
by Cambridge University Press 1981. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29925-
X.
Fara, Patricia (2009). Science : a four thousand year
history. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 408.
ISBN 978-0-19-922689-4.
Feyerabend, Paul (1993). Against Method (3rd ed.).
London: Verso. ISBN 0-86091-646-4.
Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality.
Chicago 60637: University of Chicago. p. 272.
ISBN 0-226-30062-5.
Heilbron, J. L. (editor-in-chief) (2003). The Ox-
ford Companion to the History of Modern Science.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
511229-6.
Lindberg, David C. (2007). The beginnings of West-
ern science: the European Scientic tradition in philo-
sophical, religious, and institutional context (Second
ed.). Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-
0-226-48205-7.
Nola, Robert; Irzik, Grol (2005). Philosophy, sci-
ence, education and culture. Science & technology
education library. 28. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-
3769-4.
Polanyi, Michael (1958). Personal Knowledge: To-
wards a Post-Critical Philosophy. University of
Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-67288-3
Popper, Karl Raimund (1996) [1984]. In search of
a better world: lectures and essays from thirty years.
New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-13548-6.
Popper, Karl R. (2002) [1959]. The Logic of Scien-
tic Discovery. New York, NY: Routledge Classics.
ISBN 0-415-27844-9. OCLC 59377149.
Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight
About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education.
ISBN 978-0-205-68590-5.
Ziman, John (1978). Reliable knowledge: An ex-
ploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN
0-521-22087-4
7.10 Further reading
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New
Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Blu,
Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-
7 University Press.
87
Becker, Ernest (1968). The structure of evil; an es-
say on the unication of the science of man. New
York: G. Braziller.
Cole, K. C., Things your teacher never told you about
science: Nine shocking revelations Newsday, Long
Island, New York, March 23, 1986, pg 21+
Crease, Robert P. (2011). World in the Balance: the
historic quest for an absolute system of measurement.
New York: W.W. Norton. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-
393-07298-3.
Feyerabend, Paul (2005). Science, history of the phi-
losophy, as cited in Honderich, Ted (2005). The Ox-
ford companion to philosophy. Oxford Oxfordshire:
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926479-1.
OCLC 173262485.
Feynman, Richard P. (1999). Robbins, Jerey, ed.
The pleasure of nding things out the best short works
of Richard P. Feynman. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus
Books. ISBN 0465013120.
Feynman, R.P. (1999). The Pleasure of Finding
Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P.
Feynman. Perseus Books Group. ISBN 0-465-
02395-9. OCLC 181597764.
Feynman, Richard Cargo Cult Science
Gaukroger, Stephen (2006). The Emergence of a
Scientic Culture: Science and the Shaping of Moder-
nity 12101685. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-929644-8.
Gopnik, Alison, Finding Our Inner Scientist,
Daedalus, Winter 2004.
Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., Science
in the Twentieth Century, Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-
415-28606-9
Levin, Yuval (2008). Imagining the Future: Science
and American Democracy. New York, Encounter
Books. ISBN 1-59403-209-2
Lindberg, D. C. (1976). Theories of Vision from al-
Kindi to Kepler. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr.
Kuhn, Thomas, The Structure of Scientic Revolu-
tions, 1962.
William F., McComas (1998). The principal el-
ements of the nature of science: Dispelling the
myths. In McComas, William F. The nature of sci-
ence in science education: rationales and strategies
(PDF). Springer. ISBN 978-0-7923-6168-8.
Needham, Joseph (1954). "Science and Civilisation
in China: Introductory Orientations. 1. Cambridge
88 CHAPTER 7. SCIENCE

Obler, Paul C.; Estrin, Herman A. (1962). The New Classication of the Sciences in Dictionary of the
Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Mod- History of Ideas. (Dictionarys new electronic for-
ern Science. Anchor Books, Doubleday. mat is badly botched, entries after Design are in-
accessible. Internet Archive old version).
Papineau, David. (2005). Science, problems of
the philosophy of., as cited in Honderich, Ted Nature of Science University of California Mu-
(2005). The Oxford companion to philosophy. Ox- seum of Paleontology
ford Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN
0-19-926479-1. OCLC 173262485. United States Science Initiative Selected science in-
formation provided by US Government agencies, in-
Parkin, D. (1991). Simultaneity and Sequencing cluding research & development results
in the Oracular Speech of Kenyan Diviners. In
Philip M. Peek. African Divination Systems: Ways How science works University of California Museum
of Knowing. Indianapolis, IN: Indiana University of Paleontology
Press.
Russell, Bertrand (1985) [1952]. The Impact of
Science on Society. London: Unwin. ISBN 0-04-
300090-8.
Rutherford, F. James; Ahlgren, Andrew (1990).
Science for all Americans. New York, NY:
American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506771-
1.
Smith, A. Mark (2001). Written at Philadelphia.
Alhacens Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical
Edition, with English Translation and Commentary,
of the First Three Books of Alhacens De Aspectibus,
the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's
Kitb al-Manir, 2 vols. Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society. 91. Philadelphia:
American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-
914-1. OCLC 47168716. Books I-III (2001
91(4)) Vol 1 Commentary and Latin text via JS-
TOR; 91(5) Vol 2 English translation, Book
I:TOCpp.339-341, Book II:TOCpp.415-6, Book
III:TOCpp.559-560, Notes 681, Bibl. via JSTOR
Thurs, Daniel Patrick (2007). Science Talk: Chang-
ing Notions of Science in American Popular Culture.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. pp.
2252. ISBN 978-0-8135-4073-3.

7.11 External links

7.11.1 Publications
"GCSE Science textbook". Wikibooks.org

7.11.2 Resources
Euroscience:
ESOF: Euroscience Open Forum. Archived
from the original on June 10, 2010.
Science Development in the Latin American docta
Chapter 8

Engineering physics

Engineering physics or Engineering Science refers
to the study of the combined disciplines of physics,
mathematics and engineering, particularly computer, nu-
clear, electrical, electronic, materials or mechanical en-
gineering. By focusing on the scientic method as a rig-
orous basis, it seeks ways to apply, design and develop
new solutions in engineering. Engineering physics or en-
gineering science degrees are respected academic degrees
awarded in many countries. It can be taught at the under-
graduate level and is often designed as an honors program
at some universities due to the rigorous nature of the aca-
demic curriculum which covers a wide spectrum of sci-
entic disciplines.[1][2][3][4]
8.1 Overview
Unlike traditional engineering disciplines, engineer-
ing science/physics is not necessarily conned to a
particular branch of science, engineering or physics.
Instead, engineering science/physics is meant to provide
a more thorough grounding in applied physics for a
selected specialty such as optics, quantum physics,
materials science, applied mechanics, electronics,
nanotechnology, microfabrication, microelectronics,
photonics, mechanical engineering, electrical engineer-
ing, nuclear engineering, biophysics, control theory,
aerodynamics, energy, solid-state physics, etc. It is
the discipline devoted to creating and optimizing en-
gineering solutions through enhanced understanding
and integrated application of mathematical, scientic,
statistical, and engineering principles. The discipline is
also meant for cross-functionality and bridges the gap
between theoretical science and practical engineering
with emphasis in research and development, design, and
analysis.
It is notable that in many languages the term for engi-
neering physics would be directly translated into English
as technical physics. In some countries, both what
would be translated as engineering physics and what
would be translated as technical physics are disciplines
leading to academic degrees, with the former specializ-
ing in nuclear power research, and the latter closer to en-
gineering physics.[5] In some institutions, an engineering
(or applied) physics major is a discipline or specializa-
tion within the scope of engineering science, or applied
science.[6][7][8]
In many universities, engineering science programs may
be oered at the levels of B.Tech, B.Sc., M.Sc. and
Ph.D. Usually, a core of basic and advanced courses in
mathematics, physics, chemistry, and biology forms the
foundation of the curriculum, while typical elective areas
may include uid dynamics, quantum physics, economics,
plasma physics, relativity, solid mechanics, operations
research, quantitative nance, information technology
and engineering, dynamical systems, bioengineering,
environmental engineering, computational engineering,
engineering mathematics and statistics, solid-state de-
vices, materials science, electromagnetism, nanoscience,
nanotechnology, energy, and optics. While typical un-
dergraduate engineering programs generally focus on the
application of established methods to the design and
analysis of engineering solutions, undergraduate program
in engineering science focuses on the creation and use
of more advanced experimental or computational tech-
niques where standard approaches are inadequate (i.e.,
development of engineering solutions to contemporary
problems in the physical and life sciences by applying fun-
damental principles).
8.2 Branches
8.3 Professional Societies and Or-
ganizations
Society of Engineering Science Inc..
8.4 See also
Applied Physics
Engineering
Engineering mechanics
Engineering science and mechanics

89
90 CHAPTER 8. ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Environmental Engineering Science [17] Physics Inspired Techniques in Robotics, Computer Sci-
ence, & Machine Learning, Carnegie Mellon University,
Index of engineering science and mechanics articles The Robotics Institute
Mathematics [18] Engineering Physics Curriculum, Delhi Technological
University
Science
List of Universities with Engineering Physics pro-
gram 8.6 External links
Engineering Physics at Xavier
8.5 Notes and references The Engineering Physicist Profession
[1] Major: Engineering sciences. The Princeton Review.
2011 maj. p. 01. Retrieved June 26, 2011. Check date
values in: |date= (help)

[2] Introduction. Princeton University. Archived from the

original (online) on February 26, 2012. Retrieved June
26, 2011.

[3] Khare, P. ,; A. Swarup (January 2009 and 2010).

Engineering Physics: Fundamentals & Modern Applica-
tions (13th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. xiii
Preface. ISBN 978-0-7637-7374-8. Check date values
in: |date= (help)

[4] Engineering Physics (online). Google books. Retrieved

June 26, 2011.

[5] 2002 Applications for graduate study open in

Shanghai Research Institute of Technical Physics
( 2002 )". Chinese Academy of Sci-
ences ( ). 2001-10-07. Archived from the original
on 2008-06-07. Retrieved 2008-09-16.

[6] Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California

Institute of Technology

[7] Engineering Physics, Division of Engineering Science,

University of Toronto

[8] Engineering Science and Mechanics program at Virginia

Tech

[9] Engineering Physics (Accelerators), University of Michi-

gan

[10] Engineering Physics (Acoustics), University of Kettering

[11] Engineering Physics (Aerodynamics), University of

Kansas

[12] Engineering Physics Curriculum, Delhi Technological

University

[13] Engineering Physics (Embedded Systems), Simon Fraser

University

[14] Engineering Physics (Microelectronics), University of

Connecticut

[15] Engineering Physics (Nuclear Engineering), Ohio State

University

[16] Program of Engineering physics, Laval University, Que-

bec
Chapter 9
Information theory
Not to be confused with information science.
Information theory studies the quantication, storage,
and communication of information. It was originally
proposed by Claude E. Shannon in 1948 to nd fun-
damental limits on signal processing and communica-
tion operations such as data compression, in a land-
mark paper entitled "A Mathematical Theory of Com-
munication". Now this theory has found applications in
many other areas, including statistical inference, natural
language processing, cryptography, neurobiology,[1] the
evolution[2] and function[3] of molecular codes, model se-
lection in ecology,[4] thermal physics,[5] quantum com-
puting, linguistics, plagiarism detection,[6] pattern recog-
nition, and anomaly detection.[7]
A key measure in information theory is "entropy". En-
tropy quanties the amount of uncertainty involved in the
value of a random variable or the outcome of a random
process. For example, identifying the outcome of a fair
coin ip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less
information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome
from a roll of a die (with six equally likely outcomes).
Some other important measures in information theory are
mutual information, channel capacity, error exponents,
and relative entropy.
Applications of fundamental topics of information theory
include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP les), lossy
data compression (e.g. MP3s and JPEGs), and channel
coding (e.g. for Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)).
The eld is at the intersection of mathematics, statistics,
computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical
engineering. Its impact has been crucial to the success
of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of
the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones, the
development of the Internet, the study of linguistics and
of human perception, the understanding of black holes,
and numerous other elds. Important sub-elds of in-
formation theory include source coding, channel coding,
algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information
theory, information-theoretic security, and measures of
information.
91
9.1 Overview
Information theory studies the transmission, processing,
utilization, and extraction of information. Abstractly, in-
formation can be thought of as the resolution of uncer-
tainty. In the case of communication of information over
a noisy channel, this abstract concept was made concrete
in 1948 by Claude Shannon in his paper "A Mathemati-
cal Theory of Communication", in which information
is thought of as a set of possible messages, where the
goal is to send these messages over a noisy channel, and
then to have the receiver reconstruct the message with
low probability of error, in spite of the channel noise.
Shannons main result, the noisy-channel coding theorem
showed that, in the limit of many channel uses, the rate
of information that is asymptotically achievable is equal
to the channel capacity, a quantity dependent merely on
the statistics of the channel over which the messages are
sent.[1]
Information theory is closely associated with a collection
of pure and applied disciplines that have been investi-
gated and reduced to engineering practice under a va-
riety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half
century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems,
articial intelligence, complex systems, complexity sci-
ence, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along
with systems sciences of many descriptions. Informa-
tion theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with
equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the
vital eld of coding theory.
Coding theory is concerned with nding explicit methods,
called codes, for increasing the eciency and reducing
the error rate of data communication over noisy chan-
nels to near the Channel capacity. These codes can be
roughly subdivided into data compression (source coding)
and error-correction (channel coding) techniques. In the
latter case, it took many years to nd the methods Shan-
nons work proved were possible. A third class of infor-
mation theory codes are cryptographic algorithms (both
codes and ciphers). Concepts, methods and results from
coding theory and information theory are widely used in
cryptography and cryptanalysis. See the article ban (unit)
for a historical application.
92
Information theory is also used in information retrieval, With it came the ideas of
intelligence gathering, gambling, statistics, and even in
musical composition.
9.2 Historical background
Main article: History of information theory
The landmark event that established the discipline of in-
formation theory and brought it to immediate worldwide
attention was the publication of Claude E. Shannon's clas-
sic paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication"
in the Bell System Technical Journal in July and October
1948.
Prior to this paper, limited information-theoretic ideas
had been developed at Bell Labs, all implicitly assum-
ing events of equal probability. Harry Nyquist's 1924
paper, Certain Factors Aecting Telegraph Speed, con-
tains a theoretical section quantifying intelligence and
the line speed at which it can be transmitted by a com-
munication system, giving the relation W = K log m (re-
calling Boltzmanns constant), where W is the speed of
transmission of intelligence, m is the number of dierent
voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and K is
a constant. Ralph Hartley's 1928 paper, Transmission of
Information, uses the word information as a measurable
quantity, reecting the receivers ability to distinguish one
sequence of symbols from any other, thus quantifying in-
formation as H = log S n = n log S, where S was the num-
ber of possible symbols, and n the number of symbols in
a transmission. The unit of information was therefore the
decimal digit, much later renamed the hartley in his hon-
our as a unit or scale or measure of information. Alan
Turing in 1940 used similar ideas as part of the statistical
analysis of the breaking of the German second world war
Enigma ciphers.
Much of the mathematics behind information theory
with events of dierent probabilities were developed for
the eld of thermodynamics by Ludwig Boltzmann and
J. Willard Gibbs. Connections between information-
theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, includ-
ing the important contributions by Rolf Landauer in the
1960s, are explored in Entropy in thermodynamics and
information theory.
In Shannons revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, logarithmic base.
the work for which had been substantially completed at
Bell Labs by the end of 1944, Shannon for the rst time
introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of com- 9.3.1 Entropy of an information source
munication as a statistical process underlying information
theory, opening with the assertion that
The fundamental problem of communication
is that of reproducing at one point, either ex-
actly or approximately, a message selected at
another point.
CHAPTER 9. INFORMATION THEORY
the information entropy and redundancy of a source,
and its relevance through the source coding theorem;
the mutual information, and the channel capacity of
a noisy channel, including the promise of perfect
loss-free communication given by the noisy-channel
coding theorem;
the practical result of the ShannonHartley law for
the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; as well
as
the bita new way of seeing the most fundamental
unit of information.
9.3 Quantities of information
Main article: Quantities of information
Information theory is based on probability theory and
statistics. Information theory often concerns itself with
measures of information of the distributions associated
with random variables. Important quantities of informa-
tion are entropy, a measure of information in a single
random variable, and mutual information, a measure of
information in common between two random variables.
The former quantity is a property of the probability dis-
tribution of a random variable and gives a limit on the rate
at which data generated by independent samples with the
given distribution can be reliably compressed. The lat-
ter is a property of the joint distribution of two random
variables, and is the maximum rate of reliable commu-
nication across a noisy channel in the limit of long block
lengths, when the channel statistics are determined by the
joint distribution.
The choice of logarithmic base in the following formulae
determines the unit of information entropy that is used.
A common unit of information is the bit, based on the
binary logarithm. Other units include the nat, which is
based on the natural logarithm, and the hartley, which is
based on the common logarithm.
In what follows, an expression of the form p log p is con-
sidered by convention to be equal to zero whenever p =
0. This is justied because limp0+ p log p = 0 for any
Based on the probability mass function of each source
symbol to be communicated, the Shannon entropy H, in
units of bits (per symbol), is given by
H= pi log2 (pi )
i
9.3. QUANTITIES OF INFORMATION 93

where pi is the probability of occurrence of the i-th pos- some x X , then the entropy, H, of X is dened:[8]
sible value of the source symbol. This equation gives the
entropy in the units of bits (per symbol) because it uses
a logarithm of base 2, and this base-2 measure of entropy H(X) = EX [I(x)] = p(x) log p(x).
has sometimes been called the "shannon" in his honor. xX
Entropy is also commonly computed using the natural
(Here, I(x) is the self-information, which is the entropy
logarithm (base e, where e is Eulers number), which pro-
contribution of an individual message, and X is the
duces a measurement of entropy in "nats" per symbol and
expected value.) A property of entropy is that it is
sometimes simplies the analysis by avoiding the need to
maximized when all the messages in the message space
include extra constants in the formulas. Other bases are
are equiprobable p(x) = 1/n; i.e., most unpredictable, in
also possible, but less commonly used. For example, a
which case H(X) = log n.
logarithm of base 28 = 256 will produce a measurement
in bytes per symbol, and a logarithm of base 10 will pro- The special case of information entropy for a random
duce a measurement in decimal digits (or hartleys) per variable with two outcomes is the binary entropy func-
symbol. tion, usually taken to the logarithmic base 2, thus having
the shannon (Sh) as unit:
Intuitively, the entropy HX of a discrete random variable
X is a measure of the amount of uncertainty associated
with the value of X when only its distribution is known.
Hb (p) = p log2 p (1 p) log2 (1 p).
The entropy of a source that emits a sequence of N sym-
bols that are independent and identically distributed (iid)
is NH bits (per message of N symbols). If the source 9.3.2 Joint entropy
data symbols are identically distributed but not indepen-
dent, the entropy of a message of length N will be less The joint entropy of two discrete random variables X
than NH. and Y is merely the entropy of their pairing: (X, Y). This
implies that if X and Y are independent, then their joint
entropy is the sum of their individual entropies.
1
For example, if (X, Y) represents the position of a chess
piece X the row and Y the column, then the joint en-
tropy of the row of the piece and the column of the piece
will be the entropy of the position of the piece.

H(X)

0.5 H(X, Y ) = EX,Y [ log p(x, y)] = p(x, y) log p(x, y)

x,y

Despite similar notation, joint entropy should not be con-

fused with cross entropy.

9.3.3 Conditional entropy (equivocation)

0
0 0.5 1 The conditional entropy or conditional uncertainty of
Pr(X = 1) X given random variable Y (also called the equivocation
of X about Y) is the average conditional entropy over Y:[9]
The entropy of a Bernoulli trial as a function of success probabil-
ity, often called the binary entropy function, Hb(p). The entropy
is maximized at 1 bit per trial when the two possible outcomes are
equally probable, as in an unbiased coin toss. H(X|Y ) = EY [H(X|y)] = p(y) p(x|y) log p(x|y) = p
yY xX x,y

Suppose one transmits 1000 bits (0s and 1s). If the value
of each of these bits is known to the receiver (has a spe-
cic value with certainty) ahead of transmission, it is clear
that no information is transmitted. If, however, each bit is
independently equally likely to be 0 or 1, 1000 shannons
of information (more often called bits) have been trans-
mitted. Between these two extremes, information can be
quantied as follows. If is the set of all messages {x1 ,
, xn} that X could be, and p(x) is the probability of
Because entropy can be conditioned on a random vari-
able or on that random variable being a certain value, care
should be taken not to confuse these two denitions of
conditional entropy, the former of which is in more com-
mon use. A basic property of this form of conditional
entropy is that:
H(X|Y ) = H(X, Y ) H(Y ).
94 CHAPTER 9. INFORMATION THEORY

9.3.4 Mutual information (transinforma- way of comparing two distributions: a true probability
tion) distribution p(X), and an arbitrary probability distribution
q(X). If we compress data in a manner that assumes q(X)
Mutual information measures the amount of informa- is the distribution underlying some data, when, in real-
tion that can be obtained about one random variable by ity, p(X) is the correct distribution, the KullbackLeibler
observing another. It is important in communication divergence is the number of average additional bits per
where it can be used to maximize the amount of infor- datum necessary for compression. It is thus dened
mation shared between sent and received signals. The
mutual information of X relative to Y is given by:

DKL (p(X)q(X)) = p(x) log q(x) p(x) log p(x) = p(
p(x, y)
xX xX xX
I(X; Y ) = EX,Y [SI(x, y)] = p(x, y) log
x,y
p(x) p(y) Although it is sometimes used as a 'distance metric', KL
divergence is not a true metric since it is not symmetric
where SI (Specic mutual Information) is the pointwise and does not satisfy the triangle inequality (making it a
mutual information. semi-quasimetric).
A basic property of the mutual information is that Another interpretation of the KL divergence is the un-
necessary surprise introduced by a prior from the truth:
suppose a number X is about to be drawn randomly from
I(X; Y ) = H(X) H(X|Y ). a discrete set with probability distribution p(x). If Al-
ice knows the true distribution p(x), while Bob believes
That is, knowing Y, we can save an average of I(X; Y) (has a prior) that the distribution is q(x), then Bob will
bits in encoding X compared to not knowing Y. be more surprised than Alice, on average, upon seeing
the value of X. The KL divergence is the (objective) ex-
Mutual information is symmetric:
pected value of Bobs (subjective) surprisal minus Alices
surprisal, measured in bits if the log is in base 2. In this
way, the extent to which Bobs prior is wrong can be
I(X; Y ) = I(Y ; X) = H(X) + H(Y ) H(X, Y ). quantied in terms of how unnecessarily surprised its
expected to make him.
Mutual information can be expressed as the average
KullbackLeibler divergence (information gain) between
the posterior probability distribution of X given the value 9.3.6 Other quantities
of Y and the prior distribution on X:
Other important information theoretic quantities include
Rnyi entropy (a generalization of entropy), dierential
I(X; Y ) = Ep(y) [DKL (p(X|Y = y)p(X))]. entropy (a generalization of quantities of information to
continuous distributions), and the conditional mutual in-
In other words, this is a measure of how much, on the av-
formation.
erage, the probability distribution on X will change if we
are given the value of Y. This is often recalculated as the
divergence from the product of the marginal distributions
to the actual joint distribution: 9.4 Coding theory
Main article: Coding theory
I(X; Y ) = DKL (p(X, Y )p(X)p(Y )). Coding theory is one of the most important and direct
applications of information theory. It can be subdivided
Mutual information is closely related to the log-likelihood into source coding theory and channel coding theory. Us-
ratio test in the context of contingency tables and the ing a statistical description for data, information theory
multinomial distribution and to Pearsons 2 test: mutual quanties the number of bits needed to describe the data,
information can be considered a statistic for assessing in- which is the information entropy of the source.
dependence between a pair of variables, and has a well-
specied asymptotic distribution. Data compression (source coding): There are two
formulations for the compression problem:
9.3.5 KullbackLeibler divergence (infor-
1. lossless data compression: the data must be recon-
mation gain) structed exactly;
The KullbackLeibler divergence (or information di- 2. lossy data compression: allocates bits needed to re-
vergence, information gain, or relative entropy) is a construct the data, within a specied delity level
9.4. CODING THEORY 95

r = lim H(Xn |Xn1 , Xn2 , Xn3 , . . .);

n

that is, the conditional entropy of a symbol given all the

previous symbols generated. For the more general case
of a process that is not necessarily stationary, the average
rate is

A picture showing scratches on the readable surface of a CD-R.

Music and data CDs are coded using error correcting codes and 1
r = lim H(X1 , X2 , . . . Xn );
thus can still be read even if they have minor scratches using error n n
detection and correction.
that is, the limit of the joint entropy per symbol. For
stationary sources, these two expressions give the same
[10]
measured by a distortion function. This subset of result.
Information theory is called ratedistortion theory. It is common in information theory to speak of the rate
or entropy of a language. This is appropriate, for exam-
Error-correcting codes (channel coding): While ple, when the source of information is English prose. The
data compression removes as much redundancy as rate of a source of information is related to its redundancy
possible, an error correcting code adds just the right and how well it can be compressed, the subject of source
kind of redundancy (i.e., error correction) needed coding.
to transmit the data eciently and faithfully across
a noisy channel.
9.4.2 Channel capacity

This division of coding theory into compression and
transmission is justied by the information transmission
theorems, or sourcechannel separation theorems that
justify the use of bits as the universal currency for infor-
mation in many contexts. However, these theorems only
hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes
to communicate to one receiving user. In scenarios with
more than one transmitter (the multiple-access channel),
more than one receiver (the broadcast channel) or inter-
mediary helpers (the relay channel), or more general
networks, compression followed by transmission may no
longer be optimal. Network information theory refers to
these multi-agent communication models.
Main article: Channel capacity
Communications over a channelsuch as an ethernet
cableis the primary motivation of information theory.
As anyone whos ever used a telephone (mobile or land-
line) knows, however, such channels often fail to produce
exact reconstruction of a signal; noise, periods of silence,
and other forms of signal corruption often degrade qual-
ity. How much information can one hope to communicate
over a noisy (or otherwise imperfect) channel?
Consider the communications process over a discrete
channel. A simple model of the process is shown below:

x (noisy) y
Transmitter Receiver
9.4.1 Source theory Channel

Any process that generates successive messages can be

considered a source of information. A memoryless Here X represents the space of messages transmitted, and
source is one in which each message is an independent Y the space of messages received during a unit time over
identically distributed random variable, whereas the our channel. Let p(y|x) be the conditional probability dis-
properties of ergodicity and stationarity impose less re- tribution function of Y given X. We will consider p(y|x)
strictive constraints. All such sources are stochastic. to be an inherent xed property of our communications
These terms are well studied in their own right outside channel (representing the nature of the noise of our chan-
information theory. nel). Then the joint distribution of X and Y is completely
determined by our channel and by our choice of f(x), the
marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over
Rate the channel. Under these constraints, we would like to
maximize the rate of information, or the signal, we can
Information rate is the average entropy per symbol. For communicate over the channel. The appropriate mea-
memoryless sources, this is merely the entropy of each sure for this is the mutual information, and this maximum
symbol, while, in the case of a stationary stochastic pro- mutual information is called the channel capacity and is
cess, it is given by:
96 CHAPTER 9. INFORMATION THEORY

1p
0 0
C = max I(X; Y ).
f p
e
This capacity has the following property related to com- p
municating at information rate R (where R is usually bits
per symbol). For any information rate R < C and cod-
1 1
ing error > 0, for large enough N, there exists a code of
length N and rate R and a decoding algorithm, such that
1p
the maximal probability of block error is ; that is, it
is always possible to transmit with arbitrarily small block
error. In addition, for any rate R > C, it is impossible to 9.5 Applications to other elds
transmit with arbitrarily small block error.
Channel coding is concerned with nding such nearly
9.5.1 Intelligence uses and secrecy applica-
optimal codes that can be used to transmit data over a
noisy channel with a small coding error at a rate near the tions
channel capacity.
Information theoretic concepts apply to cryptography and
cryptanalysis. Turing's information unit, the ban, was
used in the Ultra project, breaking the German Enigma
machine code and hastening the end of World War II in
Capacity of particular channel models Europe. Shannon himself dened an important concept
now called the unicity distance. Based on the redundancy
of the plaintext, it attempts to give a minimum amount of
A continuous-time analog communications channel ciphertext necessary to ensure unique decipherability.
subject to Gaussian noise see ShannonHartley
Information theory leads us to believe it is much more
theorem.
dicult to keep secrets than it might rst appear. A
brute force attack can break systems based on asymmetric
key algorithms or on most commonly used methods of
A binary symmetric channel (BSC) with crossover symmetric key algorithms (sometimes called secret key
probability p is a binary input, binary output chan- algorithms), such as block ciphers. The security of all
nel that ips the input bit with probability p. The such methods currently comes from the assumption that
BSC has a capacity of 1 H (p) bits per channel no known attack can break them in a practical amount of
use, where H is the binary entropy function to the time.
base 2 logarithm:
Information theoretic security refers to methods such as
the one-time pad that are not vulnerable to such brute
force attacks. In such cases, the positive conditional
1p mutual information between the plaintext and ciphertext
0 0 (conditioned on the key) can ensure proper transmis-
sion, while the unconditional mutual information between
p the plaintext and ciphertext remains zero, resulting in
absolutely secure communications. In other words, an
p eavesdropper would not be able to improve his or her
guess of the plaintext by gaining knowledge of the ci-
phertext but not of the key. However, as in any other
1 1 cryptographic system, care must be used to correctly ap-
1p ply even information-theoretically secure methods; the
Venona project was able to crack the one-time pads of
the Soviet Union due to their improper reuse of key ma-
terial.
A binary erasure channel (BEC) with erasure prob-
ability p is a binary input, ternary output channel.
The possible channel outputs are 0, 1, and a third 9.5.2 Pseudorandom number generation
symbol 'e' called an erasure. The erasure represents
complete loss of information about an input bit. The Pseudorandom number generators are widely available
capacity of the BEC is 1 - p bits per channel use. in computer language libraries and application pro-
9.6. SEE ALSO 97

grams. They are, almost universally, unsuited to cryp- Minimum description length
tographic use as they do not evade the deterministic na-
List of important publications
ture of modern computer equipment and software. A
class of improved random number generators is termed Philosophy of information
cryptographically secure pseudorandom number gener-
ators, but even they require random seeds external to
the software to work as intended. These can be ob- 9.6.1 Applications
tained via extractors, if done carefully. The measure
Active networking
of sucient randomness in extractors is min-entropy, a
value related to Shannon entropy through Rnyi entropy; Cryptanalysis
Rnyi entropy is also used in evaluating randomness in
cryptographic systems. Although related, the distinctions Cryptography
among these measures mean that a random variable with Cybernetics
high Shannon entropy is not necessarily satisfactory for
use in an extractor and so for cryptography uses. Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory
Gambling
9.5.3 Seismic exploration Intelligence (information gathering)
Seismic exploration
One early commercial application of information theory
was in the eld of seismic oil exploration. Work in this
eld made it possible to strip o and separate the un- 9.6.2 History
wanted noise from the desired seismic signal. Informa-
tion theory and digital signal processing oer a major im- Hartley, R.V.L.
provement of resolution and image clarity over previous
History of information theory
analog methods.[11]
Shannon, C.E.

9.5.4 Semiotics Timeline of information theory

Yockey, H.P.
Concepts from information theory such as redundancy
and code control have been used by semioticians such as
Umberto Eco and Ferruccio Rossi-Landi to explain ide- 9.6.3 Theory
ology as a form of message transmission whereby a dom-
inant social class emits its message by using signs that ex- Coding theory
hibit a high degree of redundancy such that only one mes- Detection theory
sage is decoded among a selection of competing ones.[12]
Estimation theory
Fisher information
9.5.5 Miscellaneous applications
Information algebra
Information theory also has applications in gambling and
investing, black holes, and bioinformatics. Information asymmetry
Information eld theory
Information geometry
9.6 See also
Information theory and measure theory
Algorithmic probability Kolmogorov complexity
Algorithmic information theory Logic of information
Bayesian inference Network coding
Communication theory Philosophy of Information

Constructor theory - a generalization of information Quantum information science

theory that includes quantum information Semiotic information theory
Inductive probability Source coding
Minimum message length Unsolved Problems
98 CHAPTER 9. INFORMATION THEORY

9.6.4 Concepts [6] Charles H. Bennett, Ming Li, and Bin Ma (2003) Chain
Letters and Evolutionary Histories, Scientic American
Ban (unit) 288:6, 76-81

Channel capacity [7] David R. Anderson (November 1, 2003). Some back-

ground on why people in the empirical sciences may want
Channel (communications) to better understand the information-theoretic methods
(pdf). Retrieved 2010-06-23.
Communication source
[8] Fazlollah M. Reza (1994) [1961]. An Introduction to In-
Conditional entropy
formation Theory. Dover Publications, Inc., New York.
Covert channel ISBN 0-486-68210-2.

Decoder [9] Robert B. Ash (1990) [1965]. Information Theory. Dover

Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-66521-6.
Dierential entropy
[10] Jerry D. Gibson (1998). Digital Compression for Multime-
Encoder dia: Principles and Standards. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN
1-55860-369-7.
Information entropy
[11] The Corporation and Innovation, Haggerty, Patrick,
Joint entropy Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 2, 97-118 (1981)
KullbackLeibler divergence [12] Semiotics of Ideology, Noth, Winfried, Semiotica, Issue
Mutual information 148,(1981)

Pointwise mutual information (PMI)

9.7.1 The classic work
Receiver (information theory)
Redundancy Shannon, C.E. (1948), "A Mathematical Theory of
Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, 27,
Rnyi entropy pp. 379423 & 623656, July & October, 1948.
PDF.
Self-information Notes and other formats.
Unicity distance
R.V.L. Hartley, Transmission of Information, Bell
Variety System Technical Journal, July 1928

Hamming distance Andrey Kolmogorov (1968), Three approaches to

9.7 References
[1] F. Rieke; D. Warland; R Ruyter van Steveninck; W Bialek
(1997). Spikes: Exploring the Neural Code. The MIT
press. ISBN 978-0262681087.
[2] cf. Huelsenbeck, J. P., F. Ronquist, R. Nielsen and J. P.
Bollback (2001) Bayesian inference of phylogeny and its
impact on evolutionary biology, Science 294:2310-2314
[3] Rando Allikmets, Wyeth W. Wasserman, Amy Hutchin-
son, Philip Smallwood, Jeremy Nathans, Peter K. Rogan,
Thomas D. Schneider, Michael Dean (1998) Organization
of the ABCR gene: analysis of promoter and splice junc-
tion sequences, Gene 215:1, 111-122
[4] Burnham, K. P. and Anderson D. R. (2002) Model Selec-
tion and Multimodel Inference: A Practical Information-
Theoretic Approach, Second Edition (Springer Science,
New York) ISBN 978-0-387-95364-9.
[5] Jaynes, E. T. (1957) Information Theory and Statistical
Mechanics, Phys. Rev. 106:620
the quantitative denition of information in Inter-
national Journal of Computer Mathematics.
9.7.2 Other journal articles
J. L. Kelly, Jr., Saratoga.ny.us, A New Interpre-
tation of Information Rate Bell System Technical
Journal, Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 91726.
R. Landauer, IEEE.org, Information is Physi-
cal Proc. Workshop on Physics and Computation
PhysComp'92 (IEEE Comp. Sci.Press, Los Alami-
tos, 1993) pp. 14.
R. Landauer, IBM.com, Irreversibility and Heat
Generation in the Computing Process IBM J. Res.
Develop. Vol. 5, No. 3, 1961
Timme, Nicholas; Alford, Wesley; Flecker, Ben-
jamin; Beggs, John M. (2012). Multivariate infor-
mation measures: an experimentalists perspective.
arXiv:1111.6857 [cs.IT].
9.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
9.7.3 Textbooks on information theory
Arndt, C. Information Measures, Information and
its Description in Science and Engineering (Springer
Series: Signals and Communication Technology),
2004, ISBN 978-3-540-40855-0
Ash, RB. Information Theory. New York: Inter-
science, 1965. ISBN 0-470-03445-9. New York:
Dover 1990. ISBN 0-486-66521-6
Gallager, R. Information Theory and Reliable Com-
munication. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968.
ISBN 0-471-29048-3
Goldman, S. Information Theory. New York: Pren-
tice Hall, 1953. New York: Dover 1968 ISBN 0-
486-62209-6, 2005 ISBN 0-486-44271-3
Cover, Thomas; Thomas, Joy A. (2006). Elements
of information theory (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley-
Interscience. ISBN 0-471-24195-4.
Csiszar, I, Korner, J. Information Theory: Cod- Toronto: DEMO Publishing.
ing Theorems for Discrete Memoryless Systems
Akademiai Kiado: 2nd edition, 1997. ISBN 963-
05-7440-3
MacKay, David J. C.. Information Theory, Infer-
ence, and Learning Algorithms Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-64298-
1 stone/Simon & Schuster, 1982, ISBN 0-671-44062-
Mansuripur, M. Introduction to Information The-
ory. New York: Prentice Hall, 1987. ISBN 0-13-
484668-0
McEliece, R. The Theory of Information and Cod-
ing. Cambridge, 2002. ISBN 978-0521831857
Pierce, JR. An introduction to information theory:
symbols, signals and noise. Dover (2nd Edition).
1961 (reprinted by Dover 1980).
Reza, F. An Introduction to Information Theory.
New York: McGraw-Hill 1961. New York: Dover
1994. ISBN 0-486-68210-2
Shannon, Claude; Weaver, Warren (1949). The
Mathematical Theory of Communication (PDF).
Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN
0-252-72548-4. LCCN 49-11922.
Stone, JV. Chapter 1 of book Information Theory:
A Tutorial Introduction, University of Sheeld,
England, 2014. ISBN 978-0956372857.
Yeung, RW. A First Course in Information Theory
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2002. ISBN
0-306-46791-7.
Yeung, RW. Information Theory and Network Cod-
ing Springer 2008, 2002. ISBN 978-0-387-79233-0
99
9.7.4 Other books
Leon Brillouin, Science and Information Theory,
Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, [1956, 1962] 2004. ISBN
0-486-43918-6
James Gleick, The Information: A History, a The-
ory, a Flood, New York: Pantheon, 2011. ISBN
978-0-375-42372-7
A. I. Khinchin, Mathematical Foundations of Infor-
mation Theory, New York: Dover, 1957. ISBN 0-
486-60434-9
H. S. Le and A. F. Rex, Editors, Maxwells Demon:
Entropy, Information, Computing, Princeton Uni-
versity Press, Princeton, New Jersey (1990). ISBN
0-691-08727-X
Robert K. Logan. What is Information? - Propa-
gating Organization in the Biosphere, the Symbolo-
sphere, the Technosphere and the Econosphere,
Tom Siegfried, The Bit and the Pendulum, Wiley,
2000. ISBN 0-471-32174-5
Charles Seife, Decoding the Universe, Viking, 2006.
ISBN 0-670-03441-X
Jeremy Campbell, Grammatical Man, Touch-
4
Henri Theil, Economics and Information Theory,
Rand McNally & Company - Chicago, 1967.
Escolano, Suau, Bonev, Information Theory in Com-
puter Vision and Pattern Recognition, Springer,
2009. ISBN 978-1-84882-296-2
9.7.5 MOOC on information theory
Raymond W. Yeung, "Information Theory" (The
Chinese University of Hong Kong)
9.8 External links
Erill I. (2012), "A gentle introduction to informa-
tion content in transcription factor binding sites"
(University of Maryland, Baltimore County)
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Information,
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 978-
1-55608-010-4
Lambert F. L. (1999), "Shued Cards, Messy
Desks, and Disorderly Dorm Rooms - Examples of
Entropy Increase? Nonsense!", Journal of Chemical
Education
100 CHAPTER 9. INFORMATION THEORY

Schneider T. D. (2014), "Information Theory

Primer"
Srinivasa, S., "A Review on Multivariate Mutual In-
formation"
IEEE Information Theory Society and ITSoc review
articles
Chapter 10

Biology

Biological science redirects here. It is not to be

confused with life science.
For other uses, see Biology (disambiguation).

Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of

life and living organisms, including their structure, func-
tion, growth, evolution, distribution, identication and
taxonomy.[1] Modern biology is a vast and eclectic eld,
composed of many branches and subdisciplines. How-
ever, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain
unifying concepts within it that consolidate it into single,
coherent eld. In general, biology recognizes the cell as
the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity,
and evolution as the engine that propels the creation of
new species. It is also understood today that all organ-
isms survive by consuming and transforming energy and
by regulating their internal environment to maintain a sta-
ble and vital condition known as homeostasis.
Sub-disciplines of biology are dened by the scale at
which organisms are studied, the kinds of organisms stud-
ied, and the methods used to study them: biochemistry
examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular bi-
ology studies the complex interactions among biological
molecules; botany studies the biology of plants; cellular
biology examines the basic building-block of all life, the
cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical func-
tions of tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organ-
ism; evolutionary biology examines the processes that A Diagram of a y from Robert Hookes innovative
produced the diversity of life; and ecology examines how Micrographia, 1665
organisms interact in their environment.[2]
a disciple of Christian Wol. The rst German use, Bi-
ologie, was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus work. In
1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in the
10.1 History preface of a book, Grundzge der Lehre van der Leben-
skraft. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800
Main article: History of biology in a more restricted sense of the study of human be-
The term biology is derived from the Greek word , ings from a morphological, physiological and psycholog-
bios, "life" and the sux -, -logia, study of.[3][4] ical perspective (Propdeutik zum Studien der gesammten
The Latin-language form of the term rst appeared in Heilkunst). The term came into its modern usage with the
1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von six-volume treatise Biologie, oder Philosophie der leben-
Linn) used biologi in his Bibliotheca botanica. It was den Natur (180222) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus,
[5]
used again in 1766 in a work entitled Philosophiae natu- who announced:
ralis sive physicae: tomus III, continens geologian, biolo-
gian, phytologian generalis, by Michael Christoph Hanov, The objects of our research will be the dier-

101
102
Ernst Haeckel's Tree of Life (1879)
ent forms and manifestations of life, the con-
ditions and laws under which these phenomena
occur, and the causes through which they have
been eected. The science that concerns it-
self with these objects we will indicate by the
name biology [Biologie] or the doctrine of life
[Lebenslehre].
Although modern biology is a relatively recent develop-
ment, sciences related to and included within it have been
studied since ancient times. Natural philosophy was stud-
ied as early as the ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia,
Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, and China. However,
the origins of modern biology and its approach to the
study of nature are most often traced back to ancient
Greece.[6][7] While the formal study of medicine dates
back to Hippocrates (ca. 460 BC ca. 370 BC), it
was Aristotle (384 BC 322 BC) who contributed most
extensively to the development of biology. Especially
important are his History of Animals and other works
where he showed naturalist leanings, and later more em-
pirical works that focused on biological causation and
the diversity of life. Aristotles successor at the Lyceum,
Theophrastus, wrote a series of books on botany that sur-
vived as the most important contribution of antiquity to
the plant sciences, even into the Middle Ages.[8]
CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY
Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on bi-
ology included al-Jahiz (781869), Al-Dnawar (828
896), who wrote on botany,[9] and Rhazes (865925) who
wrote on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was espe-
cially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek
philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily
on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a xed
hierarchy of life.
Biology began to quickly develop and grow with
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's dramatic improvement of
the microscope. It was then that scholars discovered
spermatozoa, bacteria, infusoria and the diversity of mi-
croscopic life. Investigations by Jan Swammerdam led to
new interest in entomology and helped to develop the ba-
sic techniques of microscopic dissection and staining.[10]
Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on
biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a num-
ber of biologists pointed to the central importance of the
cell. Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began pro-
moting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of
organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all
the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea
that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells.
Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Vir-
chow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted
all three tenets of what came to be known as cell the-
ory.[11][12]
Meanwhile, taxonomy and classication became the fo-
cus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a ba-
sic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of
which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s in-
troduced scientic names for all his species.[13] Georges-
Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buon, treated species as arti-
cial categories and living forms as malleableeven sug-
gesting the possibility of common descent. Though he
was opposed to evolution, Buon is a key gure in the
history of evolutionary thought; his work inuenced the
evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.[14]
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works
of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the rst to present a
coherent theory of evolution.[15] He posited that evolu-
tion was the result of environmental stress on properties
of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigor-
ously an organ was used, the more complex and ecient
it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environ-
ment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could
then be passed on to the animals ospring, who would
further develop and perfect them.[16] However, it was the
British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeo-
graphical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian ge-
ology of Lyell, Malthuss writings on population growth,
and his own morphological expertise and extensive natu-
ral observations, who forged a more successful evolution-
ary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning
and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently
reach the same conclusions.[17][18] Although it was the
10.2. FOUNDATIONS OF MODERN BIOLOGY
subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Dar-
wins theory quickly spread through the scientic com-
munity and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly
developing science of biology.
The discovery of the physical representation of heredity
came along with evolutionary principles and population
genetics. In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments
pointed to DNA as the component of chromosomes that
held the trait-carrying units that had become known as
genes. A focus on new kinds of model organisms such
as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the
double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the
10.2.2
transition to the era of molecular genetics. From the
1950s to present times, biology has been vastly extended
in the molecular domain. The genetic code was cracked
by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley and Marshall
Warren Nirenberg after DNA was understood to con-
tain codons. Finally, the Human Genome Project was
launched in 1990 with the goal of mapping the general
human genome. This project was essentially completed in
2003,[19] with further analysis still being published. The
Human Genome Project was the rst step in a globalized
eort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology
into a functional, molecular denition of the human body
and the bodies of other organisms.
10.2 Foundations of modern biol-
ogy
10.2.1 Cell theory
Human cancer cells with nuclei (specically the DNA) stained
blue. The central and rightmost cell are in interphase, so the
entire nuclei are labeled. The cell on the left is going through
mitosis and its DNA has condensed.
Main article: Cell theory
Cell theory states that the cell is the fundamental unit of Darwin theorized that species ourish or die when sub-
life, that all living things are composed of one or more jected to the processes of natural selection or selective
cells, and that all cells arise from other cells through cell breeding.[28] Genetic drift was embraced as an additional
103
division. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the or-
ganisms body derives ultimately from a single cell in a
fertilized egg. The cell is also considered to be the basic
unit in many pathological processes.[20] In addition, the
phenomenon of energy ow occurs in cells in processes
that are part of the function known as metabolism. Fi-
nally, cells contain hereditary information (DNA), which
is passed from cell to cell during cell division. Research
into the origin of life, abiogenesis, amounts to an attempt
to discover the origin of the rst cells.
Evolution
Mutation creates
variation
Unfavorable mutations
selected against
Reproduction and
mutation occur
Favorable mutations
more likely to survive
and reproduce
Natural selection of a population for dark coloration.
Main article: Evolution
A central organizing concept in biology is that life
changes and develops through evolution, and that all life-
forms known have a common origin. The theory of evo-
lution postulates that all organisms on the Earth, both liv-
ing and extinct, have descended from a common ancestor
or an ancestral gene pool. This universal common ances-
tor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about
3.5 billion years ago.[21] Biologists regard the ubiquity of
the genetic code as denitive evidence in favor of the the-
ory of universal common descent for all bacteria, archaea,
and eukaryotes (see: origin of life).[22]
The term evolution was introduced into the scientic
lexicon by Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck in 1809,[23] and
fty years later Charles Darwin posited a scientic model
of natural selection as evolutions driving force.[24][25][26]
(Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer
of this concept as he helped research and experiment with
the concept of evolution.)[27] Evolution is now used to ex-
plain the great variations of life found on Earth.
104 CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY

mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern then translates the RNA into a sequence of amino acids
synthesis of the theory.[29] known as a protein. The translation code from RNA
The evolutionary history of the specieswhich describes codon to amino acid is the same for most organisms. For
the characteristics of the various species from which example, a sequence of DNA that codes for insulin in
it descendedtogether with its genealogical relation- humans also codes for insulin
[32]
when inserted into other
ship to every other species is known as its phylogeny. organisms, such as plants.
Widely varied approaches to biology generate infor- DNA is found as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes, and
mation about phylogeny. These include the compar- circular chromosomes in prokaryotes. A chromosome is
isons of DNA sequences, a product of molecular biol- an organized structure consisting of DNA and histones.
ogy (more particularly genomics), and comparisons of The set of chromosomes in a cell and any other hereditary
fossils or other records of ancient organisms, a product information found in the mitochondria, chloroplasts, or
of paleontology.[30] Biologists organize and analyze evo- other locations is collectively known as a cells genome. In
lutionary relationships through various methods, includ- eukaryotes, genomic DNA is localized in the cell nucleus,
ing phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics. (For a sum- or with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
mary of major events in the evolution of life as currently In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly
understood by biologists, see evolutionary timeline.) shaped body in the cytoplasm called the nucleoid.[33] The
Evolution is relevant to the understanding of the natural genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and
history of life forms and to the understanding of the or- the complete assemblage of this information in an organ-
[34]
ganization of current life forms. But, those organizations ism is called its genotype.
can only be understood in the light of how they came to
be by way of the process of evolution. Consequently, evo- 10.2.4 Homeostasis
lution is central to all elds of biology.[31]
Main article: Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the ability of an open system to regulate
10.2.3 Genetics

Hypothalamus
pollen
CRH
B b
Pituitary Gland

B ACTH
BB Bb
pistil Adrenal Cortex
b Glucocorticoids
Bb bb

The hypothalamus secretes CRH, which directs the pituitary

A Punnett square depicting a cross between two pea plants het-
erozygous for purple (B) and white (b) blossoms
Main article: Genetics
gland to secrete ACTH. In turn, ACTH directs the adrenal cortex
to secrete glucocorticoids, such as cortisol. The GCs then reduce
the rate of secretion by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland
once a sucient amount of GCs has been released.[35]

Genes are the primary units of inheritance in all organ-
isms. A gene is a unit of heredity and corresponds to a
region of DNA that inuences the form or function of
an organism in specic ways. All organisms, from bacte-
ria to animals, share the same basic machinery that copies
and translates DNA into proteins. Cells transcribe a DNA
gene into an RNA version of the gene, and a ribosome
its internal environment to maintain stable conditions by
means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments that
are controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All
living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, ex-
hibit homeostasis.[36]
To maintain dynamic equilibrium and eectively carry
out certain functions, a system must detect and respond
10.3. STUDY AND RESEARCH 105

to perturbations. After the detection of a perturbation, 10.3.1 Structural

a biological system normally responds through negative
feedback that stabilize conditions by reducing or increas- Main articles: Molecular biology, Cell biology, Genetics,
ing the activity of an organ or system. One example is the and Developmental biology
release of glucagon when sugar levels are too low. Molecular biology is the study of biology at the molecular

Energy and human life

Chemical waste
- Carbon dioxide
- Water
Chemical energy
- Carbohydrates
- Fats Heat
ATP
- Others - body's "energy currency"

Heat
metabolism
Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles
and structures.
Basic overview of energy and human life.
level.[42] This eld overlaps with other areas of biology,
particularly those of genetics and biochemistry. Molec-
ular biology is a study of the interactions of the various
10.2.5 Energy systems within a cell, including the interrelationships of
DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and how those inter-
The survival of a living organism depends on the continu-
actions are regulated.
ous input of energy. Chemical reactions that are respon-
sible for its structure and function are tuned to extract The next larger scale, cell biology, studies the structural
energy from substances that act as its food and transform and physiological properties of cells, including their in-
them to help form new cells and sustain them. In this ternal behavior, interactions with other cells, and with
process, molecules of chemical substances that constitute their environment. This is done on both the microscopic
food play two roles; rst, they contain energy that can and molecular levels, for unicellular organisms such as
be transformed and reused in that organisms biological, bacteria, as well as the specialized cells of multicellular
chemical reactions; second, food can be transformed into organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure
new molecular structures (biomolecules) that are of use and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biolog-
to that organism. ical sciences. The similarities and dierences between
cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology.
The organisms responsible for the introduction of energy
into an ecosystem are known as producers or autotrophs. Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such
Nearly all such organisms originally draw their energy structures organs and organ systems.[43]
from the sun.[37] Plants and other phototrophs use so- Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the varia-
lar energy via a process known as photosynthesis to tion of organisms.[44][45] Genes encode the information
convert raw materials into organic molecules, such as needed by cells for the synthesis of proteins, which in
ATP, whose bonds can be broken to release energy.[38] A turn play a central role in inuencing the nal phenotype
few ecosystems, however, depend entirely on energy ex- of the organism. Genetics provides research tools used
tracted by chemotrophs from methane, suldes, or other in the investigation of the function of a particular gene,
non-luminal energy sources.[39] or the analysis of genetic interactions. Within organ-
Some of the energy thus captured produces biomass and isms, genetic information is physically represented as
energy that is available for growth and development of chromosomes, within which it is represented by a par-
other life forms. The majority of the rest of this biomass ticular [DNA sequence|sequence]] of amino acids in par-
and energy are lost as waste molecules and heat. The most ticular DNA molecules.
important processes for converting the energy trapped in Developmental biology studies the process by which or-
chemical substances into energy useful to sustain life are ganisms grow and develop. Developmental biology,
metabolism[40] and cellular respiration.[41] originated from embryology, studies the genetic con-
trol of cell growth, cellular dierentiation, and cel-
lular morphogenesis, which is the process that pro-
10.3 Study and research gressively gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy.
Model organisms for developmental biology include the
106 CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY

round worm Caenorhabditis elegans,[46] the fruit y
Drosophila melanogaster,[47] the zebrash Danio rerio,[48]
the mouse Mus musculus,[49] and the weed Arabidopsis
thaliana.[50][51] (A model organism is a species that is
extensively studied to understand particular biological
phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in
that organism provide insight into the workings of other
organisms.)[52]
by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes
are generally similar, although they may place some
early-branching groups very dierently, presumably
owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships
of the three domains are still being debated.
Main article: Systematics

10.3.2 Physiological
Species
Main article: Physiology

Physiology is the study of the mechanical, physical, and

biochemical processes of living organisms function as a
whole. The theme of structure to function is central
Genus
to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been
divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but
some principles of physiology are universal, no matter
what particular organism is being studied. For example, Family
what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can
also apply to human cells. The eld of animal physiology
extends the tools and methods of human physiology to
non-human species. Plant physiology borrows techniques
from both research elds. Order
Physiology is the study the interaction of how, for ex-
ample, the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and
circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of
these systems is shared with suchmedically oriented dis-
ciplines as neurology and immunology.
Class

10.3.3 Evolutionary
Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and
Phylum
descent of species, and their change over time. It em-
ploys scientists from many taxonomically oriented disci-
plines, for example, those with special training in partic-
ular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, botany,
or herpetology, but are of use in answering more general
Kingdom
questions about evolution.
Evolutionary biology is partly based on paleontology,
which uses the fossil record to answer questions about
the mode and tempo of evolution,[53] and partly on the Domain
developments in areas such as population genetics.[54] In
the 1980s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary
biology after its initial exclusion from the modern synthe-
sis through the study of evolutionary developmental biol-
ogy.[55] Phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy are re- Life
lated elds often considered part of evolutionary biology.

10.3.4 Systematic The hierarchy of biological classication's eight major taxonomic

ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown. This diagram
uses a 3 Domains / 6 Kingdoms format
A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA
gene data, showing the separation of the three domains
bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially
10.3. STUDY AND RESEARCH 107

Multiple speciation events create a tree structured system context for them, was proposed in 2011.[68][69][70] How-
of relationships between species. The role of systematics ever, the International Botanical Congress of 2011 de-
is to study these relationships and thus the dierences clined to consider the BioCode proposal. The ICVCN
and similarities between species and groups of species.[56] remains outside the BioCode, which does not include vi-
However, systematics was an active eld of research long ral classication.
before evolutionary thinking was common.[57]
Traditionally, living things have been divided into
ve kingdoms: Monera; Protista; Fungi; Plantae; 10.3.5 Kingdoms
Animalia.[58] However, many scientists now consider this
ve-kingdom system outdated. Modern alternative clas-
Main article: Kingdom (biology)
sication systems generally begin with the three-domain
system: Archaea (originally Archaebacteria); Bacteria
(originally Eubacteria) and Eukaryota (including protists,
fungi, plants, and animals)[59] These domains reect
whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as dierences
in the chemical composition of key biomolecules such as
ribosomes.[59]
Animalia Bos primigenius
Further, each kingdom is broken down recursively un- taurus
til each species is separately classied. The order is:
Domain; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order; Family;
Genus; Species.
Outside of these categories, there are obligate intracel-
lular parasites that are on the edge of life[60] in terms
of metabolic activity, meaning that many scientists do
not actually classify such structures as alive, due to their
lack of at least one or more of the fundamental functions
or characteristics that dene life. They are classied as
viruses, viroids, prions, or satellites. Planta Triticum
The scientic name of an organism is generated from
its genus and species. For example, humans are listed
as Homo sapiens. Homo is the genus, and sapiens the
species. When writing the scientic name of an organ-
ism, it is proper to capitalize the rst letter in the genus
and put all of the species in lowercase.[61] Additionally,
the entire term may be italicized or underlined.[62]
The dominant classication system is called the Linnaean
taxonomy. It includes ranks and binomial nomencla- Fungi Morchella esculenta
ture. How organisms are named is governed by inter-
national agreements such as the International Code of
Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), the
International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN),
and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacte-
ria (ICNB). The classication of viruses, viroids, prions,
and all other sub-viral agents that demonstrate biological
characteristics is conducted by the International Commit- Stramenopila/Chromista
tee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) and is known as the Fucus serratus
International Code of Viral Classication and Nomencla-
ture (ICVCN).[63][64][65][66] However, several other viral
classication systems do exist.
A merging draft, BioCode, was published in 1997 in an
attempt to standardize nomenclature in these three ar-
eas, but has yet to be formally adopted.[67] The BioCode
draft has received little attention since 1997; its origi-
nally planned implementation date of January 1, 2000, Bacteria Gemmatimonas
has passed unnoticed. A revised BioCode that, instead aurantiaca (- = 1 Micrometer)
of replacing the existing codes, would provide a unied
108 CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY

become more complex when two or more species inter-

act in an ecosystem.
Ecological systems are studied at several dierent lev-
els, from the scale of the ecology of individual organ-
isms, to those of populations, to the ecosystems and -
nally the biosphere. The term population biology is often
Archaea Halobacteria
used interchangeably with population ecology, although
population biology is more frequently used in the case of
diseases, viruses, and microbes, while the term popula-
tion ecology is more commonly applied to the study of
plants and animals. Ecology draws on many subdisci-
plines.
Ethology is the study of animal behavior (particularly that
of social animals such as primates and canids), and is
sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethologists
Virus Gamma phage have been particularly concerned with the evolution of
behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of
the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the rst
modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book, The
10.3.6 Ecological and environmental Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, inu-
enced many ethologists to come.[73]
Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms
on the Earth, focusing on such topics as plate tectonics,
climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.

10.4 Basic unresolved problems in

biology
Main article: List of unsolved problems in biology

Despite the profound advances made over recent decades

in our understanding of lifes fundamental processes,
some basic problems have remained unresolved. One of
Mutual symbiosis between clownsh of the genus Amphiprion the major unresolved problems in biology is the primary
that dwell among the tentacles of tropical sea anemones. The ter- adaptive function of sex, and particularly its key processes
ritorial sh protects the anemone from anemone-eating sh, and
in eukaryotes of meiosis and homologous recombination.
in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown
sh from its predators.
One view is that sex evolved primarily as an adaptation
that promoted increased genetic diversity (see references
e.g.[74][75] ). An alternative view is that sex is an adap-
Main articles: Ecology, Ethology, Behavior, and
tation for promoting accurate DNA repair in germ-line
Biogeography
DNA, and that increased genetic diversity is primarily a
byproduct that may be useful in the long run.[76][77] (See
Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance also Evolution of sexual reproduction).
of living organisms, the interaction between them and
Another basic unresolved problem in biology is the bi-
their environment.[71] An organism shares an environ-
ologic basis of aging. At present, there is no consensus
ment that includes other organisms and biotic factors as
view on the underlying cause of aging. Various compet-
well as local abiotic factors (non-living) such as climate
[72] ing theories are outlined in Ageing Theories.
and ecology. One reason that biological systems can
be dicult to study is that so many dierent interac-
tions with other organisms and the environment are pos-
sible, even on small scales. A microscopic bacterium re- 10.5 Branches
sponding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its en-
vironment as much as a lion searching for food in the These are the main branches of biology:[78][79]
African savanna. For any species, behaviors can be co-
operative, competitive, parasitic, or symbiotic. Matters Aerobiology the study of airborne organic particles
10.5. BRANCHES
Agriculture the study of producing crops and rais-
ing livestock, with an emphasis on practical applica-
tions
Anatomy the study of form and function, in plants,
animals, and other organisms, or specically in hu-
mans
Histology the study of cells and tissues, a mi-
croscopic branch of anatomy
Astrobiology (also known as exobiology, exopaleon-
tology, and bioastronomy) the study of evolution,
distribution, and future of life in the universe
Biochemistry the study of the chemical reactions
required for life to exist and function, usually a focus
on the cellular level
Bioengineering the study of biology through the
means of engineering with an emphasis on applied
knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
Biogeography the study of the distribution of
species spatially and temporally
Bioinformatics the use of information technology
for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and
other biological data
Biolinguistics the study of the biology and evolu-
tion of language.
Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology) the
quantitative or mathematical study of biological
processes, with an emphasis on modeling
Biomechanics often considered a branch of
medicine, the study of the mechanics of living
beings, with an emphasis on applied use through
prosthetics or orthotics
Biomedical research the study of health and dis-
ease
Pharmacology the study and practical appli-
cation of preparation, use, and eects of drugs
and synthetic medicines
Biomusicology the study of music from a biologi-
cal point of view.
Biophysics the study of biological processes
through physics, by applying the theories and meth-
ods traditionally used in the physical sciences
Biosemiotics the study of biological processes
through semiotics, by applying the models of
meaning-making and communication
Biotechnology the study of the manipulation of
living matter, including genetic modication and
synthetic biology
109
Synthetic biology research integrating biol-
ogy and engineering; construction of biologi-
cal functions not found in nature
Building biology the study of the indoor living en-
vironment
Botany the study of plants
Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete
unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions
that occur within a living cell
Cognitive biology the study of cognition as a bio-
logical function
Conservation biology the study of the preser-
vation, protection, or restoration of the natural
environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and
wildlife
Cryobiology the study of the eects of lower than
normally preferred temperatures on living beings
Developmental biology the study of the processes
through which an organism forms, from zygote to
full structure
Embryology the study of the development of
embryo (from fecundation to birth)
Ecology the study of the interactions of living or-
ganisms with one another and with the non-living
elements of their environment
Environmental biology the study of the natural
world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially
as aected by human activity
Epidemiology a major component of public health
research, studying factors aecting the health of
populations
Evolutionary biology the study of the origin and
descent of species over time
Genetics the study of genes and heredity.
Epigenetics the study of heritable changes in
gene expression or cellular phenotype caused
by mechanisms other than changes in the un-
derlying DNA sequence
Hematology (also known as Haematology) the
study of blood and blood-forming organs.
Integrative biology the study of whole organisms
Limnology the study of inland waters
Marine biology (or Biological oceanography) the
study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and
other living beings
110
Microbiology the study of microscopic organisms
(microorganisms) and their interactions with other
living things
Bacteriology the study of bacteria
Mycology the study of fungi
Parasitology the study of parasites and para-
sitism
Virology the study of viruses and some other
virus-like agents
Molecular biology the study of biology and bio-
logical functions at the molecular level, some cross
over with biochemistry
Nanobiology the study of how nanotechnology can
be used in biology, and the study of living organisms
and parts on the nanoscale level of organization
Neurobiology the study of the nervous system, in-
cluding anatomy, physiology and pathology
Population biology the study of groups of conspe-
cic organisms, including
Population ecology the study of how popu-
lation dynamics and extinction
Population genetics the study of changes in
gene frequencies in populations of organisms
Paleontology the study of fossils and sometimes
geographic evidence of prehistoric life
Pathobiology or pathology the study of diseases,
and the causes, processes, nature, and development
of disease
Physiology the study of the functioning of living
organisms and the organs and parts of living organ-
isms
Phytopathology the study of plant diseases (also
called Plant Pathology)
Psychobiology the study of the biological bases of
psychology
Quantum biology the study of quantum mechanics
to biological objects and problems.
Sociobiology the study of the biological bases of
sociology
Structural biology a branch of molecular biology,
biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the
molecular structure of biological macromolecules
Zoology the study of animals, including classi-
cation, physiology, development, and behavior, in-
cluding:
Ethology the study of animal behavior
CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY
Entomology the study of insects
Herpetology the study of reptiles and am-
phibians
Ichthyology the study of sh
Mammalogy the study of mammals
Ornithology the study of birds
10.6 See also
Glossary of biology
List of biological websites
List of biologists
List of biology topics
List of omics topics in biology
List of biology journals
Outline of biology
Reproduction
Terminology of biology
Periodic table of life sciences in Tinbergens four
questions
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[51] Coelho SM, Peters AF, Charrier B, et al. (2007). Com-
plex life cycles of multicellular eukaryotes: new ap-
proaches based on the use of model organisms. Gene.
406 (12): 15270. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2007.07.025.
PMID 17870254.
[52] Fields S, Johnston M (2005). Cell biology. Whither
model organism research?". Science. 307 (5717): 1885
6. doi:10.1126/science.1108872. PMID 15790833.
[53] Jablonski D (1999). The future of the fos-
sil record. Science. 284 (5423): 211416.
doi:10.1126/science.284.5423.2114. PMID 10381868.
[54] Gillespie, John H. (1998) Population Genetics: A Concise
Guide, Johns Hopkins Press. ISBN 0-8018-5755-4.
[55] Vassiliki Betta Smocovitis (1996) Unifying Biology: the
evolutionary synthesis and evolutionary biology. Princeton
University Press. ISBN 0-691-03343-9.
[56] Neill, Campbell (1996). Biology; Fourth edition. The
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company. p. G-21
(Glossary). ISBN 0-8053-1940-9.
[57] Douglas, Futuyma (1998). Evolutionary Biology; Third
edition. Sinauer Associates. p. 88. ISBN 0-87893-189-9.
CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY
Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth (3rd ed.).
WH Freeman & Co. ISBN 978-0-7167-3183-2. OCLC
223623098.
[59] Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). Towards a
natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains
Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. Proc Natl Acad Sci
USA. 87 (12): 45769. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W.
doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159 . PMID
2112744.
[60] Rybicki EP (1990). The classication of organisms at the
edge of life, or problems with virus systematics. S Aft J
Sci. 86: 182186.
[61] McNeill, J.; Barrie, F.R.; Buck, W.R.; Demoulin, V.;
Greuter, W.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Herendeen, P.S.; Knapp,
S.; Marhold, K.; Prado, J.; Prud'homme Van Reine,
W.F.; Smith, G.F.; Wiersema, J.H.; Turland, N.J. (2012).
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and
plants (Melbourne Code) adopted by the Eighteenth In-
ternational Botanical Congress Melbourne, Australia, July
2011. Regnum Vegetabile 154. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag
KG. ISBN 978-3-87429-425-6. Recommendation 60F
[62] Silyn-Roberts, Heather (2000). Writing for Science and
Engineering: Papers, Presentation. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann. p. 198. ISBN 0-7506-4636-5.
[63] ICTV Virus Taxonomy 2009. Ictvonline.org. Retrieved
2013-10-02.
[64] Index of Viruses Pospiviroidae (2006). In: ICTVdB
The Universal Virus Database, version 4. Bchen-
Osmond, C (Ed), Columbia University, New York, USA.
Version 4 is based on Virus Taxonomy, Classication and
Nomenclature of Viruses, 8th ICTV Report of the Inter-
national Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Fauquet,
CM, Mayo, MA, Manilo, J, Desselberger, U, and Ball,
LA (EDS) (2005) Elsevier/Academic Press, pp. 1259.
[65] Prusiner SB; Baldwin M; Collinge J; DeArmond SJ;
Marsh R; Tateishi J; Weissmann C. 90. Prions ICTVdB
Index of Viruses. United States National Institutes of
Health. Archived from the original on 2009-08-27. Re-
trieved 2009-10-28.
[66] Mayo MA; Berns KI; Fritsch C; Jackson AO; Leibowitz
MJ; Taylor JM. 81. Satellites ICTVdB Index of
Viruses. United States National Institutes of Health.
Archived from the original on 2009-05-01. Retrieved
2009-10-28.
[67] McNeill, John (1996-11-04). The BioCode: Integrated
biological nomenclature for the 21st century?". Proceed-
ings of a Mini-Symposium on Biological Nomenclature in
the 21st Century.
[68] The Draft BioCode (2011)". International Committee on
Bionomenclature (ICB).
[69] Greuter, W.; Garrity, G.; Hawksworth, D.L.; Jahn, R.;
Kirk, P.M.; Knapp, S.; McNeill, J.; Michel, E.; Patter-
son, D.J.; Pyle, R.; Tindall, B.J. (2011). Draft BioCode
(2011): Principles and rules regulating the naming of or-
ganisms. Taxon. 60: 201212.
10.9. EXTERNAL LINKS
[70] Hawksworth, David L. (2011). Introducing the Draft
BioCode (2011)". Taxon. 60: 199200.
[71] Begon, M.; Townsend, C. R.; Harper, J. L. (2006). Ecol-
ogy: From individuals to ecosystems. (4th ed.). Blackwell.
ISBN 1-4051-1117-8.
[72] Habitats of the world. New York: Marshall Cavendish.
2004. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-7614-7523-1.
[73] Black, J (2002). Darwin in the world of emotions.
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 95 (6): 311
3. doi:10.1258/jrsm.95.6.311. PMC 1279921 . PMID
12042386.
[74] Gerstein, A. C.; Otto, S. P. (2006). Why have
sex? The population genetics of sex and recombina-
tion. Biochemical Society Transactions. 34 (4): 519522.
doi:10.1042/BST0340519. PMID 16856849.
[75] Agrawal, A. F. (2006). Evolution of Sex: Why Do
Organisms Shue Their Genotypes?". Current Biology.
16 (17): R696R704. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.063.
PMID 16950096.
10.9 External links
[76] Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol and Michod, Richard
E. (2011). Meiosis as an Evolutionary Adaptation for
DNA Repair. Chapter 19 in DNA Repair. Inna Kruman
editor. InTech Open Publisher. doi:10.5772/25117
[77] Hrandl, Elvira (2013). Meiosis and the Paradox of Sex
in Nature, Meiosis, Dr. Carol Bernstein (Ed.), ISBN 978-
953-51-1197-9, InTech, doi:10.5772/56542.
[78] Branches of Biology. Biology-online.org. Retrieved
2013-10-02.
[79] Biology on. Bellaonline.com. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
10.8 Further reading
Main article: Bibliography of biology
Journal links
Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, A; Lewis, J; Ra, M;
Roberts, K; Walter, P (2002). Molecular Biology
of the Cell (4th ed.). Garland. ISBN 978-0-8153-
3218-3. OCLC 145080076.
Begon, Michael; Townsend, CR; Harper, JL (2005).
Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems (4th ed.).
Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 978-1-4051-
1117-1. OCLC 57639896.
Campbell, Neil (2004). Biology (7th ed.).
Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company. ISBN
0-8053-7146-X. OCLC 71890442.
Colinvaux, Paul (1979). Why Big Fierce Animals
are Rare: An Ecologists Perspective (reissue ed.).
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02364-6.
OCLC 10081738.
113
Mayr, Ernst (1982). The Growth of Biological
Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance.
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-36446-
2.
Hoagland, Mahlon (2001). The Way Life Works
(reprint ed.). Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc.
ISBN 0-7637-1688-X. OCLC 223090105.
Janovy, John Jr. (2004). On Becoming a Biolo-
gist (2nd ed.). Bison Books. ISBN 0-8032-7620-6.
OCLC 55138571.
Johnson, George B. (2005). Biology, Visualizing
Life. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 0-03-
016723-X. OCLC 36306648.
Tobin, Allan; Dusheck, Jennie (2005). Asking
About Life (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
ISBN 0-534-40653-X.
Biology at DMOZ
OSUs Phylocode
Biology Online Wiki Dictionary
MIT video lecture series on biology
Biology and Bioethics.
Biological Systems Idaho National Laboratory
The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed
Internet project containing information about phy-
logeny and biodiversity.
The Study of Biology
Using the Biological Literature Web Resources
PLos Biology A peer-reviewed, open-access journal
published by the Public Library of Science
Current Biology General journal publishing original
research from all areas of biology
Biology Letters A high-impact Royal Society journal
publishing peer-reviewed Biology papers of general
interest
Science Magazine Internationally Renowned AAAS
Science Publication See Sections of the Life Sci-
ences
International Journal of Biological Sciences A bio-
logical journal publishing signicant peer-reviewed
scientic papers
114 CHAPTER 10. BIOLOGY

Perspectives in Biology and Medicine An

interdisciplinary scholarly journal publishing
essays of broad relevance

Life Science Log

Chapter 11

Electrical engineering

Electrical and computer engineering redirects here.

For contents about computer engineering, see Computer
engineering.

Electrical engineers design complex power systems on a macro-

scopic level as well as microscopic electronic devices...

Electrical engineering is a eld of engineering that gen-

erally deals with the study and application of electricity,
electronics, and electromagnetism. This eld rst became
...smaller length scale control centers...
an identiable occupation in the later half of the 19th cen-
tury after commercialization of the electric telegraph, the
telephone, and electric power distribution and use. Sub-
sequently, broadcasting and recording media made elec-
tronics part of daily life. The invention of the transistor,
and later the integrated circuit, brought down the cost of
electronics to the point they can be used in almost any
household object.
Electrical engineering has now subdivided into a wide
range of subelds including electronics, digital com-
puters, power engineering, telecommunications, control
systems, radio-frequency engineering, signal processing,
instrumentation, and microelectronics. Many of these
subdisciplines overlap and also overlap with other en-
gineering branches, spanning a huge number of spe-
cializations such as hardware engineering, power elec- ...and electronic circuitry, which recently achieved the record set-
tronics, electromagnetics & waves, microwave engineer- ting length of 1 nanometer for a single logic gate.[1]
ing, nanotechnology, electrochemistry, renewable ener-
gies, mechatronics, electrical materials science, and many
more.

115
116
Electrical engineers typically hold a degree in electrical
engineering or electronic engineering. Practicing engi-
neers may have professional certication and be members
of a professional body. Such bodies include the Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the
Institution of Engineering and Technology (professional
society) (IET).
Electrical engineers work in a very wide range of indus-
tries and the skills required are likewise variable. These
range from basic circuit theory to the management skills
required of a project manager. The tools and equipment
that an individual engineer may need are similarly vari-
able, ranging from a simple voltmeter to a top end ana-
lyzer to sophisticated design and manufacturing software.
11.1 History
Main article: History of electrical engineering
Electricity has been a subject of scientic interest since at
least the early 17th century. A prominent early electrical
scientist was William Gilbert who was the rst to draw a
clear distinction between magnetism and static electricity
and is credited with establishing the term electricity.[2]
He also designed the versorium: a device that detected
the presence of statically charged objects. Then in 1762
Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke invented, and in
1775 Alessandro Volta improved, a device (for which
Volta coined the name electrophorus) that produced a
static electric charge, and by 1800 Volta had developed
the voltaic pile, a forerunner of the electric battery.
11.1.1 19th century
In the 19th century, research into the subject started to
intensify. Notable developments in this century include
the work of Georg Ohm, who in 1827 quantied the re-
lationship between the electric current and potential dif-
ference in a conductor, of Michael Faraday (the discov-
erer of electromagnetic induction in 1831), and of James
Clerk Maxwell, who in 1873 published a unied theory
of electricity and magnetism in his treatise Electricity and
Magnetism.[3]
Electrical engineering became a profession in the later
19th century. Practitioners had created a global electric
telegraph network and the rst professional electrical en-
gineering institutions were founded in the UK and USA
to support the new discipline. Although it is impossible
to precisely pinpoint a rst electrical engineer, Francis
Ronalds stands ahead of the eld, who created the rst
working electric telegraph system in 1816 and docu-
mented his vision of how the world could be transformed
by electricity.[4][5] Over 50 years later, he joined the
new Society of Telegraph Engineers (soon to be renamed
the Institution of Electrical Engineers) where he was re-
CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
The discoveries of Michael Faraday formed the foundation of
electric motor technology
garded by other members as the rst of their cohort.[6]
By the end of the 19th century, the world had been for-
ever changed by the rapid communication made possible
by the engineering development of land-lines, submarine
cables, and, from about 1890, wireless telegraphy.
Practical applications and advances in such elds cre-
ated an increasing need for standardised units of mea-
sure. They led to the international standardization of the
units volt, ampere, coulomb, ohm, farad, and henry. This
was achieved at an international conference in Chicago
in 1893.[7] The publication of these standards formed the
basis of future advances in standardisation in various in-
dustries, and in many countries the denitions were im-
mediately recognised in relevant legislation.[8]
During these years, the study of electricity was largely
considered to be a subeld of physics. Thats because
early electrical technology was electromechanical in na-
ture. The Technische Universitt Darmstadt founded
the worlds rst department of electrical engineering in
1882. The rst electrical engineering degree program
was started at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in the physics department under Professor Charles
Cross, [9] though it was Cornell University to produce the
worlds rst electrical engineering graduates in 1885.[10]
The rst course in electrical engineering was taught in
1883 in Cornells Sibley College of Mechanical Engineer-
ing and Mechanic Arts.[11] It was not until about 1885 that
Cornell President Andrew Dickson White established the
rst Department of Electrical Engineering in the United
States.[12] In the same year, University College London
founded the rst chair of electrical engineering in Great
11.1. HISTORY 117

Britain.[13] Professor Mendell P. Weinbach at University

of Missouri soon followed suit by establishing the elec-
trical engineering department in 1886.[14] Afterwards,
universities and institutes of technology gradually started
to oer electrical engineering programs to their students
all over the world.

Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky
developed standard 3-phase (AC) systems

Thomas Edison, electric light and

(DC) power supply networks

Charles Proteus Steinmetz,

AC mathematical theories for engineers

Kroly Zipernowsky, Ott

Blthy, Miksa Dri, the ZDB transformer

Oliver Heaviside, developed theo-

retical models for electric circuits

William Stanley, Jr., transformers

During these decades use of electrical engineering in-
creased dramatically. In 1882, Thomas Edison switched
on the worlds rst large-scale electric power network that
provided 110 volts direct current (DC) to 59 cus-
tomers on Manhattan Island in New York City. In 1884,
Sir Charles Parsons invented the steam turbine allowing
for more ecient electric power generation. Alternating
current, with its ability to transmit power more eciently
over long distances via the use of transformers, devel-
oped rapidly in the 1880s and 1890s with transformer
Galileo Ferraris, electrical theory, designs by Kroly Zipernowsky, Ott Blthy and Miksa
induction motor Dri (later called ZBD transformers), Lucien Gaulard,
John Dixon Gibbs and William Stanley, Jr.. Practi-
cal AC motor designs including induction motors were
independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola
Tesla and further developed into a practical three-phase
form by Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky and Charles Eu-
gene Lancelot Brown.[15] Charles Steinmetz and Oliver
Heaviside contributed to the theoretical basis of alternat-
ing current engineering.[16][17] The spread in the use of
AC set o in the United States what has been called the
Nikola Tesla, practical polyphase War of Currents between a George Westinghouse backed
(AC) and induction motor designs AC system and a Thomas Edison backed DC power sys-
tem, with AC being adopted as the overall standard.[18]
118
Guglielmo Marconi known for his pioneering work on long dis-
tance radio transmission
11.1.2 More modern developments
During the development of radio, many scientists and
inventors contributed to radio technology and electron-
ics. The mathematical work of James Clerk Maxwell
during the 1850s had shown the relationship of dier-
ent forms of electromagnetic radiation including pos-
sibility of invisible airborne waves (later called radio
waves). In his classic physics experiments of 1888,
Heinrich Hertz proved Maxwells theory by transmitting
radio waves with a spark-gap transmitter, and detected
them by using simple electrical devices. Other physicists
experimented with these new waves and in the process
developed devices for transmitting and detecting them.
In 1895, Guglielmo Marconi began work on a way to
adapt the known methods of transmitting and detecting
these Hertzian waves into a purpose built commercial
wireless telegraphic system. Early on, he sent wireless
signals over a distance of one and a half miles. In Decem-
ber 1901, he sent wireless waves that were not aected
by the curvature of the Earth. Marconi later transmitted
the wireless signals across the Atlantic between Poldhu,
Cornwall, and St. Johns, Newfoundland, a distance of
2,100 miles (3,400 km).[19]
In 1897, Karl Ferdinand Braun introduced the cathode
ray tube as part of an oscilloscope, a crucial enabling
technology for electronic television.[20] John Fleming in-
vented the rst radio tube, the diode, in 1904. Two years
later, Robert von Lieben and Lee De Forest indepen-
dently developed the amplier tube, called the triode.[21]
CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
In 1920, Albert Hull developed the magnetron which
would eventually lead to the development of the
microwave oven in 1946 by Percy Spencer.[22][23] In
1934, the British military began to make strides toward
radar (which also uses the magnetron) under the direction
of Dr Wimperis, culminating in the operation of the rst
radar station at Bawdsey in August 1936.[24]
A replica of the rst working transistor.
In 1941, Konrad Zuse presented the Z3, the worlds rst
fully functional and programmable computer using elec-
tromechanical parts. In 1943, Tommy Flowers designed
and built the Colossus, the worlds rst fully functional,
electronic, digital and programmable computer.[25] In
1946, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Computer) of John Presper Eckert and John Mauchly
followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic
performance of these machines allowed engineers to de-
velop completely new technologies and achieve new ob-
jectives, including the Apollo program which culminated
in landing astronauts on the Moon.[26]
11.1.3 Solid-state transistors
The invention of the transistor in late 1947 by William B.
Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain of the Bell
Telephone Laboratories opened the door for more com-
pact devices and led to the development of the integrated
circuit in 1958 by Jack Kilby and independently in 1959
by Robert Noyce.[27] Starting in 1968, Ted Ho and a
team at the Intel Corporation invented the rst commer-
cial microprocessor, which foreshadowed the personal
computer. The Intel 4004 was a four-bit processor re-
leased in 1971, but in 1973 the Intel 8080, an eight-bit
processor, made the rst personal computer, the Altair
8800, possible.[28]
11.2. SUBDISCIPLINES 119

11.2 Subdisciplines
Electrical engineering has many subdisciplines, the most
common of which are listed below. Although there are
electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these
subdisciplines, many deal with a combination of them.
Sometimes certain elds, such as electronic engineering
and computer engineering, are considered separate disci-
plines in their own right.

11.2.1 Power

Main article: Power engineering

Power engineering deals with the generation,
Control systems play a critical role in spaceight.

manner.[31] To implement such controllers, electrical en-

gineers may use electronic circuits, digital signal pro-
cessors, microcontrollers, and programmable logic con-
trols (PLCs). Control engineering has a wide range of
applications from the ight and propulsion systems of
commercial airliners to the cruise control present in many
modern automobiles.[32] It also plays an important role in
industrial automation.
Control engineers often utilize feedback when design-
ing control systems. For example, in an automobile with
cruise control the vehicles speed is continuously mon-
Power pole
itored and fed back to the system which adjusts the
motors power output accordingly. Where there is reg-
transmission, and distribution of electricity as well ular feedback, control theory can be used to determine
as the design of a range of related devices.[29] These how the system responds to such feedback.[33]
include transformers, electric generators, electric motors,
high voltage engineering, and power electronics. In many
regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical 11.2.3 Electronics
network called a power grid that connects a variety of
generators together with users of their energy. Users Main article: Electronic engineering
purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the Electronic engineering involves the design and testing of
costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power
engineers may work on the design and maintenance of
the power grid as well as the power systems that connect
to it.[30] Such systems are called on-grid power systems
and may supply the grid with additional power, draw
power from the grid, or do both. Power engineers may
also work on systems that do not connect to the grid,
called o-grid power systems, which in some cases
are preferable to on-grid systems. The future includes
Satellite controlled power systems, with feedback in real
time to prevent power surges and prevent blackouts.

11.2.2 Control
Electronic components
Main article: Control engineering
Control engineering focuses on the modeling of a diverse electronic circuits that use the properties of components
range of dynamic systems and the design of controllers such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes, and
that will cause these systems to behave in the desired transistors to achieve a particular functionality.[30] The
120 CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

tuned circuit, which allows the user of a radio to lter fabricating wafers of semiconductors such as silicon (at
out all but a single station, is just one example of such a higher frequencies, compound semiconductors like gal-
circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal condi- lium arsenide and indium phosphide) to obtain the de-
tioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph. sired transport of electronic charge and control of cur-
Prior to the Second World War, the subject was com- rent. The eld of microelectronics involves a signicant
monly known as radio engineering and basically was amount of chemistry and material science and requires
restricted to aspects of communications and radar, the electronic engineer working in the eld to have a very
commercial radio, and early television.[30] Later, in post good working knowledge of the eects of quantum me-
chanics.[38]
war years, as consumer devices began to be developed,
the eld grew to include modern television, audio sys-
tems, computers, and microprocessors. In the mid-to-late 11.2.5 Signal processing
1950s, the term radio engineering gradually gave way to
the name electronic engineering. Main article: Signal processing
Before the invention of the integrated circuit in 1959,[34] Signal processing deals with the analysis and manipula-
electronic circuits were constructed from discrete compo-
nents that could be manipulated by humans. These dis-
crete circuits consumed much space and power and were
limited in speed, although they are still common in some
applications. By contrast, integrated circuits packed a
large numberoften millionsof tiny electrical compo-
nents, mainly transistors,[35] into a small chip around the
size of a coin. This allowed for the powerful computers
and other electronic devices we see today.

11.2.4 Microelectronics

Main article: Microelectronics A Bayer lter on a CCD requires signal processing to get a red,
Microelectronics engineering deals with the design and green, and blue value at each pixel.

tion of signals.[39] Signals can be either analog, in which

case the signal varies continuously according to the in-
formation, or digital, in which case the signal varies ac-
cording to a series of discrete values representing the in-
formation. For analog signals, signal processing may in-
volve the amplication and ltering of audio signals for
audio equipment or the modulation and demodulation of
signals for telecommunications. For digital signals, signal
processing may involve the compression, error detection
and error correction of digitally sampled signals.[40]
Signal Processing is a very mathematically oriented and
intensive area forming the core of digital signal process-
ing and it is rapidly expanding with new applications in
every eld of electrical engineering such as communica-
Microprocessor tions, control, radar, audio engineering, broadcast engi-
neering, power electronics, and biomedical engineering
microfabrication of very small electronic circuit compo- as many already existing analog systems are replaced with
nents for use in an integrated circuit or sometimes for their digital counterparts. Analog signal processing is still
use on their own as a general electronic component.[36] important in the design of many control systems.
The most common microelectronic components are DSP processor ICs are found in every type of mod-
semiconductor transistors, although all main electronic ern electronic systems and products including, SDTV |
components (resistors, capacitors etc.) can be created at HDTV sets,[41] radios and mobile communication de-
a microscopic level. Nanoelectronics is the further scal- vices, Hi-Fi audio equipment, Dolby noise reduction al-
ing of devices down to nanometer levels. Modern devices gorithms, GSM mobile phones, mp3 multimedia players,
are already in the nanometer regime, with below 100 nm camcorders and digital cameras, automobile control sys-
processing having been standard since about 2002.[37] tems, noise cancelling headphones, digital spectrum an-
Microelectronic components are created by chemically alyzers, intelligent missile guidance, radar, GPS based
11.2. SUBDISCIPLINES 121

cruise control systems, and all kinds of image processing,

video processing, audio processing, and speech process-
ing systems.[42]

11.2.6 Telecommunications
Main article: Telecommunications engineering
Telecommunications engineering focuses on the

Flight instruments provide pilots with the tools to control aircraft

analytically.

ight instruments measure variables such as wind speed

and altitude to enable pilots the control of aircraft analyt-
ically. Similarly, thermocouples use the Peltier-Seebeck
eect to measure the temperature dierence between
two points.[48]
Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as
Satellite dishes are a crucial component in the analysis of satellite the sensors of larger electrical systems. For example, a
information. thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnaces
temperature remains constant.[49] For this reason, instru-
transmission of information across a channel such as a mentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart
coax cable, optical ber or free space.[43] Transmissions of control engineering.
across free space require information to be encoded
in a carrier signal to shift the information to a carrier
frequency suitable for transmission; this is known as
11.2.8 Computers
modulation. Popular analog modulation techniques
Main article: Computer engineering
include amplitude modulation and frequency modula-
Computer engineering deals with the design of
tion.[44] The choice of modulation aects the cost and
performance of a system and these two factors must be
balanced carefully by the engineer.
Once the transmission characteristics of a system are
determined, telecommunication engineers design the
transmitters and receivers needed for such systems. These
two are sometimes combined to form a two-way commu-
nication device known as a transceiver. A key considera-
tion in the design of transmitters is their power consump-
tion as this is closely related to their signal strength.[45][46]
If the signal strength of a transmitter is insucient the
signals information will be corrupted by noise.

11.2.7 Instrumentation Supercomputers are used in elds as diverse as computational

Main article: Instrumentation engineering
Instrumentation engineering deals with the design of
devices to measure physical quantities such as pressure,
ow, and temperature.[47] The design of such instrumen-
tation requires a good understanding of physics that of-
ten extends beyond electromagnetic theory. For example,
biology and geographic information systems.
computers and computer systems. This may involve the
design of new hardware, the design of PDAs, tablets,
and supercomputers, or the use of computers to con-
trol an industrial plant.[50] Computer engineers may also
work on a systems software. However, the design
122 CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

of complex software systems is often the domain of Aerospace engineering and robotics an example is the
software engineering, which is usually considered a sep- most recent electric propulsion and ion propulsion.
arate discipline.[51] Desktop computers represent a tiny
fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work
on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a 11.3 Education
range of devices including video game consoles and DVD
players.
Main article: Education and training of electrical and
electronics engineers
Electrical engineers typically possess an academic de-
11.2.9 Related disciplines

Oscilloscope

gree with a major in electrical engineering, electronics

The Bird VIP Infant ventilator
Mechatronics is an engineering discipline which deals
with the convergence of electrical and mechanical
systems. Such combined systems are known as
electromechanical systems and have widespread adop-
tion. Examples include automated manufacturing
systems,[52] heating, ventilation and air-conditioning
systems,[53] and various subsystems of aircraft and
automobiles. [54]
The term mechatronics is typically used to refer
to macroscopic systems but futurists have predicted
the emergence of very small electromechanical de-
vices. Already, such small devices, known as
Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in
automobiles to tell airbags when to deploy,[55] in digital
projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers
to create nozzles for high denition printing. In the fu-
ture it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable
medical devices and improve optical communication.[56]
Biomedical engineering is another related discipline, con-
cerned with the design of medical equipment. This in-
cludes xed equipment such as ventilators, MRI scan-
ners,[57] and electrocardiograph monitors as well as mo-
bile equipment such as cochlear implants, articial pace-
makers, and articial hearts.
engineering, electrical engineering technology,[58] or
electrical and electronic engineering.[59][60] The same
fundamental principles are taught in all programs, though
emphasis may vary according to title. The length of study
for such a degree is usually four or ve years and the com-
pleted degree may be designated as a Bachelor of Sci-
ence in Electrical/Electronics Engineering Technology,
Bachelor of Engineering, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor
of Technology, or Bachelor of Applied Science depend-
ing on the university. The bachelors degree generally
includes units covering physics, mathematics, computer
science, project management, and a variety of topics in
electrical engineering.[61] Initially such topics cover most,
if not all, of the subdisciplines of electrical engineering.
At some schools, the students can then choose to empha-
size one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their
courses of study.
LM317
IN OUT
Vin ADJ
Vout
RH
100nF 1F
RL
Typical electrical engineering diagram. It is used as a powerful
tool in troubleshooting.
At many schools, electronic engineering is included as
part of an electrical award, sometimes explicitly, such as a
Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical and Electronic), but
11.4. PRACTICING ENGINEERS 123

in others electrical and electronic engineering are both

considered to be suciently broad and complex that sep-
arate degrees are oered.[62]
Some electrical engineers choose to study for a postgrad-
uate degree such as a Master of Engineering/Master of
Science (M.Eng./M.Sc.), a Master of Engineering Man-
agement, a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in Engineering,
an Engineering Doctorate (Eng.D.), or an Engineers de-
gree. The masters and engineers degrees may consist of
either research, coursework or a mixture of the two. The
Doctor of Philosophy and Engineering Doctorate degrees
consist of a signicant research component and are of-
ten viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United
Kingdom and some other European countries, Master of
Engineering is often considered to be an undergraduate
degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of
Engineering rather than postgraduate.[63]

11.4 Practicing engineers

The IEEE corporate oce is on the 17th oor of 3 Park Avenue

in New York City

forced by state and provincial legislation such as Quebec's

Engineers Act.[66] In other countries, no such legislation
exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code
of ethics that they expect all members to abide by or risk
expulsion.[67] In this way these organizations play an im-
portant role in maintaining ethical standards for the pro-
fession. Even in jurisdictions where certication has lit-
tle or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to
contract law. In cases where an engineers work fails he
Belgian electrical engineers inspecting the rotor of a 40,000 kilo- or she may be subject to the tort of negligence and, in ex-
watt turbine of the General Electric Company in New York City treme cases, the charge of criminal negligence. An engi-
neers work must also comply with numerous other rules
In most countries, a bachelors degree in engineering rep- and regulations such as building codes and legislation per-
resents the rst step towards professional certication and taining to environmental law.
the degree program itself is certied by a professional Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers in-
body.[64] After completing a certied degree program the clude the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engi-
engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (includ- neers (IEEE) and the Institution of Engineering and
ing work experience requirements) before being certi- Technology (IET). The IEEE claims to produce 30%
ed. Once certied the engineer is designated the title of the worlds literature in electrical engineering, has
of Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 3,000
and South Africa), Chartered Engineer or Incorporated conferences annually.[68] The IET publishes 21 jour-
Engineer (in India, Pakistan, the United Kingdom, Ire- nals, has a worldwide membership of over 150,000, and
land and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional Engineer claims to be the largest professional engineering soci-
(in Australia and New Zealand) or European Engineer (in ety in Europe.[69][70] Obsolescence of technical skills is
much of the European Union). a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership
The advantages of certication vary depending upon lo- and participation in technical societies, regular reviews
cation. For example, in the United States and Canada of periodicals in the eld and a habit of continued learn-
only a licensed engineer may seal engineering work for ing are therefore essential to maintaining prociency.
public and private clients.[65] This requirement is en- An MIET(Member of the Institution of Engineering and
124 CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Technology) is recognised in Europe as an Electrical and

computer (technology) engineer.[71]
In Australia, Canada, and the United States electrical en-
gineers make up around 0.25% of the labor force (see
note).

11.5 Tools and work

From the Global Positioning System to electric power
generation, electrical engineers have contributed to the
development of a wide range of technologies. They de-
sign, develop, test, and supervise the deployment of elec-
trical systems and electronic devices. For example, they
may work on the design of telecommunication systems,
the operation of electric power stations, the lighting and
wiring of buildings, the design of household appliances,
or the electrical control of industrial machinery.[72]

The Shadow robot hand system

numerical skills, computer literacy, and the ability to un-

derstand the technical language and concepts that relate
to electrical engineering.[73]

Satellite communications is typical of what electrical engineers

work on.

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of physics

and mathematics as these help to obtain both a qualitative
and quantitative description of how such systems will
work. Today most engineering work involves the use of
computers and it is commonplace to use computer-aided
design programs when designing electrical systems. Nev-
ertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for
quickly communicating with others.
Although most electrical engineers will understand basic
circuit theory (that is the interactions of elements such as
resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and inductors in A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total inter-
a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally nal reection of light in a multi-mode optical ber.
depend upon the work they do. For example, quantum
mechanics and solid state physics might be relevant to an A wide range of instrumentation is used by electrical en-
engineer working on VLSI (the design of integrated cir- gineers. For simple control circuits and alarms, a ba-
cuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with sic multimeter measuring voltage, current, and resistance
macroscopic electrical systems. Even circuit theory may may suce. Where time-varying signals need to be stud-
not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication ied, the oscilloscope is also an ubiquitous instrument. In
systems that use o-the-shelf components. Perhaps the RF engineering and high frequency telecommunications,
most important technical skills for electrical engineers are spectrum analyzers and network analyzers are used. In
reected in university programs, which emphasize strong some disciplines, safety can be a particular concern with
11.6. SEE ALSO
instrumentation. For instance, medical electronics de- the project: from the power distribution, to the instru-
signers must take into account that much lower voltages mentation, to the manufacture and installation of the
than normal can be dangerous when electrodes are di- superconducting electromagnets.[80][81]
rectly in contact with internal body uids.[74] Power trans-
mission engineering also has great safety concerns due to
the high voltages used; although voltmeters may in princi- 11.6 See also
ple be similar to their low voltage equivalents, safety and
calibration issues make them very dierent.[75] Many dis-
ciplines of electrical engineering use tests specic to their
discipline. Audio electronics engineers use audio test sets
consisting of a signal generator and a meter, principally to
measure level but also other parameters such as harmonic
distortion and noise. Likewise, information technology
have their own test sets, often specic to a particular data
format, and the same is true of television broadcasting.
Radome at the Misawa Air Base Misawa Security Operations
Center, Misawa, Japan
For many engineers, technical work accounts for only a
fraction of the work they do. A lot of time may also be
spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients,
preparing budgets and determining project schedules.[76]
Many senior engineers manage a team of technicians or
other engineers and for this reason project management
skills are important. Most engineering projects involve
some form of documentation and strong written commu-
nication skills are therefore very important.
The workplaces of engineers are just as varied as the
types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found
in the pristine lab environment of a fabrication plant, the
oces of a consulting rm or on site at a mine. Dur-
ing their working life, electrical engineers may nd them-
selves supervising a wide range of individuals including
scientists, electricians, computer programmers, and other
engineers.[77]
Electrical engineering has an intimate relationship with
the physical sciences. For instance, the physicist Lord
Kelvin played a major role in the engineering of the rst
transatlantic telegraph cable.[78] Conversely, the engineer
Oliver Heaviside produced major work on the mathe-
matics of transmission on telegraph cables.[79] Electrical
engineers are often required on major science projects.
For instance, large particle accelerators such as CERN
need electrical engineers to deal with many aspects of
125
Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
Outline of electrical engineering
Index of electrical engineering articles
Electrical Technologist
Electronic design automation
International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
List of electrical engineers
List of Russian electrical engineers
Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering
Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering
List of mechanical, electrical and electronic equip-
ment manufacturing companies by revenue
11.7 Notes
Note I - In May 2014 there were around 175,000 peo-
ple working as electrical engineers in the US.[82] In 2012,
Australia had around 19,000[83] while in Canada, there
were around 37,000 (as of 2007), constituting about 0.2%
of the labour force in each of the three countries. Aus-
tralia and Canada reported that 96% and 88% of their
electrical engineers respectively are male.[84]
11.8 References
[1] Yang, Sarah (6 October 2016). Smallest. Transistor.
Ever. - Berkeley Lab.
[2] Martinsen & Grimnes 2011, p. 411.
[3] Lambourne 2010, p. 11.
[4] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of
the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press.
ISBN 978-1-78326-917-4.
[5] Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds and the Elec-
tric Telegraph. Int. J. for the History of Engineering &
Technology. doi:10.1080/17581206.2015.1119481.
[6] Ronalds, B.F. (July 2016). Francis Ronalds (1788-
1873): The First Electrical Engineer?". Proceedings of
the IEEE. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2016.2571358.
[7] Rosenberg 2008, p. 9.
126
[8] Tunbridge 1992.
[9] Wildes & Lindgren 1985, p. 19.
[10] History - School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
- Cornell Engineering.
[11] https://www.engineering.cornell.edu/about/upload/
Cornell-Engineering-history.pdf
[12] Andrew Dickson White - Oce of the President.
[13] The Electrical Engineer. 1911. p. 54.
[14] Department History - Electrical & Computer Engineer-
ing.
[15] Heertje & Perlman 1990, p. 138.
[16] Grattan-Guinness, I. (1 January 2003). Companion En-
cyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathe-
matical Sciences. JHU Press via Google Books.
[17] Suzuki, Je (27 August 2009). Mathematics in Histori-
cal Context. MAA via Google Books.
[18] Severs & Leise 2011, p. 145.
[19] Marconis biography at Nobelprize.org retrieved 21 June
2008.
[20] Abramson 1955, p. 22.
[21] Huurdeman 2003, p. 226.
[22] Albert W. Hull (18801966)". IEEE History Center. Re-
trieved 22 January 2006.
[23] Who Invented Microwaves?". Retrieved 22 January
2006.
[24] Early Radar History. Peneley Radar Archives. Re-
trieved 22 January 2006.
[25] Rojas, Ral (2002). The history of Konrad Zuses early
computing machines. In Rojas, Ral; Hashagen, Ulf.
The First ComputersHistory and Architectures History of
Computing. MIT Press. p. 237. ISBN 0-262-68137-4.
Sale, Anthony E. (2002). The Colossus of Bletch-
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ComputersHistory and Architectures History of Comput-
ing. MIT Press. pp. 354355. ISBN 0-262-68137-4.
[26] The ENIAC Museum Online. Retrieved 18 January
2006.
[27] Electronics Timeline. Greatest Engineering Achieve-
ments of the Twentieth Century. Retrieved 18 January
2006.
[28] Computing History (19711975)". Retrieved 18 January
2006.
[29] Grigsby 2012.
[30] Engineering: Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for De-
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3-104156-3.
[31] Bissell 1996, p. 17.
CHAPTER 11. ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
[32] McDavid & Echaore-McDavid 2009, p. 95.
[33] Fairman 1998, p. 119.
[34] Thompson 2006, p. 4.
[35] Merhari 2009, p. 233.
[36] Bhushan 1997, p. 581.
[37] Mook 2008, p. 149.
[38] Sullivan 2012.
[39] Tuzlukov 2010, p. 20.
[40] Manolakis & Ingle 2011, p. 17.
[41] Bayoumi & Swartzlander 1994, p. 25.
[42] Khanna 2009, p. 297.
[43] Tobin 2007, p. 15.
[44] Chandrasekhar 2006, p. 21.
[45] Smith 2007, p. 19.
[46] Zhang, Hu & Luo 2007, p. 448.
[47] Grant & Bixley 2011, p. 159.
[48] Fredlund, Rahardjo & Fredlund 2012, p. 346.
[49] Manual on the Use of Thermocouples in Temperature Mea-
surement. ASTM International. 1 January 1993. p. 154.
ISBN 978-0-8031-1466-1.
[50] Obaidat, Denko & Woungang 2011, p. 9.
[51] Jalote 2006, p. 22.
[52] Mahalik 2003, p. 569.
[53] Leondes 2000, p. 199.
[54] Shetty & Kolk 2010, p. 36.
[55] Maluf & Williams 2004, p. 3.
[56] Iga & Kokubun 2010, p. 137.
[57] Dodds, Kumar & Veering 2014, p. 274.
[58] Electrical and Electronic Engineer. Occupational Out-
look Handbook, 2012-13 Edition. Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics, U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved November 15,
2014.
[59] Chaturvedi 1997, p. 253.
[60] What is the dierence between electrical and electronic
engineering?". FAQs - Studying Electrical Engineering.
Retrieved 20 March 2012.
[61] Computerworld. IDG Enterprise. 25 August 1986. p. 97.
[62] Electrical and Electronic Engineering. Retrieved 8 De-
cember 2011.
[63] Various including graduate degree requirements at MIT,
study guide at UWA, the curriculum at Queens and unit
tables at Aberdeen
11.8. REFERENCES
[64] Occupational Outlook Handbook, 20082009. U S De-
partment of Labor, Jist Works. 1 March 2008. p. 148.
ISBN 978-1-59357-513-7.
[65] Why Should You Get Licensed?". National Society of
Professional Engineers. Archived from the original on 4
June 2005. Retrieved 11 July 2005.
[66] Engineers Act. Quebec Statutes and Regulations (Can-
LII). Retrieved 24 July 2005.
[67] Codes of Ethics and Conduct. Online Ethics Center. Re-
trieved 24 July 2005.
[68] About the IEEE. IEEE. Retrieved 11 July 2005.
[69] About the IET. The IET. Retrieved 11 July 2005.
[70] Journal and Magazines. The IET. Retrieved 11 July
2005.
[71] Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer.
Occupational Outlook Handbook. Archived from the orig-
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regarding copyright)
[72] Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer.
Occupational Outlook Handbook. Archived from the orig-
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Archived index at the Wayback Machine.)
[73] Taylor 2008, p. 241.
[74] Leitgeb 2010.
[75] Naidu & Kamaraju 2009, p. 210
[76] Trevelyan, James; (2005). What Do Engineers Really Do?.
University of Western Australia. (seminar with slides)
[77] McDavid & Echaore-McDavid 2009, p. 87.
[78] Huurdeman, pp. 9596
[79] Huurdeman, p.90
[80] Schmidt, p.218
[81] Martini, p.179
[82] Electrical Engineers. www.bls.gov. Retrieved 2015-11-
30.
[83] sector=Government, ; corporateName=Department of
Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources
- State Government of Victoria;. Electrical Engineer
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11.10. EXTERNAL LINKS 129

11.9 Further reading 11.10 External links

Adhami, Reza; Meenen, Peter M.; Hite, Denis International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
(2007). Fundamental Concepts in Electrical and
MIT OpenCourseWare in-depth look at Electrical
Computer Engineering with Practical Design Prob-
Engineering - online courses with video lectures.
lems. Universal-Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58112-
971-7. IEEE Global History Network A wiki-based site
with many resources about the history of IEEE, its
Bober, William; Stevens, Andrew (27 August
members, their professions and electrical and infor-
2012). Numerical and Analytical Methods with
mational technologies and sciences.
MATLAB for Electrical Engineers. CRC Press.
ISBN 978-1-4398-5429-7.

Bobrow, Leonard S. (1996). Fundamentals of Elec-

trical Engineering. Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-510509-4.

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cal Engineering Handbook. Academic Press. ISBN
978-0-08-047748-0.

Ciuprina, G.; Ioan, D. (30 May 2007). Scientic

Computing in Electrical Engineering. Springer.
ISBN 978-3-540-71980-9.

Faria, J. A. Brandao (15 September 2008).

Electromagnetic Foundations of Electrical Engineer-
ing. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-69748-1.

Jones, Lincoln D. (July 2004). Electrical Engineer-

ing: Problems and Solutions. Dearborn Trade Pub-
lishing. ISBN 978-1-4195-2131-7.

Karalis, Edward (18 September 2003). 350 Solved

Electrical Engineering Problems. Dearborn Trade
Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7931-8511-5.

Krawczyk, Andrzej; Wiak, S. (1 January 2002).

Electromagnetic Fields in Electrical Engineering.
IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-58603-232-6.

Laplante, Phillip A. (31 December 1999).

Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering.
Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-64835-2.

Leon-Garcia, Alberto (2008). Probability, Statistics,

and Random Processes for Electrical Engineering.
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-147122-1.

Malaric, Roman (2011). Instrumentation and

Measurement in Electrical Engineering. Universal-
Publishers. ISBN 978-1-61233-500-1.

Sahay, Kuldeep; Sahay, Shivendra Pathak, Kuldeep

(1 January 2006). Basic Concepts of Electrical En-
gineering. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-
224-1836-1.

Srinivas, Kn (1 January 2007). Basic Electrical En-

gineering. I. K. International Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-
81-89866-34-1.
Chapter 12

Engineering

For other uses, see Engineering (disambiguation).
Engineering is the application of mathematics and
chines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes,
or works utilizing them singly or in combina-
tion; or to construct or operate the same with
full cognizance of their design; or to forecast
their behavior under specic operating con-
ditions; all as respects an intended function,
economics of operation or safety to life and
property.[3][4]

12.2 History
Main article: History of engineering
Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans

The steam engine, a major driver in the Industrial Revolution, un-

derscores the importance of engineering in modern history. This
beam engine is on display in the Technical University of Madrid.

scientic, economic, social, and practical knowledge

in order to invent, innovate, design, build, maintain,
research, and improve structures, machines, tools,
systems, components, materials, processes, solutions, and
organizations.
The discipline of engineering is extremely broad and en-
compasses a range of more specialized elds of engineer-
ing, each with a more specic emphasis on particular ar-
eas of applied science, technology and types of applica-
tion. Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban,
the foremost military engineer of his age.
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium,
meaning cleverness and ingeniare, meaning to con- devised fundamental inventions such as the wedge, lever,
trive, devise.[1] wheel and pulley. Each of these inventions is essentially
consistent with the modern denition of engineering.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer,
12.1 Denition which itself dates back to 1390 when an engine'er (lit-
erally, one who operates an engine) originally referred
The American Engineers Council for Professional De- to a constructor of military engines.[5] In this context,
velopment (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)[2] has de- now obsolete, an engine referred to a military machine,
ned engineering as: i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a
catapult). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which
The creative application of scientic prin- have survived to the present day are military engineering
ciples to design or develop structures, ma- corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

130
12.2. HISTORY 131

The word engine itself is of even older origin, ultimatelyployed complex military machines and inventions such
deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around
innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever the 4th century B.C.,[11] the trireme, the ballista and the
invention.[6] catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was devel-
Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges oped.
and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term
civil engineering[4] entered the lexicon as a way to dis- 12.2.2 Renaissance era
tinguish between those specializing in the construction of
such non-military projects and those involved in the older The rst steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Sav-
discipline of military engineering. ery.[12] The development of this device gave rise to the
Industrial Revolution in the coming decades, allowing for
the beginnings of mass production.
12.2.1 Ancient era
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th
century, the term became more narrowly applied to elds
in which mathematics and science were applied to these
ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineer-
ing, the elds then known as the mechanic arts became
incorporated into engineering.

12.2.3 Modern era

The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to bring a steady supply of

clean fresh water to cities and towns in the empire.

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the

Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the
Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia
and the Colosseum, Teotihuacn and the cities and pyra-
The International Space Station represents a modern engineering
mids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great
challenge from many disciplines.
Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur
and Indian Temples, among many others, stand as a tes- The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish
tament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and
engineer James Watt gave rise to modern mechanical en-
military engineers. gineering. The development of specialized machines and
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[4] machine tools during the industrial revolution led to the
As one of the ocials of the Pharaoh, Djosr, he prob- rapid growth of mechanical engineering both in its birth-
ably designed and supervised the construction of the place Britain and abroad.[4]
Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in John Smeaton was the rst self-proclaimed civil engineer
Egypt around 26302611 BC.[7] Ancient Greece de- and is often regarded as the father of civil engineer-
veloped machines in both civilian and military do- ing. He was an English civil engineer responsible for
mains. The Antikythera mechanism, the rst known the design of bridges, canals, harbours, and lighthouses.
mechanical computer,[8][9] and the mechanical inventions He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an em-
of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engi- inent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone
neering. Some of Archimedes inventions as well as the Lighthouse (175559) where he pioneered the use of
Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowl- 'hydraulic lime' (a form of mortar which will set under
edge of dierential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed
key principles in machine theory that helped design the blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His
gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and was dismantled
widely used today in diverse elds such as robotics and and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known
automotive engineering.[10] as Smeatons Tower. He is important in the history, redis-
Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hungarian armies em- covery of, and development of modern cement, because
132 CHAPTER 12. ENGINEERING

Structural engineers investigating NASAs Mars-bound

spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland

Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely

he identied the compositional requirements needed to empirical with some concepts and skills imported from
obtain hydraulicity in lime; work which led ultimately other branches of engineering.[16]
to the invention of Portland cement.
The rst PhD in engineering (technically, applied science
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation and engineering) awarded in the United States went to
of engineer for the rst time with a count of 2,000.[13] Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was
There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]
U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S.
Only a decade after the successful ights by the Wright
mechanical engineering graduates, with that number in-
brothers, there was extensive development of aeronauti-
creasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890 there were 6,000
cal engineering through development of military aircraft
engineers in civil, mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]
that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to
There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied provide fundamental background science continued by
mechanics established at Cambridge until 1875, and no combining theoretical physics with experiments.
chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany es-
In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the rst
tablished technical universities earlier.[15]
search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Em-
The foundations of electrical engineering in the 1800s tage.
included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael
Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the
electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872.
The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwells 12.3 Main branches of engineering
equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century
gave rise to the eld of electronics. The later inventions Main article: List of engineering branches
of the vacuum tube and the transistor further acceler- For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of engi-
ated the development of electronics to such an extent that neering Branches of engineering.
electrical and electronics engineers currently outnum- Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken
ber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[4] down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines con-
Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth cern themselves with diering areas of engineering work.
century.[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in
materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for a specic discipline, throughout an engineers career the
large scale production of chemicals was such that a new engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked
industry was created, dedicated to the development and in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often char-
large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial acterized as having four main branches:[18][19][20]
plants.[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the de-
sign of these chemical plants and processes.[4]
Chemical engineering The application of physics,
Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design pro- chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in or-
cess design while aerospace engineering is a more modern der to carry out chemical processes on a commercial
term that expands the reach of the discipline by includ- scale, such as petroleum rening, microfabrication,
ing spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to fermentation, and biomolecule production.
the aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century
although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been Civil engineering The design and construction
dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. of public and private works, such as infrastructure
12.4. PRACTICE 133

branches are manufacturing engineering, acoustical

The design of a modern auditorium involves many branches of
engineering, including acoustics, architecture, and civil engineer-
ing.
engineering, corrosion engineering, instrumentation and
control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic,
petroleum, environmental, systems, audio, software,
architectural, agricultural, biosystems, biomedical,[21]
geological, textile, industrial, materials,[22] and nuclear
engineering.[23] These and other branches of engineering
are represented in the 36 licensed member institutions
of the UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional
elds and form new branches for example, Earth sys-
tems engineering and management involves a wide range
of subject areas including anthropology, engineering
studies, environmental science, ethics and philosophy of
engineering. A new or emerging area of application will
commonly be dened temporarily as a permutation or
subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as
to when a given sub-eld warrants classication as a new
branch. One key indicator of such emergence is when
major universities start establishing departments and pro-
grams in the new eld.
For each of these elds, there exists considerable overlap,
especially in the areas of the application of fundamental
sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry,
and mathematics. As a result, there are many dierent
types of engineering degrees available. In the past, engi-
neering could be divided into four major branches: me-
chanical, chemical, civil and electrical, with sub-branches
of each discipline. Today, however, the number of engi-
neering degrees available have increased dramatically.

Hoover Dam
12.4 Practice
(airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treat-
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and
ment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.
those licensed to do so may have more formal desig-
Electrical engineering The design, study, and nations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engi-
manufacture of various electrical and electronic neer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engi-
systems, such as electrical circuits, generators, neer, or Designated Engineering Representative. In the
motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, UK many skilled trades are called Engineer includ-
electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical ing gas, telephone, photocopy, maintenance, plumber-
bers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, heating, drainage, sanitary, auto mechanic, TV, Refriger-
telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and ator, electrician, washing machine, TV antenna installer
electronics. (satellite) and many others.

Mechanical engineering The design and manu-

facture of physical or mechanical systems, such
as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft
12.5 Methodology
products, weapon systems, transportation prod-
ucts, engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics
chains, vacuum technology, vibration isolation to nd novel solutions to problems or to improve existing
equipment, manufacturing, and mechatronics. solutions. More than ever, engineers are now required to
have a procient knowledge of relevant sciences for their
Beyond these Big Four, a number of other branches design projects. As a result, many engineers continue to
are recognized. Historically, naval engineering and learn new material throughout their career.
mining engineering were major branches. Other If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design
engineering elds sometimes included as major choice based on their merit and choose the solution that
134 CHAPTER 12. ENGINEERING

A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engi-

neering is applied to design, with emphasis on function and the
utilization of mathematics and science.

12.5.1 Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics,

logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit
knowledge to nd suitable solutions to a problem. Cre-
ating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem
allows them to analyze it (sometimes denitively), and to
test potential solutions.
Usually, multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers
must evaluate the dierent design choices on their mer-
Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from its and choose the solution that best meets their require-
many elds, as the system involves mechanical, electro-magnetic
ments. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a
and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as
the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.
large number of patents, suggested that compromises are
at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at
a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the
core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their
designs will perform to their specications prior to
full-scale production. They use, among other things:
prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests,
best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that
task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and inter- products will perform as expected.
pret the constraints on a design in order to yield a success-
ful result. It is generally insucient to build a technically Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs
successful product, rather, it must also meet further re- that will perform as well as expected and will not cause
quirements. unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typi-
cally include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce
Constraints may include available resources, physical, the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the
imaginative or technical limitations, exibility for future safety factor, the less ecient the design may be.
modications and additions, and other factors, such as re-
quirements for cost, safety, marketability, productivity, The study of failed products is known as forensic engi-
and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, en- neering and can help the product designer in evaluating
gineers derive specications for the limits within which a his or her design in the light of real conditions. The dis-
viable object or system may be produced and operated. cipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge
collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the
A general methodology and epistemology of engineer- cause or causes of the failure.
ing can be inferred from the historical case studies and
comments provided by Walter Vincenti.[24] Though Vin-
centis case studies are from the domain of aeronautical 12.5.2 Computer use
engineering, his conclusions can be transferred into many
other branches of engineering, too. As with all modern scientic and technological endeav-
According to Billy Vaughn Koen, the "engineering method ors, computers and software play an increasingly impor-
is the use of heuristics to cause the best change in tant role. As well as the typical business application soft-
a poorly understood situation within the available re- ware there are a number of computer aided applications
sources. Koen argues that the denition of what makes (computer-aided technologies) specically for engineer-
one an engineer should not be based on what he produces, ing. Computers can be used to generate models of fun-
but rather how he goes about it.[25] damental physical processes, which can be solved using
12.6. SOCIAL CONTEXT 135

A computer simulation of high velocity air ow around a Space

Shuttle orbiter during re-entry. Solutions to the ow require
modelling of the combined eects of uid ow and the heat
equations.

numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession
is computer-aided design (CAD) software like CATIA,
Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks or Pro Engineer
which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D draw- Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.
ings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with
digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as nite
element method analysis or analytic element method al- also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering
lows engineers to create models of designs that can be projects are obligated to some sort of nancing agency:
analyzed without having to make expensive and time- a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few
consuming physical prototypes. types of engineering that are minimally constrained by
These allow products and components to be checked for such issues are pro bono engineering and open-design en-
aws; assess t and assembly; study ergonomics; and gineering.
to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems By its very nature engineering has interconnections with
such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emis- society, culture and human behavior. Every product or
sions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, construction used by modern society is inuenced by en-
uid ows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of gineering. The results of engineering activity inuence
all this information is generally organized with the use of changes to the environment, society and economies, and
product data management software.[26] its application brings with it a responsibility and pub-
There are also many tools to support specic engi- lic safety. Many engineering societies have established
neering tasks such as computer-aided manufacturing codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members
(CAM) software to generate CNC machining instruc- and inform the public at large.
tions; manufacturing process management software for Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Ex-
production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board amples from dierent engineering disciplines include the
(PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam,
MRO applications for maintenance management; and the design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extrac-
AEC software for civil engineering. tion of oil. In response, some western engineering com-
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the panies have enacted serious corporate and social respon-
development of goods has collectively come to be known sibility policies.
as product lifecycle management (PLM).[27] Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human
development. Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, has a
very small engineering capacity which results in many
African nations being unable to develop crucial infras-
12.6 Social context tructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of
the Millennium Development Goals requires the achieve-
The engineering profession engages in a wide range of ac- ment of sucient engineering capacity to develop infras-
tivities, from large collaboration at the societal level, and tructure and sustainable technological development.[28]
136 CHAPTER 12. ENGINEERING

Theodore von Krmn[33][34][35]

Engineers, scientists and technicians at work on target positioner

inside National Ignition Facility (NIF) target chamber
Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to provide proper naviga-
tion and obstacle avoidance (vehicle developed for 2007 DARPA
There exists an overlap between the sciences and en-
Urban Challenge) gineering practice; in engineering, one applies science.
Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of
All overseas development and relief NGOs make consid- materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and
erable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and classication criteria to analyze and communicate obser-
development scenarios. A number of charitable organi- vations.
zations aim to use engineering directly for the good of Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks,
mankind: such as designing experimental apparatus or building pro-
totypes. Conversely, in the process of developing tech-
Engineers Without Borders nology engineers sometimes nd themselves exploring
new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scien-
Engineers Against Poverty tists or more precisely engineering scientists.
Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know
It,[36] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research
Engineers for a Sustainable World has a character dierent from that of scientic research.
Engineering for Change First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics
or chemistry are well understood, but the problems them-
Engineering Ministries International[29] selves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
There is a real and important dierence between engi-
Engineering companies in many established economies neering and physics as similar to any science eld has to
are facing signicant challenges with regard to the num- do with technology.[37][38] Physics is an exploratory sci-
ber of professional engineers being trained, compared ence that seeks knowledge of principles while Engineer-
with the number retiring. This problem is very prominent ing uses knowledge for practical applications of princi-
in the UK where engineering has a poor image and low ples. The former equates an understanding into a math-
status.[30] There are many negative economic and politi- ematical principle while the latter measures variables in-
cal issues that this can cause, as well as ethical issues[31] It volved and creates technology.[39][40][41] For technology,
is widely agreed that the engineering profession faces an physics is an auxiliary and in a way technology is con-
image crisis,[32] rather than it being fundamentally an sidered as applied physics.[42] Though Physics and Engi-
unattractive career. Much work is needed to avoid huge neering are interrelated it doesn't mean a Physicist is suf-
problems in the UK and other western economies. cient where an Engineer is required. For this mobility,
a physicist to work as an engineer requires additional and
relevant specialized training.[43] Physicists and engineers
12.7 Relationships with other dis- engage in dierent lines of work.[44] But PhD physicists
ciplines who specialize in sectors of technology and applied sci-
ence are titled as Technology ocer, R&D Engineers and
System Engineers.[45] Though as an engineer, role of a
12.7.1 Science physicist is limited.[46] Physicists in their eld, work in
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers theoretical analysis and experimental research.[47]
create the world that has never been. An example of this is the use of numerical approxima-
12.7. RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHER DISCIPLINES 137

tions to the NavierStokes equations to describe aerody-

namic ow over an aircraft, or the use of Miners rule to
calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research
employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to
pure scientic research, one example being the method of
parameter variation.
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic en-
gineering text Foundations of Solid Mechanics:

Engineering is quite dierent from science.

Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers
try to make things that do not exist in nature.
Engineers stress innovation and invention. To
embody an invention the engineer must put his
idea in concrete terms, and design something
that people can use. That something can be a
complex system, device, a gadget, a material, a
method, a computing program, an innovative
experiment, a new solution to a problem, or
an improvement on what already exists. Since
a design has to be realistic and functional, it
must have its geometry, dimensions, and char-
acteristics data dened. In the past engineers
working on new designs found that they did not
have all the required information to make de-
sign decisions. Most often, they were limited
by insucient scientic knowledge. Thus they
studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biol-
Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been de-
ogy and mechanics. Often they had to add to
scribed as the epitome of the artist/engineer.[49] He is also known
the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.
engineering sciences were born.[48]

Although engineering solutions make use of scientic

principles, engineers must also take into account safety,
eciency, economy, reliability, and constructability or
ease of fabrication as well as the environment, ethical and
legal considerations such as patent infringement or liabil-
ity in the case of failure of the solution.

12.7.2 Medicine and biology

The study of the human body, albeit from dierent direc-
tions and for dierent purposes, is an important common
link between medicine and some engineering disciplines.
Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even re-
place functions of the human body, if necessary, through
Genetically engineered mice expressing green uorescent protein,
the use of technology. which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is wild-
Modern medicine can replace several of the bodys func- type.
tions through the use of articial organs and can sig-
nicantly alter the function of the human body through
articial devices such as, for example, brain implants icated to emulating many of its functions by replacing
and pacemakers.[50][51] The elds of bionics and medical biology with technology. This has led to elds such as
bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants articial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and
pertaining to natural systems. robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary in-
[52][53]
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human teractions between engineering and medicine.
body as a biological machine worth studying and are ded- Both elds provide solutions to real world problems. This
138 CHAPTER 12. ENGINEERING

often requires moving forward before phenomena are
completely understood in a more rigorous scientic sense
and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge
is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body.
The human body, as a biological machine, has many func-
tions that can be modeled using engineering methods.[54]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[55]
the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[56] the
brain produces electrical signals etc.[57] These similari-
ties as well as the increasing importance and application
of engineering principles in medicine, led to the devel-
opment of the eld of biomedical engineering that uses
concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems bi-
ology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for
engineering, such as systems modeling and computational
analysis, to the description of biological systems.[54]
alongside knowledge of business administration, man-
agement techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers
specializing in change management must have in-depth
knowledge of the application of industrial and organiza-
tional psychology principles and methods. Professional
engineers often train as certied management consultants
in the very specialized eld of management consulting ap-
plied to engineering practice or the engineering sector.
This work often deals with large scale complex business
transformation or Business process management initia-
tives in aerospace and defence, automotive, oil and gas,
machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electri-
cal & electronics, power distribution & generation, util-
ities and transportation systems. This combination of
technical engineering practice, management consulting
practice, industry sector knowledge, and change manage-
ment expertise enables professional engineers who are
also qualied as management consultants to lead major
business transformation initiatives. These initiatives are
typically sponsored by C-level executives.

12.7.3 Art
12.7.5 Other elds
There are connections between engineering and art;[58]
In other elds not associated with professional engineer-
they are direct in some elds, for example, architecture,
ing the word engineer and or engineering has been
landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the
adapted to mean design, develop, contrive, manipulate,
extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included
implement an outcome. In political science, the term en-
in a universitys Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in
gineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects
others.[58][59][60][61]
of social engineering and political engineering, which
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an ex- deal with forming political and social structures using
hibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.[62] engineering methodology coupled with political science
Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed
have been deliberately artistic.[63] At the University of the term.
South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant
with the National Science Foundation, has developed a
course that connects art and engineering.[59][64] 12.8 See also
Among famous historical gures, Leonardo da Vinci is a
well-known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime Main article: Outline of engineering
example of the nexus between art and engineering.[49][65]

Lists
12.7.4 Business Engineering and Engi-
neering Management List of engineering topics

Business Engineering deals with the relationship between List of engineers

professional engineering, IT systems, business admin-
istration and change management. Engineering man- Engineering society
agement or Management engineering is a specialized
List of aerospace engineering topics
eld of management concerned with engineering prac-
tice or the engineering industry sector. The demand List of basic chemical engineering topics
for management-focused engineers (or from the oppo-
site perspective, managers with an understanding of en- List of electrical engineering topics
gineering), has resulted in the development of special-
List of genetic engineering topics
ized engineering management degrees that develop the
knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During an List of mechanical engineering topics
engineering management course, students will develop
industrial engineering skills, knowledge, and expertise, List of nanoengineering topics
12.9. REFERENCES
List of software engineering topics
Glossaries
Glossary of engineering
Glossary of areas of mathematics
Glossary of biology
Glossary of chemistry
Glossary of physics
Related subjects
Controversies over the term Engineer
Design
Earthquake engineering
Engineer
Engineering economics
Engineering education
Engineering education research
Engineers Without Borders
Forensic engineering
Global Engineering Education
Industrial design
Infrastructure
Mathematics
Open hardware
Reverse engineering
Science
Science and technology
Structural failure
Sustainable engineering
Women in engineering
Planned obsolescence
139
12.9 References
[1] About IAENG. iaeng.org. International Association of
Engineers. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
[2] ABET History
[3] Engineers Council for Professional Development.
(1947). Canons of ethics for engineers
[4] Engineers Council for Professional Development deni-
tion on Encyclopdia Britannica (Includes Britannica ar-
ticle on Engineering)
[5] Oxford English Dictionary
[6] Origin: 12501300; ME engin < AF, OF < L inge-
nium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence
a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to
gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dic-
tionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.
[7] Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2005, p. 159
[8] "The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", The An-
tikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-
07-01 Quote: The Antikythera Mechanism is now under-
stood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and op-
erates as a complex mechanical computer which tracks
the cycles of the Solar System.
[9] Wilford, John. (July 31, 2008). Discovering How Greeks
Computed in 100 B.C.. New York Times.
[10] Wright, M T. (2005). Epicyclic Gearing and the An-
tikythera Mechanism, part 2. Antiquarian Horology. 29
(1 (September 2005)): 5460.
[11] Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century Mili-
tary technology Quote: The 7th century, by contrast, had
witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of
the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic in-
struments of war in the 5th. and But it was the develop-
ment of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention
did not predate the 4th century. It was rst heard of in the
context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of
Dionysius I of Syracuse.
[12] Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering
and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p.
66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4.
[13] Cowan, Ruth Schwartz (1997), A Social History of Amer-
ican Technology, New York: Oxford University Press, p.
138, ISBN 0-19-504605-6
[14] Hunter, Louis C. (1985). A History of Industrial Power
in the United States, 17301930, Vol. 2: Steam Power.
Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
[15] Williams, Trevor I. A Short History of Twentieth Century
Technology. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN
978-0198581598.
[16] Van Every, Kermit E. (1986). Aeronautical engineer-
ing. Encyclopedia Americana. 1. Grolier Incorporated.
p. 226.
140
[17] Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs
the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 1-
881987-11-6.
[18] Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume
1 British Nuclear Energy Society 1962 Snippet view
Quote: In most universities it should be possible to cover
the main branches of engineering, i.e. civil, mechanical,
electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More spe-
cialised elds of engineering application, of which nuclear
power is ...
[19] The Engineering Profession by Sir James Hamilton, UK
Engineering Council Quote: The Civilingenior degree
encompasses the main branches of engineering civil,
mechanical, electrical, chemical. (From the Internet
Archive)
[20] Indu Ramchandani (2000). Students Britannica In-
dia,7vol.Set. Popular Prakashan. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-
85229-761-2. Retrieved 23 March 2013. BRANCHES
There are traditionally four primary engineering disci-
plines: civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical.
[21] Bronzino JD, ed., The Biomedical Engineering Hand-
book, CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-2121-2
[22] Bensaude-Vincent, Bernadette (March 2001). The
construction of a discipline: Materials science in
the United States. Historical Studies in the Phys-
ical and Biological Sciences. 31 (2): 223248.
doi:10.1525/hsps.2001.31.2.223.
[23] http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/nuclear/nuceng.
pdf
[24] Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers Know
and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronau-
tical History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN
0-8018-4588-2.
[25] Koen, Billy Vaughn (2013). Discussion of The Method (1
ed.). New York Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 8.
ISBN 0-19-515599-8. Retrieved 23 July 2015.
[26] Arbe, Katrina (2001-05-07). PDM: Not Just for the Big
Boys Anymore. ThomasNet. Retrieved 2006-12-30.
[27] Arbe, Katrina (2003-05-22). The Latest Chapter in
CAD Software Evaluation. ThomasNet. Retrieved
2006-12-30.
[28] MDG info pdf
[29] Home page for EMI
[30] "engineeringuk.com/About_us".
[31] http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/policy/
why-does-it-matter-why-are-engineering-skills-important [48] Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung
[32] http://www.georgededwards.co.uk/
the-era-foundation-report.html [49] Bjerklie, David. The Art of Renaissance Engineering.
[33] Rosakis, Ares Chair, Division of Engineering and Ap-
plied Science. Chairs Message, Caltech.. Archived who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from ar-
from the original on 4 November 2011. Retrieved 15 Oc-
tober 2011.
CHAPTER 12. ENGINEERING
[34] Ryschkewitsch, M.G. NASA Chief Engineer. Improving
the capability to Engineer Complex Systems Broadening
the Conversation on the Art and Science of Systems Engi-
neering (PDF). p. 8 of 21. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
[35] American Society for Engineering Education (1970).
Engineering education. 60. American Society for Engi-
neering Education. p. 467. The great engineer Theodore
von Karman once said, Scientists study the world as it
is, engineers create the world that never has been. To-
day, more than ever, the engineer must create a world that
never has been ...
[36] Vincenti, Walter G. (1993). What Engineers Know and
How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical
History. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-
3974-2.
[37] Walter G Whitman; August Paul Peck. Whitman-Peck
Physics. American Book Company, 1946, p. 06. OCLC
3247002
[38] Ateneo de Manila University Press. Philippine Studies,
vol. 11, no. 4, 1963. p. 600
[39] "Relationship between physics and electrical engineer-
ing, in Journal of the A.I.E.E., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 107-
108, Feb. 1927.
[40] Puttaswamaiah. Future Of Economic Science. Oxford and
IBH Publishing, 2008, p. 208.
[41] Yoseph Bar-Cohen, Cynthia L. Breazeal. Biologically
Inspired Intelligent Robots. SPIE Press, 2003. ISBN
9780819448729. p. 190
[42] C. Morn, E. Tremps, A. Garca, J.A. Somolinos (2011)
The Physics and its Relation with the Engineering,
INTED2011 Proceedings pp. 5929-5934. ISBN 978-84-
614-7423-3
[43] R Gazzinelli, R L Moreira, W N Rodrigues. Physics and
Industrial Development: Bridging the Gap. World Scien-
tic, 1997, p. 110.
[44] Steve Fuller. Knowledge Management Foundations.
Routledge, 2012. ISBN 9781136389825. p. 92
[45] Industrial Physicists: Primarily specialising in Engineer-
ing (PDF). American Institute for Physics. October
2016.
[46] 2111 - Physicists and astronomers. National Occupa-
tional Classication - Canada. 2016. Retrieved Novem-
ber 11, 2016.
[47] Physicist. nationalcareersservice.direct.gov.uk. Na-
tional Careers Service, United Kingdom. 7 October 2016.
and P. Tong. World Scientic. 2001.
MITs Technology Review Jan./Feb.1998: 54-9. Article
explores the concept of the artist-engineer, an individual
ticle: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of artist-engineer"-
dom, Quote2: It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the
12.10. FURTHER READING
most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer,
progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoreti-
cian. (Bjerklie 58)
[50] Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M.
McGee and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University
[51] IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body im-
plants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary: Feeling
threatened by cyborgs?
[52] Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission state-
ment The mission of the Institute for Medicine and En-
gineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research
at the interface between biomedicine and engineer-
ing/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative
applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.
[53] IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general
and technical articles on current technologies and methods
used in biomedical and clinical engineering ...
[54] Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical
Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and
medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging
methodology that has yet to be dened quote2: It applies
the concepts of systems engineering to the study of com-
plex biological systems through iteration between compu-
tational and/or mathematical modelling and experimenta-
tion.
[55] Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The
heart as a pump
[56] Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers
[57] UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of
brains electrical storm during a seizure
[58] Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project
to demonstrate the relationship between art and architec-
ture and engineering
[59] National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering:
Professor uses the ne arts to broaden students engineer-
ing perspectives
[60] MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James
Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of
the British Design Council, James Dyson has been design-
ing products since graduating from the Royal College of
Art in 1970.
[61] University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive
Arts and Engineering
[62] Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASAs
Aeronautical Research
[63] Princeton U: Robert Maillarts Bridges: The Art of Engi-
neering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious
of the aesthetic implications ...
[64] quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engi-
neers..
[65] Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper
141
12.10 Further reading
Blockley, David (2012). Engineering: a very short
introduction. New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-957869-6.
Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Hand-
book (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 0-8493-
1586-7.
Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators:
The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Mod-
ern. Wiley; New Ed edition. ISBN 0-471-14026-0.
Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Hu-
man: The Role of Failure in Successful Design. Vin-
tage. ISBN 0-679-73416-3.
Petroski, Henry (1994-02-01). The Evolution of
Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks
and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as
They are. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74039-2.
Lord, Charles R. (2000-08-15). Guide to Informa-
tion Sources in Engineering. Libraries Unlimited.
doi:10.1336/1563086999. ISBN 1-56308-699-9.
Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers
Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies
from Aeronautical History. The Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-8018-4588-2.
Hill, Donald R. (1973-12-31) [1206]. The Book of
Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitb
f ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Pakistan Hijara
Council. ISBN 969-8016-25-2.
12.11 External links
National Society of Professional Engineers position
statement on Licensure and Qualications for Prac-
tice
National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
American Society for Engineering Education
(ASEE)
The US Library of Congress Engineering in History
bibliography
Engineering videos at a secondary school level.
History of engineering bibliography at University of
Minnesota
Chapter 13

List of engineering branches

Engineering is the discipline, art, and profession that 13.5 Software engineering
applies scientic theory to design, develop, and ana-
lyze technological solutions. In the contemporary era, Software engineering is the study and an applica-
it is generally considered to consist of the major ba- tion of engineering to the design, development, imple-
sic branches of chemical engineering, civil engineer- mentation and maintenance of software in a systematic
ing, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.[1] method.[3][4][5]
There are numerous other engineering subdisciplines and
interdisciplinary subjects that are derived from concen-
trations, combinations, or extensions of the major engi-
neering branches. 13.6 Systems engineering
Systems engineering is an interdisciplinary eld of engi-
neering that focuses on how to design and manage com-
13.1 Chemical engineering plex engineering projects over their life cycles. Issues,
such as reliability, logistics, and coordination of dier-
ent teams (requirements management), evaluation mea-
Chemical engineering is the application of chemical, surements, and other disciplines become more dicult
physical, and biological sciences to the process of con- when dealing with large or complex projects. Systems en-
verting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or gineering deals with work-processes, optimization meth-
valuable forms. ods, and risk management tools. It overlaps technical and
human-centered disciplines such as control engineering,
industrial engineering, organizational studies, and project
management. Systems engineering ensures that all likely
13.2 Civil engineering aspects of a project or system are considered, and inte-
grated into a whole.
Civil engineering comprises the design, construction, and
maintenance of the physical and natural built environ-
ments. 13.7 Interdisciplinary

13.8 See also

13.3 Electrical engineering Outline of engineering

Electrical engineering comprises the study and applica- Railway systems engineering
tion of electricity, electronics, and electromagnetism.

13.9 References
13.4 Mechanical engineering [1] Julie Thompson Klein, Robert Frodeman, Carl Mitcham.
The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2010. (pp 149 150)
Mechanical engineering comprises the design and anal-
ysis of heat and mechanical power for the operation of [2] University of Arizona OPTI 421/521: Introductory Op-
machines and mechanical systems. tomechanical Engineering

142
13.9. REFERENCES 143

[3] Abran et al. 2004, pp. 11

[4] ACM (2007). Computing Degrees & Careers. ACM.

Retrieved 2010-11-23.

[5] Laplante, Phillip (2007). What Every Engineer Should

Know about Software Engineering. Boca Raton: CRC.
ISBN 978-0-8493-7228-5. Retrieved 2011-01-21.

[6] ATMAE Membership Venn Diagram. atmae.org

Chapter 14

Computer scientist

Not to be confused with computational scientist. may have no technical computer background.[3]

A computer scientist is a scientist who has acquired the

knowledge of computer science, the study of the theoreti-
cal foundations of information and computation and their
application.
Computer scientists typically work on the theoretical side
of computer systems, as opposed to the hardware side
that computer engineers mainly focus on (although there
is overlap). Although computer scientists can also fo-
cus their work and research on specic areas (such as
algorithm and data structure development and design,
software engineering, information theory, database the-
ory, computational complexity theory, numerical anal-
ysis, programming language theory, computer graphics,
and computer vision), their foundation is the theoret-
ical study of computing from which these other elds
derive.[1]
A primary goal of computer scientists is the develop-
ment (and validation) of modelsoften mathematical
in naturefor estimating the properties of computer-
based systems (processors, programs, computers interac-
tion with people, computers interacting with other com-
puters, etc.) with an overarching objective of discovering
designs that admit for improved performance (faster, bet-
ter, cheaper, etc.).
14.2 Employment
Computer scientists are often hired by software publish-
ing rms, scientic research and development organiza-
tions where they develop the theories that allow new tech-
nologies to be developed. Computer scientists are also
employed by educational institutions such as universities.
Computer scientists can follow more practical applica-
tions of their knowledge, doing things such as software
engineering. Computer scientists can also be found in
the eld of information technology consulting. Computer
scientists can also be seen as a type of mathematician,
seeing as how much of the eld is dependent on mathe-
matics itself.[4]
Computer scientists employed in industry may eventually
advance into managerial or project leadership positions.[3]
Employment prospects for computer scientists are said
to be excellent. Such excellent prospects seem to be
attributed, in part, to very rapid growth in computer
systems design and related services industry, as well as
the software publishing industry, which are projected
to be among the fastest growing industries in the U.S.
economy.[1]

14.1 Education
14.3 See also
Most computer scientists are required to possess a Ph.D.,
M.S., or B.S. in Computer Science, or other similar
elds like CIS, or a closely related discipline such as 14.4 References
mathematics[1] or physics.[2] A strong aptitude for math-
ematics is important for a computer scientist. [1] Computer and Information Research Scientists. U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. March 29, 2012. Retrieved
Good communication skills are also important for a com-
2012-06-03.
puter scientist since a key part of being a good scien-
tist is conveying results for use by others (generally via [2] Fields of Employment for Physics Bachelors in the Pri-
well-crafted publications and presentations). Addition- vate Sector, Classes of 2011 & 2012 Combined. Amer-
ally, since computer scientists often work in teams on ican Physical Society. Retrieved September 26, 2016.
real-world projects, they must be able to communicate ef-
fectively with computer personnel, such as programmers [3] Benjamin Beau Perry. What is a computer scientist?".
and managers, as well as with users or other sta who The University of Newcastle.

144
14.4. REFERENCES 145

[4] Computing Degrees & Careers Computer Science.

Computingcareers.acm.org. Retrieved 2012-06-03.
Chapter 15

Logic

This article is about the systematic study of the form of
arguments. For other uses, see Logic (disambiguation).
Logic (from the Ancient Greek: , logik [1] ), origi-
nally meaning the word or what is spoken (but coming
to mean thought or reason), is generally held to con-
sist of the systematic study of the form of arguments. A
valid argument is one where there is a specic relation of
logical support between the assumptions of the argument
and its conclusion. (In ordinary discourse, the conclusion
of such an argument may be signied by words like there-
fore, hence, ergo and so on.)
There is no universal agreement as to the exact scope
and subject matter of logic (see Rival conceptions,
below), but it has traditionally included the classica-
tion of arguments, the systematic exposition of the 'log-
ical form' common to all valid arguments, the study of
inference, including fallacies, and the study of semantics,
including paradoxes. Historically, logic has been stud-
ied in philosophy (since ancient times) and mathematics
(since the mid-1800s), and recently logic has been studied
in computer science, linguistics, psychology, and other
elds.
works of Aristotle contain the earliest known formal
study of logic. Modern formal logic follows and ex-
pands on Aristotle.[2] In many denitions of logic,
logical inference and inference with purely formal
content are the same. This does not render the no-
tion of informal logic vacuous, because no formal
logic captures all of the nuances of natural language.
Symbolic logic is the study of symbolic abstrac-
tions that capture the formal features of logi-
cal inference.[3][4] Symbolic logic is often divided
into two main branches: propositional logic and
predicate logic.
Mathematical logic is an extension of symbolic
logic into other areas, in particular to the study
of model theory, proof theory, set theory, and
recursion theory.
However, agreement on what logic is has remained elu-
sive, and although the eld of universal logic has studied
the common structure of logics, in 2007 Mossakowski et
al. commented that it is embarrassing that there is no
widely acceptable formal denition of 'a logic'".[5]

15.1.1 Logical form

15.1 Concepts
Main article: Logical form
The concept of logical form is central to logic. The valid-
ity of an argument is determined by its logical form, not
Logic is generally considered formal when it analyzes
by its content. Traditional Aristotelian syllogistic logic
and represents the form of any valid argument type. The
and modern symbolic logic are examples of formal logic.
form of an argument is displayed by representing its sen-
tences in the formal grammar and symbolism of a logical
Informal logic is the study of natural language language to make its content usable in formal inference.
arguments. The study of fallacies is an important Simply put, formalising simply means translating English
branch of informal logic. Since much informal ar- sentences into the language of logic.
gument is not strictly speaking deductive, on some
conceptions of logic, informal logic is not logic at This is called showing the logical form of the argument.
all. See 'Rival conceptions, below. It is necessary because indicative sentences of ordinary
language show a considerable variety of form and com-
Formal logic is the study of inference with purely plexity that makes their use in inference impractical. It
formal content. An inference possesses a purely for- requires, rst, ignoring those grammatical features irrel-
mal content if it can be expressed as a particular ap- evant to logic (such as gender and declension, if the ar-
plication of a wholly abstract rule, that is, a rule that gument is in Latin), replacing conjunctions irrelevant to
is not about any particular thing or property. The logic (such as but) with logical conjunctions like and

146
15.1. CONCEPTS 147

and replacing ambiguous, or alternative logical expres- Early modern logic dened semantics purely as a rela-
sions (any, every, etc.) with expressions of a standard tion between ideas. Antoine Arnauld in the Port Royal
type (such as all, or the universal quantier ). Logic, says that 'after conceiving things by our ideas, we
Second, certain parts of the sentence must be replaced compare these ideas, and, nding that some belong to-
with schematic letters. Thus, for example, the expression gether and some do not, we unite or separate them. This [8]
all Ps are Qs shows the logical form common to the is called arming or denying, and in general judging'.
sentences all men are mortals, all cats are carnivores, Thus truth and falsity are no more than the agreement or
all Greeks are philosophers, and so on. The schema can disagreement of ideas. This suggests obvious diculties,
leading Locke to distinguish between 'real' truth, when
further be condensed into the formula A(P,Q), where the
letter A indicates the judgement 'all - are -'. our ideas have 'real existence' and 'imaginary' or 'verbal'
truth, where ideas like harpies or centaurs exist only in
The importance of form was recognised from ancient the mind.[9] This view (psychologism) was taken to the
times. Aristotle uses variable letters to represent valid extreme in the nineteenth century, and is generally held
inferences in Prior Analytics, leading Jan ukasiewicz to by modern logicians to signify a low point in the decline
say that the introduction of variables was one of Aristo- of logic before the twentieth century.
tles greatest inventions.[6] According to the followers of
Aristotle (such as Ammonius), only the logical principles Modern semantics is in some ways closer to the medieval
stated in schematic terms belong to logic, not those given view, in rejecting such psychological truth-conditions.
in concrete terms. The concrete terms man, mor- However, the introduction of quantication, needed to
tal, etc., are analogous to the substitution values of the solve the problem of multiple generality, rendered im-
schematic placeholders P, Q, R, which were called the possible the kind of subject-predicate analysis that un-
matter (Greek hyle) of the inference. derlies medieval semantics. The main modern approach
is model-theoretic semantics, based on Alfred Tarski's
There is a big dierence between the kinds of formulas semantic theory of truth. The approach assumes that the
seen in traditional term logic and the predicate calculus meaning of the various parts of the propositions are given
that is the fundamental advance of modern logic. The by the possible ways we can give a recursively specied
formula A(P,Q) (all Ps are Qs) of traditional logic corre- group of interpretation functions from them to some pre-
sponds to the more complex formula x.(P (x) Q(x)) dened domain of discourse: an interpretation of rst-
in predicate logic, involving the logical connectives for order predicate logic is given by a mapping from terms
universal quantication and implication rather than just to a universe of individuals, and a mapping from propo-
the predicate letter A and using variable arguments P (x) sitions to the truth values true and false. Model-
where traditional logic uses just the term letter P. With theoretic semantics is one of the fundamental concepts
the complexity comes power, and the advent of the pred- of model theory. Modern semantics also admits rival ap-
icate calculus inaugurated revolutionary growth of the proaches, such as the proof-theoretic semantics that asso-
subject. ciates the meaning of propositions with the roles that they
can play in inferences, an approach that ultimately derives
from the work of Gerhard Gentzen on structural proof
15.1.2 Semantics theory and is heavily inuenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein's
later philosophy, especially his aphorism meaning is
Main article: Semantics of logic use.

The validity of an argument depends upon the meaning 15.1.3 Inference

or semantics of the sentences that make it up.
Aristotles Organon, especially On Interpretation, gives
a cursory outline of semantics which the scholastic logi-
cians, particularly in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
tury, developed into a complex and sophisticated the-
ory, called Supposition Theory. This showed how the
truth of simple sentences, expressed schematically, de-
pend on how the terms 'supposit' or stand for certain
extra-linguistic items. For example, in part II of his
Summa Logicae, William of Ockham presents a compre-
hensive account of the necessary and sucient conditions
for the truth of simple sentences, in order to show which
arguments are valid and which are not. Thus every A
is B' is true if and only if there is something for which
'A' stands, and there is nothing for which 'A' stands, for
which 'B' does not also stand. [7]
Inference is not to be confused with implication. An im-
plication is a sentence of the form 'If p then q', and can be
true or false. The Stoic logician Philo of Megara was the
rst to dene the truth conditions of such an implication:
false only when the antecedent p is true and the conse-
quent q is false, in all other cases true. An inference, on
the other hand, consists of two separately asserted propo-
sitions of the form 'p therefore q'. An inference is not true
or false, but valid or invalid. However, there is a connec-
tion between implication and inference, as follows: if the
implication 'if p then q' is true, the inference 'p therefore
q' is valid. This was given an apparently paradoxical for-
mulation by Philo, who said that the implication 'if it is
day, it is night' is true only at night, so the inference 'it is
day, therefore it is night' is valid in the night, but not in
148 CHAPTER 15. LOGIC

the day. predicate logics not extended by specic axioms to be

The theory of inference (or 'consequences) was system- arithmetic formal [12]
systems with equality can be complete
atically developed in medieval times by logicians such as and consistent.
William of Ockham and Walter Burley. It is uniquely me-
dieval, though it has its origins in Aristotles Topics and
Boethius' De Syllogismis hypotheticis. This is why many 15.1.5 Logic and rationality
terms in logic are Latin. For example, the rule that li-
censes the move from the implication 'if p then q' plus the
Main article: Logic and rationality
assertion of its antecedent p, to the assertion of the con-
sequent q is known as modus ponens (or 'mode of posit-
ing'). Its Latin formulation is 'Posito antecedente ponitur As the study of argument is of clear importance to the rea-
consequens. The Latin formulations of many other rules sons that we hold things to be true, logic is of essential im-
such as 'ex falso quodlibet' (anything follows from a false- portance to rationality. Here we have dened logic to be
hood), 'reductio ad absurdum' (disproof by showing the the systematic study of the form of arguments"; the rea-
consequence is absurd) also date from this period. soning behind argument is of several sorts, but only some
of these arguments fall under the aegis of logic proper.
However, the theory of consequences, or of the so-called
'hypothetical syllogism' was never fully integrated into the Deductive reasoning concerns the logical consequence of
theory of the 'categorical syllogism'. This was partly be- given premises and is the form of reasoning most closely
cause of the resistance to reducing the categorical judg- connected to logic. On a narrow conception of logic (see
ment 'Every S is P' to the so-called hypothetical judgment below) logic concerns just deductive reasoning, although
'if anything is S, it is P'. The rst was thought to imply such a narrow conception controversially excludes most
'some S is P', the second was not, and as late as 1911 in of what is called informal logic from the discipline.
the Encyclopedia Britannica article on Logic, we nd the There are other forms of reasoning that are rational but
Oxford logician T.H. Case arguing against Sigwarts and that are generally not taken to be part of logic. These
Brentanos modern analysis of the universal proposition. include inductive reasoning, which covers forms of in-
Cf. problem of existential import ference that move from collections of particular judge-
ments to universal judgements, and abductive reason-
ing,[13] which is a form of inference that goes from obser-
15.1.4 Logical systems vation to a hypothesis that accounts for the reliable data
(observation) and seeks to explain relevant evidence. The
Main article: Formal system
American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (1839
1914) rst introduced the term as guessing.[14] Peirce
A formal system is an organisation of terms used for the said that to abduce a hypothetical explanation a from
analysis of deduction. It consists of an alphabet, a lan- an observed surprising circumstance b is to surmise that
guage over the alphabet to construct sentences, and a rule a may be true because then b would be a matter of
for deriving sentences. Among the important properties course.[15] Thus, to abduce a from b involves determining
that logical systems can have are: that a is sucient (or nearly sucient), but not necessary,
for b .
Consistency, which means that no theorem of the While inductive and abductive inference are not part of
system contradicts another.[10] logic proper, the methodology of logic has been applied
Validity, which means that the systems rules to them with some degree of success. For example, the
of proof never allow a false inference from true notion of deductive validity (where an inference is deduc-
premises. tively valid if and only if there is no possible situation in
which all the premises are true but the conclusion false)
Completeness, which means that if a formula is exists in an analogy to the notion of inductive validity,
true, it can be proven, i.e. is a theorem of the system. or strength, where an inference is inductively strong if
and only if its premises give some degree of probability
Soundness, meaning that if any formula is a theo- to its conclusion. Whereas the notion of deductive valid-
rem of the system, it is true. This is the converse of ity can be rigorously stated for systems of formal logic
completeness. (Note that in a distinct philosophical in terms of the well-understood notions of semantics, in-
use of the term, an argument is sound when it is both ductive validity requires us to dene a reliable generaliza-
valid and its premises are true).[11] tion of some set of observations. The task of providing
this denition may be approached in various ways, some
Some logical systems do not have all four properties. As less formal than others; some of these denitions may
an example, Kurt Gdel's incompleteness theorems show use logical association rule induction, while others may
that suciently complex formal systems of arithmetic use mathematical models of probability such as decision
cannot be consistent and complete;[4] however, rst-order trees.
15.2. HISTORY 149

15.1.6 Rival conceptions

Main article: Rival conceptions of logic

Logic arose (see below) from a concern with correctness

of argumentation. Modern logicians usually wish to en-
sure that logic studies just those arguments that arise from
appropriately general forms of inference. For example,
Thomas Hofweber writes in the Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy that logic does not, however, cover good
reasoning as a whole. That is the job of the theory of
rationality. Rather it deals with inferences whose valid-
ity can be traced back to the formal features of the rep-
resentations that are involved in that inference, be they
linguistic, mental, or other representations.[16]
By contrast, Immanuel Kant (17241804) argued for see-
ing logic as the science of judgement, an idea taken up
in the logical and philosophical work of Gottlob Frege
(18481925). But Freges work is ambiguous in the sense
that it is both concerned with the laws of thought as well
as with the laws of truth, i.e. it both treats logic in the
context of a theory of the mind, and treats logic as the
study of abstract formal structures.
Logic has been dened as the study of arguments correct Aristotle, 384322 BCE.
in virtue of their form. This has not been the denition
taken in this article, but the idea that logic treats special
forms of argument, deductive argument, rather than ar- Christian faith. During the High Middle Ages, logic be-
gument in general, has a history in logic that dates back at came a main focus of philosophers, who would engage in
least to logicism in mathematics (19th and 20th centuries) critical logical analyses of philosophical arguments, of-
and the advent of the inuence of mathematical logic on ten using variations of the methodology of scholasticism.
philosophy. A consequence of taking logic to treat special In 1323, William of Ockham's inuential Summa Log-
kinds of argument is that it leads to identication of spe- icae was released. By the 18th century, the structured
cial kinds of truth, the logical truths (with logic equiva- approach to arguments had degenerated and fallen out
lently being the study of logical truth), and excludes many of favour, as depicted in Holberg's satirical play Erasmus
of the original objects of study of logic that are treated Montanus.
as informal logic. Robert Brandom has argued against
the idea that logic is the study of a special kind of log- The Chinese logical philosopher Gongsun Long (c. 325
ical truth, arguing that instead one can talk of the logic 250 BCE) proposed the paradox One and one cannot
of material inference (in the terminology of Wilfred Sel- become two, since neither becomes two.[24] In China,
lars), with logic making explicit the commitments that the tradition of scholarly investigation into logic, however,
were originally implicit in informal inference.[17] was repressed by the Qin dynasty following the legalist
philosophy of Han Feizi.
In India, innovations in the scholastic school, called
Nyaya, continued from ancient times into the early 18th
15.2 History century with the Navya-Nyaya school. By the 16th cen-
tury, it developed theories resembling modern logic, such
Main article: History of logic as Gottlob Frege's distinction between sense and refer-
In Europe, logic was rst developed by Aristotle.[18] ence of proper names and his denition of number, as
Aristotelian logic became widely accepted in science and well as the theory of restrictive conditions for universals
mathematics and remained in wide use in the West un- anticipating some of the developments in modern set the-
til the early 19th century.[19] Aristotles system of logic ory.[25] Since 1824, Indian logic attracted the attention of
was responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syl- many Western scholars, and has had an inuence on im-
logism,[20] temporal modal logic,[21][22] and inductive portant 19th-century logicians such as Charles Babbage,
logic,[23] as well as inuential terms such as terms, Augustus De Morgan, and George Boole.[26] In the 20th
predicables, syllogisms and propositions. In Europe century, Western philosophers like Stanislaw Schayer and
during the later medieval period, major eorts were Klaus Glasho have explored Indian logic more exten-
made to show that Aristotles ideas were compatible with sively.
150
The syllogistic logic developed by Aristotle predominated
in the West until the mid-19th century, when interest
in the foundations of mathematics stimulated the de-
velopment of symbolic logic (now called mathematical
logic). In 1854, George Boole published An Investiga-
tion of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the
Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities, intro-
ducing symbolic logic and the principles of what is now
known as Boolean logic. In 1879, Gottlob Frege pub-
lished Begrisschrift, which inaugurated modern logic
with the invention of quantier notation. From 1910
to 1913, Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell
published Principia Mathematica[3] on the foundations of
mathematics, attempting to derive mathematical truths
from axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic. In
1931, Gdel raised serious problems with the foundation-
alist program and logic ceased to focus on such issues.
The development of logic since Frege, Russell, and
Wittgenstein had a profound inuence on the practice
of philosophy and the perceived nature of philosophical
problems (see Analytic philosophy), and Philosophy of
mathematics. Logic, especially sentential logic, is imple-
mented in computer logic circuits and is fundamental to
computer science. Logic is commonly taught by univer-
sity philosophy departments, often as a compulsory dis-
cipline.
15.3 Types
15.3.1 Syllogistic logic
A depiction from the 15th century of the square of opposition,
which expresses the fundamental dualities of syllogistic.
Main article: Aristotelian logic
Predicate logic is the generic term for symbolic for-
The Organon was Aristotle's body of work on logic, with mal systems such as rst-order logic, second-order logic,
CHAPTER 15. LOGIC
the Prior Analytics constituting the rst explicit work in
formal logic, introducing the syllogistic.[27] The parts of
syllogistic logic, also known by the name term logic, are
the analysis of the judgements into propositions consist-
ing of two terms that are related by one of a xed number
of relations, and the expression of inferences by means of
syllogisms that consist of two propositions sharing a com-
mon term as premise, and a conclusion that is a proposi-
tion involving the two unrelated terms from the premises.
Aristotles work was regarded in classical times and from
medieval times in Europe and the Middle East as the very
picture of a fully worked out system. However, it was not
alone: the Stoics proposed a system of propositional logic
that was studied by medieval logicians. Also, the problem
of multiple generality was recognized in medieval times.
Nonetheless, problems with syllogistic logic were not seen
as being in need of revolutionary solutions.
Today, some academics claim that Aristotles system
is generally seen as having little more than historical
value (though there is some current interest in extend-
ing term logics), regarded as made obsolete by the advent
of propositional logic and the predicate calculus. Others
use Aristotle in argumentation theory to help develop and
critically question argumentation schemes that are used in
articial intelligence and legal arguments.
15.3.2 Propositional logic
Main article: Propositional calculus
A propositional calculus or logic (also a sentential calcu-
lus) is a formal system in which formulae representing
propositions can be formed by combining atomic propo-
sitions using logical connectives, and in which a system of
formal proof rules establishes certain formulae as theo-
rems. An example of a theorem of propositional logic is
A B A , which says that if A holds, then B implies
A.
15.3.3 Predicate logic
x F(x)
Gottlob Frege's Begrischrift introduced the notion of quantier
in a graphical notation, which here represents the judgement that
x.F (x) is true.
Main article: Predicate logic
15.3. TYPES 151

many-sorted logic, and innitary logic. It provides an ac- While the study of necessity and possibility remained
count of quantiers general enough to express a wide set important to philosophers, little logical innovation hap-
of arguments occurring in natural language. For exam- pened until the landmark investigations of Clarence Irv-
ple, Bertrand Russell's famous barber paradox, there is a ing Lewis in 1918, who formulated a family of rival ax-
man who shaves all and only men who do not shave them- iomatizations of the alethic modalities. His work un-
selves can be formalised by the sentence (x)(man(x) leashed a torrent of new work on the topic, expanding
(y)(man(y) (shaves(x, y) shaves(y, y)))) , us- the kinds of modality treated to include deontic logic and
ing the non-logical predicate man(x) to indicate that x is a epistemic logic. The seminal work of Arthur Prior ap-
man, and the non-logical relation shaves(x, y) to indicate plied the same formal language to treat temporal logic
that x shaves y; all other symbols of the formulae are log- and paved the way for the marriage of the two subjects.
ical, expressing the universal and existential quantiers, Saul Kripke discovered (contemporaneously with rivals)
conjunction, implication, negation and biconditional. his theory of frame semantics, which revolutionized the
formal technology available to modal logicians and gave
Whilst Aristotelian syllogistic logic species a small num-
ber of forms that the relevant part of the involved judge- a new graph-theoretic way of looking at modality that has
ments may take, predicate logic allows sentences to be driven many applications in computational linguistics and
analysed into subject and argument in several additional computer science, such as dynamic logic.
waysallowing predicate logic to solve the problem of
multiple generality that had perplexed medieval logicians.
15.3.5 Informal reasoning and dialectic
The development of predicate logic is usually attributed
to Gottlob Frege, who is also credited as one of the
Main articles: Informal logic and Logic and dialectic
founders of analytical philosophy, but the formulation of
predicate logic most often used today is the rst-order
logic presented in Principles of Mathematical Logic by The motivation for the study of logic in ancient times was
David Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann in 1928. The clear: it is so that one may learn to distinguish good ar-
analytical generality of predicate logic allowed the for- guments from bad arguments, and so become more ef-
malization of mathematics, drove the investigation of set fective in argument and oratory, and perhaps also to be-
theory, and allowed the development of Alfred Tarski's come a better person. Half of the works of Aristotles
approach to model theory. It provides the foundation of Organon treat inference as it occurs in an informal setting,
modern mathematical logic. side by side with the development of the syllogistic, and
in the Aristotelian school, these informal works on logic
Freges original system of predicate logic was second-
were seen as complementary to Aristotles treatment of
order, rather than rst-order. Second-order logic is most
rhetoric.
prominently defended (against the criticism of Willard
Van Orman Quine and others) by George Boolos and This ancient motivation is still alive, although it no
Stewart Shapiro. longer takes centre stage in the picture of logic; typically
dialectical logic forms the heart of a course in critical
thinking, a compulsory course at many universities. Di-
alectic has been linked to logic since ancient times, but
15.3.4 Modal logic
it has not been until recent decades that European and
American logicians have attempted to provide mathe-
Main article: Modal logic matical foundations for logic and dialectic by formalis-
ing dialectical logic. Dialectical logic is also the name
In languages, modality deals with the phenomenon that given to the special treatment of dialectic in Hegelian and
sub-parts of a sentence may have their semantics modied Marxist thought. There have been pre-formal treatises
by special verbs or modal particles. For example, "We go on argument and dialectic, from authors such as Stephen
to the games" can be modied to give "We should go to the Toulmin (The Uses of Argument), Nicholas Rescher (Di-
games", and "We can go to the games" and perhaps "We alectics),[29][30][31] and van Eemeren and Grootendorst
will go to the games". More abstractly, we might say that (Pragma-dialectics). Theories of defeasible reasoning
modality aects the circumstances in which we take an can provide a foundation for the formalisation of dialec-
assertion to be satised. tical logic and dialectic itself can be formalised as moves
Aristotle's logic is in large parts concerned with the the- in a game, where an advocate for the truth of a proposi-
ory of non-modalized logic. Although, there are passages tion and an opponent argue. Such games can provide a
in his work, such as the famous sea-battle argument in formal game semantics for many logics.
De Interpretatione 9, that are now seen as anticipations Argumentation theory is the study and research of infor-
of modal logic and its connection with potentiality and mal logic, fallacies, and critical questions as they relate to
time, the earliest formal system of modal logic was devel- every day and practical situations. Specic types of dia-
oped by Avicenna, whom ultimately developed a theory logue can be analyzed and questioned to reveal premises,
of "temporally modalized" syllogistic.[28] conclusions, and fallacies. Argumentation theory is now
152 CHAPTER 15. LOGIC

applied in articial intelligence and law. cation of degrees of unsolvability.[38]

15.3.6 Mathematical logic 15.3.7 Philosophical logic

Main article: Mathematical logic Main article: Philosophical logic

Mathematical logic comprises two distinct areas of re- Philosophical logic deals with formal descriptions of or-
search: the rst is the application of the techniques of dinary, non-specialist (natural) language, that is strictly
formal logic to mathematics and mathematical reasoning, only about the arguments within philosophys other
and the second, in the other direction, the application of branches. Most philosophers assume that the bulk of ev-
mathematical techniques to the representation and anal- eryday reasoning can be captured in logic if a method
ysis of formal logic.[32] or methods to translate ordinary language into that logic
can be found. Philosophical logic is essentially a contin-
The earliest use of mathematics and geometry in relation
uation of the traditional discipline called logic before
to logic and philosophy goes back to the ancient Greeks
the invention of mathematical logic. Philosophical logic
such as Euclid, Plato, and Aristotle.[33] Many other an-
has a much greater concern with the connection between
cient and medieval philosophers applied mathematical
natural language and logic. As a result, philosophical lo-
ideas and methods to their philosophical claims.[34]
gicians have contributed a great deal to the development
One of the boldest attempts to apply logic to mathemat- of non-standard logics (e.g. free logics, tense logics) as
ics was the logicism pioneered by philosopher-logicians well as various extensions of classical logic (e.g. modal
such as Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell. Mathemati- logics) and non-standard semantics for such logics (e.g.
cal theories were supposed to be logical tautologies, and Kripke's supervaluationism in the semantics of logic).
the programme was to show this by means to a reduction
Logic and the philosophy of language are closely related.
of mathematics to logic.[3] The various attempts to carry
Philosophy of language has to do with the study of how
this out met with failure, from the crippling of Freges
our language engages and interacts with our thinking.
project in his Grundgesetze by Russells paradox, to the
Logic has an immediate impact on other areas of study.
defeat of Hilberts program by Gdels incompleteness
Studying logic and the relationship between logic and or-
theorems.
dinary speech can help a person better structure his own
Both the statement of Hilberts program and its refutation arguments and critique the arguments of others. Many
by Gdel depended upon their work establishing the sec- popular arguments are lled with errors because so many
ond area of mathematical logic, the application of mathe- people are untrained in logic and unaware of how to for-
matics to logic in the form of proof theory.[35] Despite the mulate an argument correctly.[39][40]
negative nature of the incompleteness theorems, Gdels
completeness theorem, a result in model theory and an-
other application of mathematics to logic, can be un- 15.3.8 Computational logic
derstood as showing how close logicism came to being
true: every rigorously dened mathematical theory can Main article: Logic in computer science
be exactly captured by a rst-order logical theory; Freges Logic cut to the heart of computer science as it
proof calculus is enough to describe the whole of mathe-
matics, though not equivalent to it.
If proof theory and model theory have been the founda-
tion of mathematical logic, they have been but two of the
four pillars of the subject.[36] Set theory originated in the D Q
study of the innite by Georg Cantor, and it has been
the source of many of the most challenging and impor-
tant issues in mathematical logic, from Cantors theorem, clk
through the status of the Axiom of Choice and the ques-
tion of the independence of the continuum hypothesis, to
Combination logic Register
the modern debate on large cardinal axioms.
Recursion theory captures the idea of computation in log-
ical and arithmetic terms; its most classical achievements
are the undecidability of the Entscheidungsproblem by A simple toggling circuit is expressed using a logic gate and a
Alan Turing, and his presentation of the ChurchTuring synchronous register.
thesis.[37] Today recursion theory is mostly concerned
with the more rened problem of complexity classes emerged as a discipline: Alan Turing's work on the
when is a problem eciently solvable?and the classi- Entscheidungsproblem followed from Kurt Gdel's work
15.4. CONTROVERSIES 153

on the incompleteness theorems. The notion of the gen- ground by assuring us that neither in heaven nor in earth,
eral purpose computer that came from this work was of neither in the world of mind nor of nature, is there any-
fundamental importance to the designers of the computer where such an abstract 'eitheror' as the understanding
machinery in the 1940s. maintains. Whatever exists is concrete, with dierence
[41]
In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers predicted that when and opposition in itself.
human knowledge could be expressed using logic with In 1910, Nicolai A. Vasiliev extended the law of excluded
mathematical notation, it would be possible to create a middle and the law of contradiction and proposed the law
machine that reasons, or articial intelligence. This was of excluded fourth and logic tolerant to contradiction.[42]
more dicult than expected because of the complexity of In the early 20th century Jan ukasiewicz investigated the
human reasoning. In logic programming, a program con- extension of the traditional true/false values to include a
sists of a set of axioms and rules. Logic programming third value, possible, so inventing ternary logic, the rst
systems such as Prolog compute the consequences of the multi-valued logic in the Western tradition.[43]
axioms and rules in order to answer a query. Logics such as fuzzy logic have since been devised with
Today, logic is extensively applied in the elds of an innite number of degrees of truth, represented by
Articial Intelligence and Computer Science, and these a real number between 0 and 1.[44]
elds provide a rich source of problems in formal and in-Intuitionistic logic was proposed by L.E.J. Brouwer as
formal logic. Argumentation theory is one good example the correct logic for reasoning about mathematics, based
of how logic is being applied to articial intelligence. The
upon his rejection of the law of the excluded middle as
ACM Computing Classication System in particular re- part of his intuitionism. Brouwer rejected formalization
gards: in mathematics, but his student Arend Heyting studied
intuitionistic logic formally, as did Gerhard Gentzen. In-
Section F.3 on Logics and meanings of programs tuitionistic logic is of great interest to computer scientists,
and F.4 on Mathematical logic and formal languages as it is a constructive logic and can be applied for extract-
as part of the theory of computer science: this work ing veried programs from proofs.
covers formal semantics of programming languages,
as well as work of formal methods such as Hoare Modal logic is not truth conditional, and so it has often
logic; been proposed as a non-classical logic. However, modal
logic is normally formalized with the principle of the ex-
Boolean logic as fundamental to computer hard- cluded middle, and its relational semantics is bivalent, so
ware: particularly, the systems section B.2 on this inclusion is disputable.
Arithmetic and logic structures, relating to opera-
tives AND, NOT, and OR;
Many fundamental logical formalisms are essential 15.4 Controversies
to section I.2 on articial intelligence, for example
modal logic and default logic in Knowledge repre-
sentation formalisms and methods, Horn clauses in 15.4.1 Is Logic Empirical?"
logic programming, and description logic.
Main article: Is Logic Empirical?
Furthermore, computers can be used as tools for logi-
cians. For example, in symbolic logic and mathematical What is the epistemological status of the laws of logic?
logic, proofs by humans can be computer-assisted. Using What sort of argument is appropriate for criticizing pur-
automated theorem proving, the machines can nd and ported principles of logic? In an inuential paper enti-
check proofs, as well as work with proofs too lengthy to tled "Is Logic Empirical?"[45] Hilary Putnam, building
write out by hand. on a suggestion of W. V. Quine, argued that in general
the facts of propositional logic have a similar epistemo-
logical status as facts about the physical universe, for ex-
15.3.9 Non-classical logic ample as the laws of mechanics or of general relativity,
and in particular that what physicists have learned about
Main article: Non-classical logic quantum mechanics provides a compelling case for aban-
doning certain familiar principles of classical logic: if
The logics discussed above are all "bivalent" or two- we want to be realists about the physical phenomena de-
valued"; that is, they are most naturally understood as di- scribed by quantum theory, then we should abandon the
viding propositions into true and false propositions. Non- principle of distributivity, substituting for classical logic
classical logics are those systems that reject various rules the quantum logic proposed by Garrett Birkho and John
of Classical logic. von Neumann.[46]
Hegel developed his own dialectic logic that extended Another paper of the same name by Michael Dummett
Kant's transcendental logic but also brought it back to argues that Putnams desire for realism mandates the law
154 CHAPTER 15. LOGIC

of distributivity.[47] Distributivity of logic is essential for nent of dialetheism, has argued for paraconsistency on
the realists understanding of how propositions are true the grounds that there are in fact, true contradictions.[48]
of the world in just the same way as he has argued the
principle of bivalence is. In this way, the question, Is
Logic Empirical?" can be seen to lead naturally into the 15.4.4 Rejection of logical truth
fundamental controversy in metaphysics on realism ver-
sus anti-realism. The philosophical vein of various kinds of skepticism
contains many kinds of doubt and rejection of the var-
ious bases on which logic rests, such as the idea of logical
15.4.2 Implication: Strict or material form, correct inference, or meaning, typically leading to
the conclusion that there are no logical truths. Observe
Main article: Paradoxes of material implication that this is opposite to the usual views in philosophical
skepticism, where logic directs skeptical enquiry to doubt
The notion of implication formalized in classical logic received wisdoms, as in the work of Sextus Empiricus.
does not comfortably translate into natural language by Friedrich Nietzsche provides a strong example of the re-
means of if ... then ..., due to a number of problems jection of the usual basis of logic: his radical rejection of
called the paradoxes of material implication. idealization led him to reject truth as a "... mobile army
The rst class of paradoxes involves counterfactuals, such of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphismsin
as If the moon is made of green cheese, then 2+2=5, which short ... metaphors which are worn out and without sensu-
are puzzling because natural language does not support ous power; coins which have lost their pictures and now
[49]
the principle of explosion. Eliminating this class of para- matter only as metal, no longer as coins. His rejec-
doxes was the reason for C. I. Lewis's formulation of strict tion of truth did not lead him to reject the idea of either
implication, which eventually led to more radically revi- inference or logic completely, but rather suggested that
sionist logics such as relevance logic. logic [came] into existence in mans head [out] of illogic,
whose realm originally must have been immense. Innu-
The second class of paradoxes involves redundant merable beings who made inferences in a way dierent
premises, falsely suggesting that we know the succedent from ours perished.[50] Thus there is the idea that logical
because of the antecedent: thus if that man gets elected, inference has a use as a tool for human survival, but that
granny will die is materially true since granny is mor- its existence does not support the existence of truth, nor
tal, regardless of the mans election prospects. Such does it have a reality beyond the instrumental: Logic,
sentences violate the Gricean maxim of relevance, and too, also rests on assumptions that do not correspond to
can be modelled by logics that reject the principle of anything in the real world.[51]
monotonicity of entailment, such as relevance logic.
This position held by Nietzsche however, has come un-
der extreme scrutiny for several reasons. Some philoso-
15.4.3 Tolerating the impossible phers, such as Jrgen Habermas, claim his position is self-
refutingand accuse Nietzsche of not even having a co-
Main article: Paraconsistent logic herent perspective, let alone a theory of knowledge.[52]
Georg Lukcs, in his book The Destruction of Reason,
Hegel was deeply critical of any simplied notion of the asserts that, Were we to study Nietzsches statements in
Law of Non-Contradiction. It was based on Leibniz's idea this area from a logico-philosophical angle, we would be
that this law of logic also requires a sucient ground to confronted by a dizzy chaos of the most lurid assertions,
[53]
specify from what point of view (or time) one says that arbitrary and violently incompatible. Bertrand Rus-
something cannot contradict itself. A building, for ex- sell described Nietzsches irrational claims with He is
ample, both moves and does not move; the ground for the fond of expressing himself paradoxically and with a view
rst is our solar system and for the second the earth. In to shocking conventional readers in his book A History
[54]
Hegelian dialectic, the law of non-contradiction, of iden- of Western Philosophy.
tity, itself relies upon dierence and so is not indepen-
dently assertable.
Closely related to questions arising from the paradoxes of
15.5 See also
implication comes the suggestion that logic ought to tol-
erate inconsistency. Relevance logic and paraconsistent Digital electronics (also known as digital logic or
logic are the most important approaches here, though the logic gates)
concerns are dierent: a key consequence of classical
Fallacies
logic and some of its rivals, such as intuitionistic logic,
is that they respect the principle of explosion, which List of logicians
means that the logic collapses if it is capable of deriv-
ing a contradiction. Graham Priest, the main propo- List of logic journals
15.6. NOTES AND REFERENCES 155

List of logic symbols [12] Mendelson, Elliott (1964). Quantication Theory: Com-
pleteness Theorems. Introduction to Mathematical Logic.
Logic puzzle Van Nostrand. ISBN 0-412-80830-7.
Mathematics [13] On abductive reasoning, see:

List of mathematics articles Magnani, L. Abduction, Reason, and Science:

Outline of mathematics Processes of Discovery and Explanation. Kluwer
Academic Plenum Publishers, New York, 2001. xvii.
Metalogic 205 pages. Hard cover, ISBN 0-306-46514-0.
R. Josephson, J. & G. Josephson, S. Abductive
Outline of logic Inference: Computation, Philosophy, Technology
Philosophy Cambridge University Press, New York & Cam-
bridge (U.K.). viii. 306 pages. Hard cover (1994),
List of philosophy topics ISBN 0-521-43461-0, Paperback (1996), ISBN 0-
521-57545-1.
Outline of philosophy
Bunt, H. & Black, W. Abduction, Belief and Con-
Reason text in Dialogue: Studies in Computational Prag-
matics (Natural Language Processing, 1.) John
Truth Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia, 2000. vi.
471 pages. Hard cover, ISBN 90-272-4983-0 (Eu-
Vector logic rope),

15.6 Notes and references
[1] possessed of reason, intellectual, dialectical, argumenta-
tive, also related to (logos), word, thought, idea,
argument, account, reason, or principle (Liddell & Scott
1999; Online Etymology Dictionary 2001).
[2] Aristotle (2001). "Posterior Analytics". In Mckeon,
Richard. The Basic Works. Modern Library. ISBN 0-
375-75799-6.
[3] Whitehead, Alfred North; Russell, Bertrand (1967).
Principia Mathematica to *56. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-62606-4.
[4] For a more modern treatment, see Hamilton, A. G.
(1980). Logic for Mathematicians. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-29291-3.
1-58619-794-2 (U.S.)
[14] See Abduction and Retroduction at Commens Dictionary
of Peirces Terms, and see Peirces papers:
On the Logic of drawing History from Ancient
Documents especially from Testimonies (1901),
Collected Papers v. 7, paragraph 219.
PAP ["Prolegomena to an Apology for Pragma-
tism"], MS 293 c. 1906, New Elements of Mathe-
matics v. 4, pp. 319-320.
A Letter to F. A. Woods (1913), Collected Papers
v. 8, paragraphs 385-388.
[15] Peirce, C. S. (1903), Harvard lectures on pragmatism,
Collected Papers v. 5, paragraphs 188189.
[16] Hofweber, T. (2004). Logic and Ontology. In Zalta,
Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

[5] T. Mossakowski, J. A. Goguen, R. Diaconescu, A. Tar- [17] Brandom, Robert (2000). Articulating Reasons. Cam-
lecki, What is a Logic?", Logica Universalis 2007 bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
Birkhauser, pp. 113133. 00158-3.

[6] ukasiewicz, Jan (1957). Aristotles syllogistic from the
standpoint of modern formal logic (2nd ed.). Oxford Uni-
versity Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-824144-7.
[7] Summa Logicae Part II c.4 transl. as Ockams Theory of
Propositions, A. Freddoso and H. Schuurman, St Augus-
tines Press 1998, p.96
[18] E.g., Kline (1972, p.53) wrote A major achievement of
Aristotle was the founding of the science of logic.
[19] "Aristotle", MTU Department of Chemistry.
[20] Jonathan Lear (1986). "Aristotle and Logical Theory".
Cambridge University Press. p.34. ISBN 0-521-31178-0

[8] Arnauld, Logic or the Art of Thinking Part 2 Chapter 3.
[9] Locke, 1690. An Essay Concerning Human Understand-
ing, IV. v. 1-8)
[10] Bergmann, Merrie; Moor, James; Nelson, Jack (2009).
The Logic Book (Fifth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-353563-0.
[11] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Validity and Sound-
ness
[21] Simo Knuuttila (1981). "Reforging the great chain of be-
ing: studies of the history of modal theories". Springer
Science & Business. p.71. ISBN 90-277-1125-9
[22] Michael Fisher, Dov M. Gabbay, Llus Vila (2005).
"Handbook of temporal reasoning in articial intelli-
gence". Elsevier. p.119. ISBN 0-444-51493-7
[23] Harold Joseph Berman (1983). "Law and revolution: the
formation of the Western legal tradition". Harvard Univer-
sity Press. p.133. ISBN 0-674-51776-8
156
[24] The four Catukoi logical divisions are formally very
close to the four opposed propositions of the Greek
tetralemma, which in turn are analogous to the four truth
values of modern relevance logic Cf. Belnap (1977); Jay-
atilleke, K. N., (1967, The logic of four alternatives, in
Philosophy East and West, University of Hawaii Press).
[25] Kisor Kumar Chakrabarti (June 1976). Some Compar-
isons Between Freges Logic and Navya-Nyaya Logic.
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Interna-
tional Phenomenological Society. 36 (4): 554563.
doi:10.2307/2106873. JSTOR 2106873. This paper con-
sists of three parts. The rst part deals with Freges dis-
tinction between sense and reference of proper names and
a similar distinction in Navya-Nyaya logic. In the second
part we have compared Freges denition of number to the
Navya-Nyaya denition of number. In the third part we
have shown how the study of the so-called 'restrictive con-
ditions for universals in Navya-Nyaya logic anticipated
some of the developments of modern set theory.
[26] Jonardon Ganeri (2001). Indian logic: a reader.
Routledge. pp. vii, 5, 7. ISBN 0-7007-1306-9.
[27] Aristotle. Encyclopdia Britannica.
[28] History of logic: Arabic logic. Encyclopdia Britan-
nica.
[29] Rescher, Nicholas (1978). Dialectics: A Controversy-
Oriented Approach to the Theory of Knowledge. Infor-
mal Logic. 1 (#3).
[30] Hetherington, Stephen (2006). Nicholas Rescher: Philo-
sophical Dialectics. Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews
(2006.07.16).
[31] Rescher, Nicholas (2009). Jacquette,Dale, ed. Reason,
Method, and Value: A Reader on the Philosophy of
Nicholas Rescher. Ontos Verlag.
[32] Stolyar, Abram A. (1983). Introduction to Elementary
Mathematical Logic. Dover Publications. p. 3. ISBN
0-486-64561-4.
[33] Barnes, Jonathan (1995). The Cambridge Companion to
Aristotle. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 0-
521-42294-9.
[34] Aristotle (1989). Prior Analytics. Hackett Publishing Co.
p. 115. ISBN 978-0-87220-064-7.
[35] Mendelson, Elliott (1964). Formal Number The-
ory: Gdels Incompleteness Theorem. Introduction
to Mathematical Logic. Monterey, Calif.: Wadsworth
& Brooks/Cole Advanced Books & Software. OCLC
13580200.
[36] Barwise (1982) divides the subject of mathematical logic
into model theory, proof theory, set theory and recursion
theory.
[37] Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). Computability: Founda-
tions of Recursive Function Theory. Theory of compu-
tation: formal languages, automata, and complexity. Red-
wood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co. ISBN
0-8053-0143-7.
CHAPTER 15. LOGIC
[38] Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). Complexity. Theory of
computation: formal languages, automata, and complex-
ity. Redwood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub.
Co. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7.
[39] Goldman, Alvin I. (1986), Epistemology and Cognition,
Harvard University Press, p. 293, ISBN 9780674258969,
untrained subjects are prone to commit various sorts of
fallacies and mistakes.
[40] Demetriou, A.; Efklides, A., eds. (1994), Intelligence,
Mind, and Reasoning: Structure and Development, Ad-
vances in Psychology, 106, Elsevier, p. 194, ISBN
9780080867601.
[41] Hegel, G. W. F (1971) [1817]. Philosophy of Mind. En-
cyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences. trans. William
Wallace. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 174. ISBN 0-19-
875014-5.
[42] Joseph E. Brenner (3 August 2008). Logic in Reality.
Springer. pp. 2830. ISBN 978-1-4020-8374-7. Re-
trieved 9 April 2012.
[43] Zegarelli, Mark (2010), Logic For Dummies, John Wiley
& Sons, p. 30, ISBN 9781118053072.
[44] Hjek, Petr (2006). Fuzzy Logic. In Zalta, Edward N.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[45] Putnam, H. (1969). Is Logic Empirical?". Boston Studies
in the Philosophy of Science. 5.
[46] Birkho, G.; von Neumann, J. (1936). The Logic of
Quantum Mechanics. Annals of Mathematics. Annals of
Mathematics. 37 (4): 823843. doi:10.2307/1968621.
JSTOR 1968621.
[47] Dummett, M. (1978). Is Logic Empirical?". Truth and
Other Enigmas. ISBN 0-674-91076-1.
[48] Priest, Graham (2008). Dialetheism. In Zalta, Edward
N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[49] Nietzsche, 1873, On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense.
[50] Nietzsche, 1882, The Gay Science.
[51] Nietzsche, 1878, Human, All Too Human
[52] Babette Babich, Habermas, Nietzsche, and Critical The-
ory
[53] Georg Lukcs. The Destruction of Reason by Georg
Lukcs 1952. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2013-06-16.
[54] Russell, Bertrand (1945), A History of Western Philosophy
And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances
from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (PDF), Simon
and Schuster, p. 762
15.7 Bibliography
Barwise, J. (1982). Handbook of Mathematical
Logic. Elsevier. ISBN 9780080933641.
15.8. EXTERNAL LINKS
Belnap, N. (1977). A useful four-valued logic. In
Dunn & Eppstein, Modern uses of multiple-valued
logic. Reidel: Boston.
Bocheski, J. M. (1959). A prcis of mathematical
logic. Translated from the French and German edi-
tions by Otto Bird. D. Reidel, Dordrecht, South
Holland.
Bocheski, J. M. (1970). A history of formal logic.
2nd Edition. Translated and edited from the Ger-
man edition by Ivo Thomas. Chelsea Publishing,
New York.
Brookshear, J. Glenn (1989). Theory of computa-
tion: formal languages, automata, and complexity.
Redwood City, Calif.: Benjamin/Cummings Pub.
Co. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7.
Cohen, R.S, and Wartofsky, M.W. (1974). Log-
ical and Epistemological Studies in Contemporary
Physics. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Sci-
ence. D. Reidel Publishing Company: Dordrecht,
Netherlands. ISBN 90-277-0377-9.
Finkelstein, D. (1969). Matter, Space, and Logic.
in R.S. Cohen and M.W. Wartofsky (eds. 1974).
Gabbay, D.M., and Guenthner, F. (eds., 2001
2005). Handbook of Philosophical Logic. 13 vols.,
2nd edition. Kluwer Publishers: Dordrecht.
Hilbert, D., and Ackermann, W, (1928). Grundzge
der theoretischen Logik (Principles of Mathematical
Logic). Springer-Verlag. OCLC 2085765
Susan Haack (1996). Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic:
Beyond the Formalism, University of Chicago Press.
Hodges, W. (2001). Logic. An introduction to Ele-
mentary Logic, Penguin Books.
Hofweber, T. (2004), Logic and Ontology. Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Edward N. Zalta (ed.).
Hughes, R.I.G. (1993, ed.). A Philosophical Com-
panion to First-Order Logic. Hackett Publishing.
Kline, Morris (1972). Mathematical Thought From
Ancient to Modern Times. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-506135-7.
Kneale, William, and Kneale, Martha, (1962). The
Development of Logic. Oxford University Press,
London, UK.
Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert. Logikos. A
Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus Project. Retrieved
8 May 2009.
Mendelson, Elliott, (1964). Introduction to Math-
ematical Logic. Wadsworth & Brooks/Cole Ad-
vanced Books & Software: Monterey, Calif. OCLC
13580200
157
Harper, Robert (2001). Logic. Online Etymology
Dictionary. Retrieved 8 May 2009.
Smith, B. (1989). Logic and the Sachverhalt. The
Monist 72(1):5269.
Whitehead, Alfred North and Bertrand Russell
(1910). Principia Mathematica. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press: Cambridge, England. OCLC 1041146
15.8 External links
Logic at PhilPapers
Logic at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
Logic. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Logical calcu-
lus, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN
978-1-55608-010-4
An Outline for Verbal Logic
Introductions and tutorials
An Introduction to Philosophical Logic, by
Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
forall x: an introduction to formal logic, by
P.D. Magnus, covers sentential and quantied
logic.
Logic Self-Taught: A Workbook (originally
prepared for on-line logic instruction).
Nicholas Rescher. (1964). Introduction
to Logic, St. Martins Press.
Essays
Symbolic Logic and The Game of Logic,
Lewis Carroll, 1896.
Math & Logic: The history of formal math-
ematical, logical, linguistic and methodologi-
cal ideas. In The Dictionary of the History of
Ideas.
Online Tools
Interactive Syllogistic Machine A web based
syllogistic machine for exploring fallacies, g-
ures, terms, and modes of syllogisms.
Reference material
Translation Tips, by Peter Suber, for translat-
ing from English into logical notation.
Ontology and History of Logic. An Introduc-
tion with an annotated bibliography.
Reading lists
158 CHAPTER 15. LOGIC

The London Philosophy Study Guide oers

many suggestions on what to read, depending
on the students familiarity with the subject:
Logic & Metaphysics
Set Theory and Further Logic
Mathematical Logic
Chapter 16

Philosophy

For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). writers. However, many of those who study philosophy
in undergraduate or graduate programs contribute in the
Philosophy (from Greek , philosophia, lit- elds of law, journalism, politics, religion, science, busi-
[1][2][3][4] ness and various art and entertainment activities.[26]
erally love of wisdom ) is the study of gen-
eral and fundamental problems concerning matters
such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind,
and language.[5][6] The term was probably coined by 16.1 Introduction
Pythagoras (c. 570 c. 495 BC). Philosophical meth-
ods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argu-
ment and systematic presentation.[7][8] Classic philosoph- 16.1.1 Knowledge
ical questions include: Is it possible to know anything
and to prove it?[9][10][11] What is most real? However, Traditionally, the term philosophy referred to any body
[14][27]
philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is closely
questions such as: Is there a best way to live? Is it better related to religion, mathematics, natural science, educa-
to be just or unjust (if one can get away with it)? [12]
Do tion and politics. Newtons 1687 "Mathematical Prin-
humans have free will? [13] ciples of Natural Philosophy" is classied in the 2000s
as a book of physics; he used the term "natural phi-
Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of losophy" because it used to encompass disciplines that
knowledge.[14] From the time of Ancient Greek philoso- later became associated with sciences such as astronomy,
pher Aristotle to the 19th century, "natural philoso- medicine and physics.[15]
phy" encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics.[15]
For example, Newton's 1687 Mathematical Principles of Philosophy was traditionally divided into three major
Natural Philosophy later became classied as a book branches:
of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of mod-
ern research universities led academic philosophy and Natural philosophy ("physics) was the study of the
other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.[16][17] physical world (physis, lit: nature);
In the modern era, some investigations that were tradi-
tionally part of philosophy became separate academic Moral philosophy ("ethics) was the study of good-
disciplines, including psychology, sociology, linguistics ness, right and wrong, beauty, justice and virtue
and economics. (ethos, lit: custom);
Other investigations closely related to art, science, poli-
Metaphysical philosophy (logos) was the study of
tics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy. For
existence, causation, God, logic, forms and other ab-
example, is beauty objective or subjective?[18][19] Are
stract objects ("meta-physika lit: what comes after
there many scientic methods or just one?[20] Is political
physics).[28]
utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy?[21][22][23]
Major sub-elds of academic philosophy include
metaphysics (concerned with the fundamental nature This division is not obsolete but has changed. Natural
of reality and being),[24] epistemology (about the philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, es-
nature and grounds of knowledge [and]...its limits and pecially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cos-
validity [25] ), ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, mology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sci-
logic, philosophy of science and the history of Western ences, but still includes value theory (including aesthetics,
philosophy. ethics, political philosophy, etc.). Metaphysical philoso-
Since the 20th century, professional philosophers con- phy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathemat-
tribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and ics and philosophy of science, but still includes episte-
mology, cosmology and others.

159
160 CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY

16.1.2 Philosophical progress (philosophia)[33] and were also termed physiologoi (stu-
dents of physis, or nature). Socrates was a very inuen-
Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times tial philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wis-
are still debated today. Colin McGinn and others dom but was a pursuer of wisdom.[34] Western philosophy
claim that no philosophical progress has occurred dur- can be divided into three eras: Ancient (Greco-Roman),
ing that interval.[29] Chalmers and others, by contrast, see Medieval philosophy (Christian European), and Modern
progress in philosophy similar to that in science,[30] while philosophy.
Talbot Brewer argued that progress is the wrong stan-
The Ancient era was dominated by Greek philosoph-
dard by which to judge philosophical activity.[31]
ical schools which arose out of the various pupils
of Socrates, such as Plato who founded the Platonic
Academy, and was one of the most inuential Greek
16.2 Historical overview thinkers for the whole of Western thought.[35] Platos stu-
dent Aristotle was also extremely inuential, founding the
In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wis- Peripatetic school. Other traditions include Cynicism,
dom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In Stoicism, Greek Skepticism and Epicureanism. Impor-
that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosoph- tant topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics
ical questions such as how are we to live and what is (with competing theories such as atomism and monism),
the nature of reality. A broad and impartial concep- cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia),
tion of philosophy then, nds a reasoned inquiry into the possibility of knowledge and the nature of reason
such matters as reality, morality and life in all world (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek
civilizations.[32] philosophy was also increasingly discussed in Latin by
Romans such as Cicero and Seneca.
Medieval philosophy (5th 16th century) is the period
16.2.1 Western philosophy
following the fall of the western Roman empire and was
Main article: Western philosophy dominated by the rise of Christianity and hence reects
Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Judeo-Christian theological concerns as well as retaining
a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such
as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and
reason, metaphysics, the problem of evil were discussed
in this period. Some key Medieval thinkers include
St. Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and
Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed
as an aid to Theology (ancilla theologiae) and hence they
sought to align their philosophy with their interpreta-
tion of sacred scripture. This period saw the develop-
ment of Scholasticism, a text critical method developed
in medieval universities based on close reading and dispu-
tation on key texts. The Renaissance (13551650) period
saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought
and on a robust Humanism.
Early modern philosophy in the Western world be-
gins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and Ren
Descartes (15961650).[36] Following the rise of natu-
ral science, Modern philosophy was concerned with de-
veloping a secular and rational foundation for knowl-
edge and moved away from traditional structures of
authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the
Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza,
Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.[37][38][39]
19th-century philosophy is inuenced by the wider
movement termed the Enlightenment, and includes g-
Bust of Socrates in the Vatican Museum ures such as Hegel a key gure in German ideal-
ism, Kierkegaard who developed the foundations for
Western world and dates to Pre-Socratic thinkers who existentialism, Nietzsche a famed anti-Christian, J.S. Mill
were active in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC who promoted Utilitarianism, Karl Marx who devel-
such as Thales (c. 624 c. 546 BC) and Pythagoras oped the foundations for Communism and the Ameri-
(c. 570 c. 495 BC) who practiced a love of wisdom can William James. The 20th century saw the split be-
16.2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 161

Avicenna Portrait on Silver Vase, Iran

Immanuel Kant.
came under strong Western intellectual inuences and in-
cludes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in
tween Analytic philosophy and Continental philosophy, the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existen-
as well as philosophical trends such as Phenomenology, tialism and Reform Judaism.
Existentialism, Logical Positivism, Pragmatism and the
Linguistic turn. Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of
Zoroaster, one of the rst promoters of monotheism and
of the dualism between good and evil. This dualistic
16.2.2 Middle Eastern philosophy cosmogony inuenced later Iranian developments such as
Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.
See also: Islamic philosophy and Middle Eastern philos- After the Muslim conquests, Early Islamic philosophy de-
ophy veloped the Greek philosophical traditions in new inno-
vative directions. This Islamic Golden Age inuenced
The regions of the fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are European intellectual developments. The two main cur-
home to the earliest known philosophical Wisdom lit- rents of early Islamic thought are Kalam which focuses
erature and is today mostly dominated by Islamic cul- on Islamic theology and Falsafa which was based on
ture. Early wisdom literature from the fertile crescent Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristo-
was a genre which sought to instruct people on ethi- tle was very inuential among the falsafa such as al-Kindi
cal action, practical living and virtue through stories and (9th century), Avicenna (980 June 1037) and Averroes
proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly
sebayt ('teachings) and they are central to our under- critical of the methods of the Aristotelian falsafa. Islamic
standings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. Babylonian thinkers also developed a scientic method, experimen-
astronomy also included much philosophical speculations tal medicine, a theory of optics and a legal philosophy.
about cosmology which may have inuenced the Ancient Ibn Khaldun was an inuential thinker in philosophy of
Greeks. Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are history.
religio-philosophical traditions that developed both in the In Iran several schools of Islamic philosophy continued
Middle East and in Europe, they both share certain early to ourish after the Golden Age and includes currents
Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic be- such as Illuminationist philosophy, Su philosophy, and
liefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Transcendent theosophy. The 19th and 20th century
Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Arab world saw the Nahda (awakening or renaissance)
Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy movement which inuenced contemporary Islamic phi-
162
losophy.
16.2.3 Indian philosophy
Nalanda university
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, philosopher and second president of
India, 1962 to 1967.
See also: Eastern philosophy
Main article: Indian philosophy
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darana; 'world views,
'teachings)[40] are philosophical traditions originating in
the Indian subcontinent. Traditions of Indian philoso-
phy are generally classied as either orthodox or hetero-
dox stika or nstika depending on whether they ac- Tibet and Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka and
cept the authority of the Vedas and whether they accept
CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY
the theories of Brahman and Atman.[41][42] The orthodox
schools generally include Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya,
Yoga, Mms and Vedanta, and the common hetero-
dox schools are Jain, Buddhist, Ajivika and Crvka.
Some of the earliest surviving philosophical texts are the
Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000500 BCE).
Important Indian philosophical concepts include dharma,
karma, samsara, moksha and ahimsa. Indian philoso-
phers developed a system of epistemological reasoning
(pramana) and logic and investigated topics such as meta-
physics, ethics, hermeneutics and soteriology. Indian phi-
losophy also covered topics such as political philosophy
as seen in the Arthashastra c. 4th century BCE and the
philosophy of love as seen in the Kama Sutra.
The commonly named six orthodox schools arose some-
time between the start of the Common Era and the
Gupta Empire.[43] These Hindu schools developed what
has been called the Hindu synthesis merging ortho-
dox Brahmanical and unorthodox elements from Bud-
dhism and Jainism as a way to respond to the unortho-
dox challenges.[44] Hindu thought also spread east to the
Indonesian Srivijaya empire and the Cambodian Khmer
Empire.
Later developments include the development of Tantra
and Iranian-Islamic inuences. Buddhism mostly disap-
peared from India after the Muslim conquest in the In-
dian subcontinent, surviving in the Himalayan regions and
south India.[45] The early modern period saw the our-
ishing of Navya-Nyya (the 'new reason') under philoso-
phers such as Raghunatha Siromani (c.14601540) who
founded the tradition, Jayarama Pancanana, Mahadeva
Punatamakara and Yashovijaya (who formulated a Jain
response).[46]
The modern era saw the rise of Hindu nationalism, Hindu
reform movements and Neo-Vedanta (or Hindu mod-
ernism) whose major proponents included Vivekananda,
Mahatma Gandhi and Aurobindo and who for the rst
time promoted the idea of a unied "Hinduism". Due to
the inuence of British colonialism, much modern Indian
philosophical work was in English and includes thinkers
such as Radhakrishnan, Krishna Chandra Bhattacharya,
Bimal Krishna Matilal and M. Hiriyanna.[47]
16.2.4 Buddhist philosophy
Main articles: Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist ethics
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama
Buddha (. between sixth and fourth centuries BCE) and
is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. Buddhist thought
is trans-regional and trans-cultural. It originated in India
and later spread to East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and
Southeast Asia, developing new and syncretic traditions
in these dierent regions. The various Buddhist schools
of thought are the dominant philosophical tradition in
Burma. Because ignorance to the true nature of things is
16.2. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 163

Monks debating at Sera monastery, Tibet, 2013.

considered one of the roots of suering (dukkha), Bud-

dhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, meta- The Analects of Confucius (. 551479 BCE)
physics, ethics and psychology. The ending of dukkha
also encompasses meditative practices. Key innovative
concepts include the Four Noble Truths, Anatta (not-self)
a critique of a xed personal identity, the transience of all
things (Anicca), and a certain skepticism about metaphys-
ical questions.
Later Buddhist philosophical traditions developed
complex phenomenological psychologies termed
'Abhidharma'. Mahayana philosophers such as
Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories
of Shunyata (emptiness of all phenomena) and Vijnapti-
matra (appearance only), a form of phenomenology or
transcendental idealism. The Dignga school of Prama
promoted a complex form of epistemology and Buddhist
logic. After the disappearance of Buddhism from India,
these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the
Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada
Buddhist traditions. The modern period saw the rise of
Buddhist modernism and Humanistic Buddhism under
Western inuences and the development of a Western
Buddhism with inuences from modern psychology and
Western philosophy.

16.2.5 East Asian philosophy

Main articles: Chinese philosophy, Korean philosophy,
and Japanese philosophy
East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient
China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the
Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its
fall when the "Hundred Schools of Thought" ourished
(6th century to 221 BC).[48][49] This period was charac-
terized by signicant intellectual and cultural develop-
ments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools
of China, Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism as well
as numerous other less inuential schools. These philo-
sophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and
ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li
which, along with Chinese Buddhism, directly inuenced
Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese
philosophy (which also includes the native Shinto tra-
Kitar Nishida, professor of philosophy at Kyoto University and
founder of the Kyoto School.
dition). Buddhism began arriving in China during the
Han Dynasty (206 BCE220 CE), through a gradual Silk
road transmission and through native inuences devel-
oped distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which
spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. Dur-
ing later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368
1644) as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392
1897) a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such
as Wang Yangming (14721529) became the dominant
school of thought, and was promoted by the imperial
state.
In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas
164
from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy
developed under the inuence of Mao Zedong, while
a Chinese pragmatism under Hu Shih and New Con-
fucianism's rise was inuenced by Xiong Shili. Mod-
ern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong
Western inuences such as the study of Western Sciences
(Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual so-
ciety which drew from European enlightenment thought.
The 20th century saw the rise of State Shinto and also
Japanese nationalism. The Kyoto School, an inuen-
tial and unique Japanese philosophical school developed
from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese
Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.
16.2.6 African philosophy
Main article: African philosophy
African philosophy is philosophy produced by African
Frantz Fanon.
people, philosophy that presents African worldviews,
ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African
philosophical methods. Modern African thought has
been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, with dening the
very meaning of African philosophy and its unique char-
acteristics and what it means to be African.[50] Dur-
ing the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed
a robust literary tradition as exemplied by Zera Ya-
cob. Another early African philosopher was Anton
Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703 c. 1759) who became a
respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African
philosophical ideas include Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of
CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY
'Force', Ngritude, Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu. Con-
temporary African thought has also seen the develop-
ment of Professional philosophy and of Africana phi-
losophy, the philosophical literature of the African dias-
pora which includes currents such as black existentialism
by African-Americans. Modern African thinkers have
been inuenced by Marxism, African-American litera-
ture, Critical theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism
and Feminism.
16.2.7 Indigenous American philosophy
Main article: Indigenous American philosophy
Indigenous American philosophy is the philosophy of the
The Aztec Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar Stone, at
National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City.
Indigenous people of the Americas. There is a wide vari-
ety of beliefs and traditions among these dierent Amer-
ican cultures. Among some of the Native Americans in
the United States there is a belief in a metaphysical prin-
ciple called the Great Mystery (Siouan: Wakan Tanka,
Algonquian: Gitche Manitou). Another widely shared
concept was that of Orenda or spiritual power. Ac-
cording to Peter M. Whiteley, for the Native Americans,
Mind is critically informed by transcendental experience
(dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason.[51] The
practices to access these transcendental experiences are
termed Shamanism. Another feature of the indigenous
American worldviews was their extension of ethics to
non-human animals and plants.[51][52]
In Mesoamerica, Aztec philosophy was an intellec-
tual tradition developed by individuals called Tlamatini
('those who know something') [53] and its ideas are pre-
served in various Aztec codices. The Aztec worldview
posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or
force called Ometeotl which can be translated as Dual
Cosmic Energy and sought a way to live in balance
with a constantly changing, slippery world. The theory
of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.[54] Aztec
philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, episte-
mology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused
on seeking tlamatiliztli (knowledge, wisdom) which was
16.3. CATEGORIES 165

based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the A major point of debate revolves between realism, which
Nahua proverb the middle good is necessary.[54] holds that there are entities that exist independently of
The Inca civilization also had an elite class of their mental perception and idealism, which holds that
philosopher-scholars termed the Amawtakuna who reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial.
were important in the Inca education system as teachers Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is
of religion, tradition, history and ethics. Key concepts the set of attributes that make an object what it funda-
of Andean thought are Yanantin and Masintin which mentally is and without which it loses its identity while
involve a theory of complementary opposites that accident is a property that the object has, without which
the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are ob-
sees polarities (such as male/female, dark/light) as
interdependent parts of a harmonious whole. [55] jects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to
abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which
are properties held by multiple particulars, such as red-
ness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of univer-
16.3 Categories sals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.

Philosopher questions can be grouped into categories.

These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of
similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are in-
16.3.2 Epistemology
terested in the same questions. The groupings also make
philosophy easier for students to approach. Students can Main article: Epistemology
learn the basic principles involved in one aspect of the Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek
eld without being overwhelmed with the entire set of
philosophical theories.
Various sources present dierent categorical schemes.
The categories adopted in this article aim for breadth and
simplicity.
These ve major branches can be separated into sub-
branches and each sub-branch contains many specic
elds of study.[56]

Metaphysics and epistemology

Value theory

Science, logic and mathematics

History of Western philosophy[57]

Philosophical traditions

These divisions are neither exhaustive, nor mutually ex-

clusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epis-
temology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political
philosophy.) Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries
sometimes overlap with each other and with other in-
quiries such as science, religion or mathematics.[58]
Dignaga founded Buddhist epistemology (pramana)

16.3.1 Metaphysics episteme).[59] Epistemologists study the putative sources

Main article: Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of the most general features
of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their
properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and
causation and the relationship between mind and body.
Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world
in its entirety and ontology, the study of being.
of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, mem-
ory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testi-
mony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge
justied true belief? Are any beliefs justied? Puta-
tive knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowl-
edge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge
of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity
with someone or something). Epistemologists examine
these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.
166 CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY

Skepticism is the position which doubts claims to knowl-

edge. The regress argument, a fundamental problem in
epistemology, occurs when, in order to completely prove
any statement, its justication itself needs to be supported
by another justication. This chain can go on forever,
called innitism, it can eventually rely on basic beliefs
that are left unproven, called foundationalism, or it can
go in a circle so that a statement is included in its own
chain of justication, called coherentism.
Rationalism is the emphasis on reasoning as a source
of knowledge. It is associated with a priori knowledge,
which is independent of experience, such as math and
logical deduction. Empiricism is the emphasis on obser- The Beijing imperial college was an intellectual center for Con-
vational evidence via sensory experience as the source of fucian ethics and classics during the Yuan, Ming and Qing dy-
knowledge. nasties.
Among the numerous topics within metaphysics and epis-
temology, broadly construed are: way to live or related standards exists. The main branches
of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied
Philosophy of language explores the nature, the ori- ethics.
gins and the use of language. A major point of debate revolves around
Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind consequentialism, where actions are judged by the
and its relationship to the body. It is typied by dis- potential results of the act, such as to maximize happi-
putes between dualism and materialism. In recent ness, called utilitarianism, and deontology, where actions
years this branch has become related to cognitive are judged by how they adhere to principles, irrespective
science. of negative ends.

Philosophy of religion explores questions that arise

in connection with religions, including the soul, the Aesthetics
afterlife, God, religious experience, analysis of re-
ligious vocabulary and texts and the relationship of Main article: Aesthetics
religion and science.
Aesthetics is the critical reection on art, culture and
Philosophy of human nature analyzes the unique
nature.[60][61] It addresses the nature of art, beauty
characteristics of human beings, such as rationality,
and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and
politics and culture.
with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[62][63] It
Metaphilosophy explores the aims of philosophy, its is more precisely dened as the study of sensory or
boundaries and its methods. sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of
sentiment and taste.[64] It divides into art theory, literary
theory, lm theory and music theory. An example from
16.3.3 Value theory art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying
the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such
Value theory (or axiology) is the major branch of philos- as the Cubist aesthetic.[65] The philosophy of lm ana-
ophy that addresses topics such as goodness, beauty and lyzes lms and lmmakers for their philosophical content
justice. Value theory includes ethics, aesthetics, political and explores lm (images, cinema, etc.) as a medium for
philosophy, feminist philosophy, philosophy of law and philosophical reection and expression.
more.

Ethics
Main article: Ethics
Ethics, or moral philosophy, studies and considers what
is good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and
good and evil. Its primary investigations include how
to live a good life and identifying standards of morality.
It also includes meta-investigations about whether a best
Political philosophy
Main article: Political philosophy
Political philosophy is the study of government and the
relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to com-
munities including the state. It includes questions about
justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the
citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally linked sub-
jects, as both discuss the question of how people should
live together.
16.3. CATEGORIES 167

Logic

Main article: Logic

Logic is the study of reasoning and argument. An argu-

ment is "a connected series of statements intended to es-
tablish a proposition. The connected series of statements
are "premises" and the proposition is the conclusion. For
example:

1. All humans are mortal. (premise)

2. Socrates is a human. (premise)

3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (conclusion)

Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, con-

clusions are unavoidably implied. Rules of inference are
Thomas Hobbes used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where
given A and If A then B, then B must be concluded.

Other branches of value theory: Because sound reasoning is an essential element of

all sciences,[67] social sciences and humanities disci-
There are a variety of branches of value theory. plines, logic became a formal science. Sub-elds include
mathematical logic, philosophical logic, Modal logic,
Philosophy of law (often called jurisprudence) ex- computational logic and non-classical logics. A major
plores the varying theories explaining the nature and issue in the philosophy of mathematics revolves around
interpretation of laws. whether mathematical entities are objective and discov-
ered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called
mathematical antirealism.
Philosophy of education analyzes the denition and
content of education, as well as the goals and chal-
lenges of educators.
Philosophy of science
Feminist philosophy explores questions surround- Main article: Philosophy of science
ing gender, sexuality and the body including the na- This branch explores the foundations, methods, history,
ture of feminism itself as a social and philosophical implications and purpose of science. Many of its sub-
movement. divisions correspond to a specic branch of science. For
example, philosophy of biology deals specically with
Philosophy of sport analyzes sports, games and other the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in
forms of play as sociological and uniquely human the biomedical and life sciences. The philosophy of
activities. mathematics studies the philosophical assumptions, foun-
dations and implications of mathematics.

16.3.4 Logic, science and mathematics

16.3.5 History of philosophy
Many academic disciplines generated philosophical in-
quiry. The relationship between X and the philosophy See also: History of ethics
of X is debated. Richard Feynman argued that the phi- Further information: Philosophical progress and List of
losophy of a topic is irrelevant to its primary study, say- years in philosophy
ing that "philosophy of science is as useful to scientists
as ornithology is to birds. Curtis White, by contrast, ar-
Some philosophers specialize in one or more historical
gued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities,
periods. The history of philosophy (study of a specic
sciences and social sciences.[66] period, individual or school) is related to but not the same
The topics of philosophy of science are numbers, symbols as the philosophy of history (the theoretical aspect of his-
and the formal methods of reasoning as employed in the tory, which deals with questions such as the nature of his-
social sciences and natural sciences. torical evidence and the possibility of objectivity).
168 CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY

The ideas of Ibn al-Haytham were instrumental in the develop- Martin Luther King Jr
ment of the modern Scientic method.

Hegels Lectures on the Philosophy of History inuenced

many philosophers to interpret truth in light of history, a
view called historicism.

16.3.6 Philosophical schools 20th century US educational practices. Descendants of

this movement include eorts in philosophy for children,
Some philosophers specialize in one or more of the ma- which are part of philosophy education. Clausewitz's po-
jor philosophical schools, such as Continental philoso- litical philosophy of war has had a profound eect on
phy, Analytical philosophy, Thomism, Asian philosophy statecraft, international politics and military strategy in
or African philosophy. the 20th century, especially around World War II. Logic
is important in mathematics, linguistics, psychology,
computer science and computer engineering.
16.4 Other approaches Other important applications can be found in
epistemology, which aid in understanding the req-
A variety of other academic and non-academic ap- uisites for knowledge, sound evidence and justied belief
proaches have been explored. (important in law, economics, decision theory and a
number of other disciplines). The philosophy of science
discusses the underpinnings of the scientic method
16.4.1 Applied philosophy and has aected the nature of scientic investigation
and argumentation. Philosophy thus has fundamental
The ideas conceived by a society have profound reper- implications for science as a whole. For example,
cussions on what actions the society performs. Weaver the strictly empirical approach of B. F. Skinner's
argued that ideas have consequences. Philosophy yields behaviorism aected for decades the approach of the
applications such as those in ethicsapplied ethics American psychological establishment. Deep ecology
in particularand political philosophy. The politi- and animal rights examine the moral situation of humans
cal and economic philosophies of Confucius, Sun Tzu, as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants
Chanakya, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Rushd, Ibn Taymiyyah, to consider also. Aesthetics can help to interpret dis-
Machiavelli, Leibniz, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Adam cussions of music, literature, the plastic arts and the
Smith, John Stuart Mill, Marx, Tolstoy, Gandhi and whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various
Martin Luther King, Jr. have been used to shape and philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a
justify governments and their actions. Progressive educa- deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual
tion as championed by Dewey had a profound impact on underpinnings of their elds.
16.7. NON-PROFESSIONAL 169

16.5 Society
Some of those who study philosophy become profes-
sional philosophers, typically by working as professors
who teach, research and write in academic institutions.[68]
However, most students of academic philosophy later
contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, poli-
tics, business, or various arts.[26][69] For example, public
gures who have degrees in philosophy include comedi-
ans Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, lmmaker Terrence
Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry
Sanger, Supreme Court Justice Stephen Bryer and vice
presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.[70][71]
Recent eorts to avail the general public to the work
and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar
Berggruen Prize, rst awarded to Charles Taylor in
2016.[72]

16.6 Professional
Germany was the rst country to professionalize philos-
ophy. At the end of 1817, Hegel was the rst philoso-
pher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely
by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an eect of
Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the Bertrand Russell
professionalisation grew out of reforms to the Ameri-
can higher-education system largely based on the German
model. tic eld to the general populace, works by professional
philosophers directed at an audience outside the profes-
Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly be-
sion remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book Jus-
come a professional discipline practiced within universi-
tice: Whats the Right Thing to Do? and Harry Frank-
ties, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has
furt's On Bullshit are examples of works that hold the
become less general and more specialized. In the view of
uncommon distinction of having been written by profes-
one prominent recent historian: Philosophy has become
sional philosophers but directed at and ultimately popu-
a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primar-
lar among a broader audience of non-philosophers. Both
ily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has
works became 'New York Times best sellers.
exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the
subelds of serious philosophical investigation have mul-
tiplied. Not only is the broad eld of philosophy today
far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something sim- 16.7 Non-professional
ilar is true even of many highly specialized subelds.[73]
Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has
negatively aected the discipline.[74] Many inquiries outside of academia are philosophical in
the broad sense. Novelists, playwrights, lmmakers, and
The end result of professionalization for philosophy has musicians, as well as scientists, social scientists, and oth-
meant that work being done in the eld is now almost ers engage in recognizably philosophical activity.
exclusively done by university professors holding a doc-
torate in the eld publishing in highly technical, peer- Ayn Rand is the foremost example of an intellectual
reviewed journals. While it remains common among the working contemporaneously with contemporary philos-
population at large for a person to have a set of religious, ophy but whose contributions were not made within the
political or philosophical views that they consider their professional discipline of philosophy": For all her [Ayn
philosophy, these views are rarely informed by or con- Rands] popularity, however, only a few professional
nected to the work being done in professional philoso- philosophers have taken her work seriously. As a result,
phy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for most of the serious philosophical work on Rand has ap-
which there has come to be a healthy industry of books, peared in non-academic, non-peer-reviewed journals, or
magazines, and television shows meant to popularize sci- in books, and the bibliography reects this fact."[15]
ence and communicate the technical results of a scien- Also working from outside the profession were philoso-
170 CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY

phers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und die

praktische Philosophie. Drei Vortrge zur philosophis-
chen Praxis, 1983) and Michel Weber (see his preuve
de la philosophie, 2008) who have proposed since the
1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claim-
ing to bring Socratic dialogues back to life in a quasi-
psychotherapeutic framework.
Pierre Hadot is famous for his analysis on the concep-
tion of philosophy during Greco-Roman antiquity. Hadot
identied and analyzed the spiritual exercises used in
ancient philosophy (inuencing Michel Foucaults inter-
est in such practices in the second and third volumes of
his History of Sexuality). By spiritual exercises Hadot
means practices ... intended to eect a modication and
a transformation in the subjects who practice them.[6]
The philosophy teachers discourse could be presented in
such a way that the disciple, as auditor, reader, or inter-
locutor, could make spiritual progress and transform him-
self within."[7] Hadot shows that the key to understand-
ing the original philosophical impulse is to be found in
Socrates. What characterizes Socratic therapy above all
is the importance given to living contact between human
beings. Hadots recurring theme is that philosophy in an-
tiquity was characterized by a series of spiritual exercises
intended to transform the perception, and therefore the
being, of those who practice it; that philosophy is best
pursued in real conversation and not through written texts
and lectures; and that philosophy, as it is taught in univer-
sities today, is for the most part a distortion of its original,
American philosopher of mind and philosopher of art Susanne
therapeutic impulse. He brings these concerns together in Langer (18951985).
What Is Ancient Philosophy?,[7] which has been critically
reviewed.[8]
sor Jennifer Saul stated in 2015 that women are "...leaving
philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated
16.8 Role of women against. [79]
In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Associ-
Main article: Women in philosophy ation noted a gender imbalance and gender bias in the
Although men have generally dominated philosophical academic eld of philosophy.[80] In June 2013, a US so-
discourse, women have engaged in philosophy through- ciology professor stated that out of all recent citations
out history. Women philosophers have contributed since in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors
ancient timesnotably Hipparchia of Maroneia (active ca. comprise just 3.6 percent of the total.[81] Susan Price ar-
325 BC) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th4th century gues that the philosophical "...canon remains dominated
BC). More were accepted during the ancient, medieval by white malesthe discipline that...still hews to the
and modern eras, but no women philosophers became myth that genius is tied to gender.[82] According to Saul,
part the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, "[p]hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the
when some sources indicate that Susanne Langer, Hannah malest (and the whitest). While other areas of the human-
Arendt and Simone de Beauvoir entered the canon.[75][76] ities are at or near gender parity, philosophy is actually
more overwhelmingly male than even mathematics.[83]
In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in
the UK and US began admitting women, producing
more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Depart-
ment of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that 16.9 Popular culture
few women ended up in philosophy, and that philos-
ophy is one of the least gender-proportionate elds in In 2000, the Open Court Publishing Company began pub-
the humanities.[77] In 2014, Inside Higher Education de- lishing a series of books on philosophy and popular cul-
scribed the philosophy "...disciplines own long history of ture. Each book consists of essays written by philoso-
misogyny and sexual harassment" of women students and phers for general readers. The books explore the
professors.[78] University of Sheeld philosophy profes- meanings, concepts and puzzles within television shows,
16.11. REFERENCES
movies, music and other icons of popular culture[84] ana-
lyzing topics such as the TV shows Seinfeld and The Simp-
sons, The Matrix and Star Wars movies and related media
and new technological developments such as the iPod and
Facebook. Their most recent publication (as of 2016) is
titled Louis C.K. and Philosophy; its subject is the come-
dian Louis C.K..
The Matrix makes numerous references to philosophy
including Buddhism, Vedanta, Advaita Hinduism,
Christianity, Messianism, Judaism, Gnosticism,
existentialism and nihilism. The lms premise re-
sembles Plato's Allegory of the cave, Descartess evil
demon, Kant's reections on the Phenomenon versus
the Ding an sich, Zhuangzi's "Zhuangzi dreamed he
was a buttery", Marxist social theory and the brain
in a vat thought experiment. Many references to
Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation appear in the
lm, although Baudrillard himself considered this a
misrepresentation.[85]
16.10 See also
Main article: Outline of philosophy
List of important publications in philosophy
List of years in philosophy
List of philosophy journals
List of unsolved problems in philosophy
Lists of philosophers
Social theory
Wikipedia:Getting to Philosophy
16.11 References
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[2] Home : Oxford English Dictionary. oed.com.
[3] Online Etymology Dictionary. Etymonline.com. Re-
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[4] The denition of philosophy is: 1. orig., love of, or
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[5] Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, Philosophy:
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171
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[15] Lindberg 2007, p. 3.
[16] Shapin, Steven (1 January 1998). The Scientic Revolution
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[37] Rutherford, The Cambridge Companion to Early Mod-
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been associated with the achievements of a handful of
great thinkers: the so-called 'rationalists (Descartes,
Spinoza, Leibniz) and 'empiricists (Locke, Berkeley,
Hume), whose inquiries culminate in Kants 'Critical phi-
losophy.' These canonical gures have been celebrated for
the depth and rigor of their treatments of perennial philo-
sophical questions...
CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY
[38] Nadler, A Companion to Early Modern Philosophy, p. 2:
The study of early modern philosophy demands that we
pay attention to a wide variety of questions and an expan-
sive pantheon of thinkers: the traditional canonical g-
ures (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, and
Hume), to be sure, but also a large 'supporting cast'...
[39] Bruce Kuklick, Seven Thinkers and How They Grew:
Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz; Locke, Berkeley, Hume;
Kant in Rorty, Schneewind, and Skinner (eds.), Philos-
ophy in History (Cambridge University Press, 1984), p.
125: Literary, philosophical, and historical studies often
rely on a notion of what is canonical. In American philos-
ophy scholars go from Jonathan Edwards to John Dewey;
in American literature from James Fenimore Cooper to F.
Scott Fitzgerald; in political theory from Plato to Hobbes
and Locke [] The texts or authors who ll in the blanks
from A to Z in these, and other intellectual traditions, con-
stitute the canon, and there is an accompanying narrative
that links text to text or author to author, a 'history of'
American literature, economic thought, and so on. The
most conventional of such histories are embodied in uni-
versity courses and the textbooks that accompany them.
This essay examines one such course, the History of Mod-
ern Philosophy, and the texts that helped to create it. If a
philosopher in the United States were asked why the seven
people in my title comprise Modern Philosophy, the ini-
tial response would be: they were the best, and there are
historical and philosophical connections among them.
[40] Soken Sanskrit, darzana
[41] John Bowker, Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p.
259
[42] Wendy Doniger (2014). On Hinduism. Oxford University
Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-19-936008-6.
[43] Students Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclop-
dia Britannica, ISBN 978-0852297605, page 316
[44] Hiltebeitel, Alf (2007), Hinduism. In: Joseph Kitagawa,
The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and
Culture, Routledge
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PHILOSOPHIES. Harvard University Press. pp. 184185.
ISBN 978-0-674-02977-4.
[46] Ganeri, Jonardon; The Lost Age of Reason Philosophy In
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[47] Gareld (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Hand-
book of World Philosophy, Anglophone philosophy in
Colonial India.
[48] Gareld (Editor), Edelglass (Editor); The Oxford Hand-
book of World Philosophy, Chinese philosophy.
[49] Ebrey, Patricia (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History
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Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press.
Kant, Immanuel (1881). Critique of Pure Reason.
Macmillan.
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World Religions. Oxford University Press, Incorpo-
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September 1992). Renaissance philosophy. Oxford
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of Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press.
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to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-866132-0.
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2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy.
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philosophy: volume III: Ockham to Surez. Paulist
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Leaman, Oliver; Morewedge, Parviz (2000). Is-
lamic philosophy modern. In Craig, Edward.
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Not: The Case of Mesopotamia. Journal of
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doi:10.2307/602163.
16.13 Further reading
16.14 General introductions
Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living. ISBN
978-0-907845-33-1
Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduc-
tion. ISBN 978-0-19-285421-6
Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, Mastering Philosophy.
ISBN 978-0-333-69343-8
CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY
Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy.
ISBN 978-0-19-511552-9
Sinclair, Alistair J. What is Philosophy? An Intro-
duction, 2008, ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4
Sober, Elliott. (2001). Core Questions in Philoso-
phy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River,
Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-189869-1
Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Intro-
duction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-534-16708-0
Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. ISBN
978-0-415-14694-4
Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very
Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-
505292-3
Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1, 2, & 3) by Louis P.
Pojman
The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Ed-
win Arthur
European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche
by Monroe Beardsley
Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An An-
thology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub.,
2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind:
Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our
World View. ISBN 978-0-345-36809-6
16.15 Topical introductions
16.15.1 Eastern
A Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore
Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short In-
troduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285374-5
Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A
Guide to the Essential Texts. ISBN 978-0-19-
513335-6
Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For
Beginners. ISBN 978-0-86316-282-4
Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. ISBN 978-0-
415-22852-7
Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From
Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. ISBN 978-0-268-
01569-5
16.17. REFERENCE WORKS
16.15.2 African
Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to
African Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-8476-8841-8
16.15.3 Islamic
Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by
Muhammad Ali Khalidi
Leaman, Oliver. A Brief Introduction to Islamic Phi-
losophy. ISBN 978-0-7456-1960-6.
Corbin, Henry (23 June 2014) [1993]. History Of
Islamic Philosophy. Translated by Sherrard,, Li-
adain; Sherrard, Philip. Taylor & Francis. ISBN
978-1-135-19888-6.
Aminrazavi, Mehdi Amin Razavi; Nasr, Seyyed
Hossein; Nasr, PH.D., Seyyed Hossein (16 Decem-
ber 2013). The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Per-
sia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-78105-6.
16.16 Historical introductions
Oizerman, Teodor (1988). The Main Trends in Phi-
losophy. A Theoretical Analysis of the History of 16.16.4 Contemporary
Philosophy (DjVu, etc.). translated by H. Camp-
bell Creighton, M.A., Oxon (2nd ed.). Moscow:
Progress Publishers. ISBN 5-01-000506-9. Re-
trieved 20 January 2011 First published in Russian
as Appiah, Kwame Anthony. Thinking it Through
Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C.
A Short History of Philosophy. ISBN 978-0-19-
510196-6
Durant, Will, Story of Philosophy: The Lives
and Opinions of the Worlds Greatest Philosophers,
Pocket, 1991, ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4
Oizerman, Teodor (1973). Problems of the His-
tory of Philosophy. translated from Russian by
Robert Daglish (1st ed.). Moscow: Progress Pub-
lishers. Retrieved 20 January 2011 First published
in Russian as - Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song
16.16.1 Ancient
Knight, Kelvin. Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and
Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre. ISBN 978-0-
7456-1977-4
175
16.16.2 Medieval
The Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran,
Timothy Mooney
Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics:
An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Husserl, Edmund; Welton, Donn (1999). The Es-
sential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental
Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-
253-21273-1.
16.16.3 Modern
Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by
Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
Curley, Edwin, A Spinoza Reader, Princeton, 1994,
ISBN 978-0-691-00067-1
Bullock, Alan, R. B. Woodings, and John Cumming,
eds. The Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thinkers,
in series, Fontana Original[s]. Hammersmith, Eng.:
Fontana Press, 1992, cop. 1983. xxv, 867 p. ISBN
978-0-00-636965-3
Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philos-
ophy. ISBN 978-0-415-26763-2
Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings
by James Baillie
An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy, 2003,
ISBN 978-0-19-513458-2
Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very
Short Introduction. ISBN 978-0-19-285359-2
16.17 Reference works
Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). A Source Book in Chinese
Philosophy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-
691-01964-9.
Huang, Siu-chi (1999). Essentials of Neo-
and Ming Periods. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN 0-313-26449-X.
Honderich, T., ed. (1995). The Oxford Companion
to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-
0-19-866132-0.
The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert
Audi
176
The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.)
edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (available
online by subscription); or
The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
Edwards, Paul, ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. Macmillan & Free Press.; in 1996, a
ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated
the classic 1967 encyclopedia.
International Directory of Philosophy and Philoso-
phers. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation
Center.
Directory of American Philosophers. Char-
lottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.
Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by
John Marenbon
History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick Cople-
ston
A History of Western Philosophy (5 vols.) by W. T.
Jones
History of Italian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Eugenio
Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Gior-
gio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.
Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.),
edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (rst 6 volumes out
of print)
Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakr-
ishnan
A History of Indian Philosophy (5 vols.) by Suren-
dranath Dasgupta
History of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-
lan, Derk Bodde
Instructions for Practical Living and Other Neo-
Confucian Writings by Wang Yang-ming by Chan,
Wing-tsit
Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Anto-
nio S. Cua
Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by
Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt
Friedrichs
Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by
Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit
Terms Dened in English by John A. Grimes
History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hos-
sein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
CHAPTER 16. PHILOSOPHY
History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H.
Frank, Oliver Leaman
A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to
the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich
Kuvakin
Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philo-
sophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford.
Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)The Oxford Dictionary of
Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Mauter, T., Ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Philoso-
phy. London, Penguin Books.
Runes, D., Ed. (1942). The Dictionary of Philoso-
phy. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.
Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). The Harper Collins Dic-
tionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial.
Bunnin, Nicholas; Tsui-James, Eric, eds. (15 April
2008). The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy.
John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-99787-1.
Homan, Eric, Ed. (1997) Guidebook for Publish-
ing Philosophy. Charlottesville, Philosophy Docu-
mentation Center.
Popkin, R.H. (1999). The Columbia History of
Western Philosophy. New York, Columbia Univer-
sity Press.
Bullock, Alan, and Oliver Stallybrass, jt. eds. The
Harper Dictionary of Modern Thought. New York:
Harper & Row, 1977. xix, 684 p. N.B.: First
published in England under the title, The Fontana
Dictionary of Modern Thought. ISBN 978-0-06-
010578-5
Reese, W. L. Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion:
Eastern and Western Thought. Atlantic Highlands,
N.J.: Humanities Press, 1980. iv, 644 p. ISBN 978-
0-391-00688-1
16.18 External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
PhilPapers a comprehensive directory of on-
line philosophical articles and books by academic
philosophers
Philosophy Timeline
Map of Western Philosophers
16.18. EXTERNAL LINKS 177

Philosophy Magazines and Journals

Philosophy at DMOZ
Philosophy (review)

Philosophy Documentation Center

Popular Philosophy
Chapter 17

Metaphysics

For other uses, see Metaphysics (disambiguation). 17.1.1 Being and ontology

Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy exploring the fun- See also: Ontology

damental nature of reality.[1]
While various views and methods have been called 'meta- Ontology deals with the determination whether categories
physics across history, this article approaches meta- of being are fundamental and discusses in what sense the
physics rst from the perspective of contemporary ana- items in those categories may be said to be. It is the
lytical philosophy, and then explores metaphysics in other inquiry into being in so much as it is being (being qua
traditions. In this vein, metaphysics seeks to answer two being), or into beings insofar as they existand not in-
basic questions:[2] sofar as (for instance) particular facts may be obtained
about them or particular properties belong to them.
Most ontologies assume or assert the existence of cate-
1. Ultimately, what is there? gories including objects, properties, space and time. Im-
mediate questions arising from this include the nature of
2. What is it like? objects. Only properties can be observed directly, so
what does it mean for an object to exist and to possess
them if we can never observe an object directly? How
Topics of metaphysical investigation include existence, can we be sure that such objects exist at all?
objects and their properties, space and time, cause and ef-
The word is has two distinct uses in English, separated
fect, and possibility. A central branch of metaphysics is
out in ontology. It can denote existence as in there is an
ontology, the investigation into the basic categories of be-
elephant in the room and also can denote the possession
ing and how they relate to one another. Another branch is
of a property by an object as in the elephant is grey
metaphysical cosmology: which seeks to understand the
(i.e. the elephant has greyness). Some philosophers also
origin and meaning of the universe by thought alone.
include sub-classing as a third form of is-ness or being,
There are two broad conceptions about what world is as in the elephant is a mammal.
studied by metaphysics. The strong, classical view as-
Some philosophers, notably of the Platonic school, con-
sumes that the objects studied by metaphysics exist inde-
tend that all nouns (including abstract nouns, called
pendently of any observer, so that the subject is the most
universals) refer to existent entities. Other philosophers
fundamental of all sciences. The weaker, more mod-
contend that nouns do not always name entities, but that
ern view assumes that the objects studied by metaphysics
some provide a kind of shorthand for reference to a col-
exist inside the mind of an observer, so the subject be-
lection of either objects or events. In this latter view,
comes a form of introspection and conceptual analysis.
mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a col-
Some philosophers, notably Kant, discuss both of these
lection of mental events experienced by a person; society
worlds and what can be inferred about each one.
refers to a collection of persons with some shared char-
Some philosophers and scientists, such as the logical pos- acteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of a spe-
itivists, reject the entire subject of metaphysics as mean- cic kind of intellectual activity.[3] Between these poles
ingless, while others disagree and think that it is legiti- of realism and nominalism, stand a variety of other posi-
mate. tions. An ontology may give an account of which words
refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories
result.
Other controversial categories of objects and properties
17.1 Central questions which may be argued to exist or not include aesthetic
and moral properties, and social constructs such as money

178
17.1. CENTRAL QUESTIONS 179

and ownership. Stances about the status of such things of causations becoming dependent on who is observing
may form the foundation for other branches of philoso- them. The laws of physics are symmetrical in time, so
phy such as aesthetics, ethics and political philosophy. could equally well be used to describe time as running
backwards. Why then do we perceive it as owing in one
direction, the arrow of time, and as containing causation
17.1.2 Identity and change owing in the same direction?
Causality is usually required as a foundation for
Main article: Identity and change philosophy of science, if science aims to understand
See also: Identity (philosophy) and Philosophy of space causes and eects and make predictions about them.
and time

Identity is a fundamental metaphysical issue. Metaphysi- 17.1.4 Necessity and possibility

cians investigating identity are tasked with the question of
what, exactly, it means for something to be identical to it-
self. Other issues of identity arise in the context of time:
what does it mean for something to be itself across two
moments in time? How do we account for this? Another
question of identity arises when we ask what our criteria
ought to be for determining identity? And how does the
reality of identity interface with linguistic expressions?
The metaphysical positions one takes on identity have far-
reaching implications on issues such as the mind-body
problem, personal identity, ethics, and law.
The ancient Greeks took extreme positions on the nature
of change. Parmenides denied change altogether, while
Heraclitus argued that change was ubiquitous: "[Y]ou
cannot step into the same river twice.
Identity, sometimes called Numerical Identity, is the re-
lation that a thing bears to itself, and which no thing unmarried. The particular example of analytic truth be-
bears to anything other than itself (cf. sameness).
A modern philosopher who made a lasting impact on the
philosophy of identity was Leibniz, whose Law of the In-
discernability of Identicals is still in wide use today. It
states that if some object x is identical to some object y,
then any property that x has, y will have as well.
Put formally, it states (x)(y)((x = y) --> (P)Px <--> Py))
However, it seems, too, that objects can change over
time. If one were to look at a tree one day, and the
tree later lost a leaf, it would seem that one could still
be looking at that same tree. Two rival theories to ac-
count for the relationship between change and identity
are Perdurantism, which treats the tree as a series of 17.1.5 Cosmology and cosmogony
tree-stages, and Endurantism, which maintains that the
organismthe same treeis present at every stage in its See also: Cosmology (metaphysics)
history.
17.1.3 Causality and time
See also: Causality and Philosophy of space and time
Classical philosophy recognized a number of causes, in-
cluding teleological future causes. In special relativity
and quantum eld theory the notions of space, time and
causality become tangled together, with temporal orders
See also: Modal logic and Modal realism
Metaphysicians investigate questions about the ways the
world could have been. David Lewis, in On the Plural-
ity of Worlds, endorsed a view called Concrete Modal
realism, according to which facts about how things could
have been are made true by other concrete worlds, just as
in ours, in which things are dierent. Other philosophers,
such as Gottfried Leibniz, have dealt with the idea of pos-
sible worlds as well. The idea of necessity is that any nec-
essary fact is true across all possible worlds. A possible
fact is true in some possible world, even if not in the actual
world. For example, it is possible that cats could have had
two tails, or that any particular apple could have not ex-
isted. By contrast, certain propositions seem necessarily
true, such as analytic propositions, e.g., All bachelors are
ing necessary is not universally held among philosophers.
A less controversial view might be that self-identity is
necessary, as it seems fundamentally incoherent to claim
that for any x, it is not identical to itself; this is known as
the law of identity, a putative rst principle. Aristotle
describes the principle of non-contradiction, It is impos-
sible that the same quality should both belong and not
belong to the same thing ... This is the most certain of all
principles ... Wherefore they who demonstrate refer to
this as an ultimate opinion. For it is by nature the source
of all the other axioms.
Metaphysical cosmology is the branch of metaphysics
that deals with the world as the totality of all phenomena
in space and time. Historically, it has had a broad scope,
and in many cases was founded in religion. The ancient
Greeks drew no distinction between this use and their
model for the cosmos. However, in modern times it ad-
dresses questions about the Universe which are beyond
the scope of the physical sciences. It is distinguished from
religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions
using philosophical methods (e.g. dialectics).
180 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

Cosmogony deals specically with the origin of the uni- Gage case, have made this form of dualism increasingly
verse. Modern metaphysical cosmology and cosmogony unpopular.
try to address questions such as: Another proposal discussing the mindbody problem is
idealism, in which the material is sweepingly eliminated
What is the origin of the Universe? What is its rst
in favor of the mental. Idealists, such as George Berke-
cause? Is its existence necessary? (see monism,
ley, claim that material objects do not exist unless per-
pantheism, emanationism and creationism)
ceived and only as perceptions. The German idealists
What are the ultimate material components of such as Fichte, Hegel and Schopenhauer took Kant as
the Universe? (see mechanism, dynamism, their starting-point, although it is debatable how much
hylomorphism, atomism) of an idealist Kant himself was. Idealism is also a com-
mon theme in Eastern philosophy. Related ideas are
What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the panpsychism and panexperientialism, which say every-
Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see thing has a mind rather than everything exists in a mind.
teleology) Alfred North Whitehead was a twentieth-century expo-
nent of this approach.
17.1.6 Mind and matter Idealism is a monistic theory which holds that there is a
single universal substance or principle. Neutral monism,
See also: Matter, Materialism, and Philosophy of mind associated in dierent forms with Baruch Spinoza and
The nature of matter was a problem in its own right in Bertrand Russell, seeks to be less extreme than idealism,
and to avoid the problems of substance dualism. It claims
that existence consists of a single substance that in itself
is neither mental nor physical, but is capable of mental
and physical aspects or attributes thus it implies a dual-
aspect theory.
For the last one hundred years, the dominant metaphysics
has without a doubt been materialistic monism. Type
identity theory, token identity theory, functionalism,
reductive physicalism, nonreductive physicalism,
eliminative materialism, anomalous monism, property
dualism, epiphenomenalism and emergence are just
Dierent approaches toward resolving the mindbody problem some of the candidates for a scientically informed
account of the mind. (It should be noted that while
early philosophy. Aristotle himself introduced the idea of many of these positions are dualisms, none of them are
matter in general to the Western world, adapting the term substance dualism.)
hyle, which originally meant lumber. Early debates cen-
Prominent recent philosophers of mind include David
tered on identifying a single underlying principle. Wa-
Armstrong, Ned Block, David Chalmers, Patricia and
ter was claimed by Thales, air by Anaximenes, Apeiron
Paul Churchland, Donald Davidson, Daniel Dennett,
(the Boundless) by Anaximander, re by Heraclitus.
Fred Dretske, Douglas Hofstadter, Jerry Fodor, David
Democritus, in conjunction with his mentor, Leucippus,
Lewis, Thomas Nagel, Hilary Putnam, John Searle, John
conceived of an atomic theory some 24 centuries before
Smart, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Fred Alan Wolf.
it was accepted by modern science. It is worth noting,
however, that the grounds necessary to ensure validity to
the proposed theorys veridical nature were not scientic,
but just as philosophical as those traditions espoused by
17.1.7 Determinism and free will
Thales and Anaximander.
See also: Determinism and Free will
The nature of the mind and its relation to the body has
been seen as more of a problem as science has progressed
in its mechanistic understanding of the brain and body. Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every
Proposed solutions often have ramications about the event, including human cognition, decision and action, is
nature of mind as a whole. Ren Descartes proposed causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occur-
substance dualism, a theory in which mind and body are rences. It holds that nothing happens that has not already
essentially dierent, with the mind having some of the been determined. The principal consequence of the de-
attributes traditionally assigned to the soul, in the seven- terministic claim is that it poses a challenge to the exis-
teenth century. This creates a conceptual puzzle about tence of free will.
how the two interact (which has received some strange The problem of free will is the problem of whether ra-
answers, such as occasionalism). Evidence of a close re- tional agents exercise control over their own actions and
lationship between brain and mind, such as the Phineas decisions. Addressing this problem requires understand-
17.2. METAPHYSICS IN SCIENCE 181

ing the relation between freedom and causation, and de- had begun to be called science to distinguish it from
termining whether the laws of nature are causally deter- philosophy. Thereafter, metaphysics denoted philosoph-
ministic. Some philosophers, known as Incompatibilists, ical enquiry of a non-empirical character into the nature
view determinism and free will as mutually exclusive. If of existence.[4]
they believe in determinism, they will therefore believe Metaphysics continues asking why where science leaves
free will to be an illusion, a position known as Hard De- o. For example, any theory of fundamental physics
terminism. Proponents range from Baruch Spinoza to Ted is based on some set of axioms, which may postulate
Honderich. the existence of entities such as atoms, particles, forces,
Others, labeled Compatibilists (or Soft Determinists), charges, mass, and/or elds. Stating such postulates is
believe that the two ideas can be reconciled coherently. considered to be the end of a science theory. Meta-
Adherents of this view include Thomas Hobbes and many physics takes these postulates and explores what they
modern philosophers such as John Martin Fischer. mean as human concepts. For example, do all theories
Incompatibilists who accept free will but reject determin- of physics require the existence of space and time,[5] ob-
ism are called Libertarians, a term not to be confused with jects, and properties? Or can they be expressed using
the political sense. Robert Kane and Alvin Plantinga are only objects, or only properties? Do the objects have to
modern defenders of this theory. retain their identity over time or do they change?[6] If they
change, then are they still the same object? Can theories
be reformulated by converting properties or predicates
(such as red) into entities (such as redness or redness
17.1.8 Religion and spirituality
elds). Is the distinction between objects and properties
fundamental to the physical world and/or to our percep-
Some of the primary metaphysical questions concern-
tion of it?
ing religious philosophy are: whether there is a god
(monotheism), many gods (polytheism), or no gods Much recent work has been devoted to analyzing the role
(atheism), or whether it is unknown or unknowable if any of metaphysics in scientic theorizing. Alexandre Koyr
gods exist (agnosticism and apophatic theology); whether led this movement, declaring in his book Metaphysics and
a divine entity directly intervenes in the world (theism) Measurement, It is not by following experiment, but by
or its sole function is to be the rst cause of the universeoutstripping experiment, that the scientic mind makes
(deism); and whether a god or gods and the world are dif- progress.[7] Imre Lakatos maintained that all scientic
ferent (as in panentheism and dualism) or are identical (as theories have a metaphysical hard core essential for the
in pantheism). generation of hypotheses and theoretical assumptions.[8]
Thus, according to Lakatos, scientic changes are con-
Stances on these questions can form the foundation for
nected with vast cataclysmic metaphysical revolutions.[9]
philosophy of religion and theology, but the metaphysical
questions are prior to these disciplines. An example from biology of Lakatos thesis: David
Hull has argued that changes in the ontological status
The existence of god is sometimes assumed or required
of the species concept have been central in the develop-
by ontologies in order to avoid problems of subjectivity
ment of biological thought from Aristotle through Cuvier,
and relativism. If each subject can perceive the world in
Lamarck, and Darwin. Darwins ignorance of meta-
dierent ways, and has no access to perception of any in-
physics made it more dicult for him to respond to his
dependent reality, then how can it make sense to discuss
critics because he could not readily grasp the ways in
or assume any such independent reality, for example, as
which their underlying metaphysical views diered from
the basis for philosophy of science? Some philosophers,
his own.[10]
beginning with Descartes, extend the concept of mind
and phenomenal perception to a single all-encompassing In physics, new metaphysical ideas have arisen in con-
God-mind which perceives everything at every time. This nection with quantum mechanics, where subatomic par-
allows them to claim that there is a single objective real- ticles arguably do not have the same sort of individuality
ity, which the task of science is to learn about. as the particulars with which philosophy has tradition-
ally been concerned.[11] Also, adherence to a determin-
istic metaphysics in the face of the challenge posed by
the quantum-mechanical uncertainty principle led physi-
17.2 Metaphysics in science cists such as Albert Einstein to propose alternative the-
ories that retained determinism.[12] A. N. Whitehead is
Prior to the modern history of science, scientic ques- famous for creating a process philosophy metaphysics in-
tions were addressed as a part of metaphysics known spired by electromagnetism and special relativity.[13]
as natural philosophy. Originally, the term science
In chemistry, Gilbert Newton Lewis addressed the nature
(Latin scientia) simply meant knowledge. The scientic
of motion, arguing that an electron should not be said to
method, however, transformed natural philosophy into an
move when it has none of the properties of motion.[14]
empirical activity deriving from experiment unlike the
rest of philosophy. By the end of the 18th century, it Katherine Hawley notes that the metaphysics even of
182 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

a widely accepted scientic theory may be challenged of metaphysics, and specically Humes fork, is noto-
if it can be argued that the metaphysical presupposi- riously self-refuting.[22] Feser argues that Humes fork
tions of the theory make no contribution to its predictive itself is not a conceptual truth and is not empirically
success.[15] testable.
Some living philosophers, such as Amie Thomasson, have
argued that many metaphysical questions can be dissolved
17.3 Rejections of metaphysics just by looking at the way we use words; others, such as
Ted Sider, have argued that metaphysical questions are
A number of individuals have suggested that much or substantive, and that we can make progress toward an-
all of metaphysics should be rejected. In the eighteenth swering them by comparing theories according to a range
century, David Hume took an extreme position, arguing of theoretical virtues inspired by the sciences, such as
that all genuine knowledge involves either mathematics or simplicity and explanatory power.[23]
matters of fact and that metaphysics, which goes beyond
these, is worthless. He concludes his Enquiry Concerning
Human Understanding with the statement: 17.4 History and schools of meta-
physics
If we take in our hand any volume; of di-
vinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let
us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning 17.4.1 Pre-history
concerning quantity or number? No. Does it
contain any experimental reasoning concerning Cognitive archeology such as analysis of cave paintings
matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it and other pre-historic art and customs suggests that a
then to the ames: for it can contain nothing form of perennial philosophy or Shamanism metaphysics
but sophistry and illusion.[16] may stretch back to the birth of behavioral modernity, all
around the world. Similar beliefs are found in present-
day stone age cultures such as Australian aboriginals.
Thirty-three years after Humes Enquiry appeared, Im-
Perennial philosophy postulates the existence of a spirit or
manuel Kant published his Critique of Pure Reason. Al-
concept world alongside the day-to-day world, and inter-
though he followed Hume in rejecting much of previous
actions between these worlds during dreaming and ritual,
metaphysics, he argued that there was still room for some
or on special days or at special places. It has been argued
synthetic a priori knowledge, concerned with matters of
that perennial philosophy formed the basis for Platonism,
fact yet obtainable independent of experience. These in-
with Plato articulating, rather than creating, much older
cluded fundamental structures of space, time, and causal-
widespread beliefs.
ity. He also argued for the freedom of the will and the
existence of things in themselves, the ultimate (but un-
knowable) objects of experience. 17.4.2 Bronze age
The logical atomist Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced the
concept that metaphysics could be inuenced by theories Bronze Age cultures such as ancient Mesopotamia
of Aesthetics, via Logic, vis. a world composed of atom- and ancient Egypt (along with similarly structured but
ical facts.[17][18] chronologically later cultures such as Mayans and Aztecs)
developed belief systems based on mythology, anthropo-
In the 1930s, A. J. Ayer and Rudolf Carnap endorsed
morphic gods, mind-body dualism, and a spirit world, to
Humes position; Carnap quoted the passage above.[19]
explain causes and cosmology. These cultures appear to
They argued that metaphysical statements are neither
have been interested in astronomy and may have associ-
true nor false but meaningless since, according to their
ated or identied the stars with some of these entities. In
veriability theory of meaning, a statement is meaning-
ancient Egypt, the ontological distinction between order
ful only if there can be empirical evidence for or against
(maat) and chaos (Isfet) seems to have been important.
it. Thus, while Ayer rejected the monism of Spinoza,
noted above, he avoided a commitment to pluralism, the
contrary position, by holding both views to be without 17.4.3 Pre-Socratic Greece
meaning.[20] Carnap took a similar line with the contro-
versy over the reality of the external world.[21] This logical The rst named Greek philosopher, according to
positivist school is now generally considered to have run Aristotle, is Thales of Miletus, early 6th century BCE.
its course, with AJ Ayer in particular saying it was false He made use of purely physical explanations to explain
when asked what was wrong with it during a television in- the phenomena of the world rather than the mythologi-
terview. cal and divine explanations of tradition. He is thought
Arguing against such rejections, the Scholastic philoso- to have posited water as the single underlying principle
pher Edward Feser has observed that Humes critique (or Arche in later Aristotelian terminology) of the material
17.4. HISTORY AND SCHOOLS OF METAPHYSICS
The circled dot was used by the Pythagoreans and later Greeks
to represent the rst metaphysical being, the Monad or The Ab-
solute.
world. His fellow, but younger Miletians, Anaximander
and Anaximenes, also posited monisticunderlying princi-
ples, namely apeiron (the indenite or boundless) and air
respectively.
Another school was the Eleatics, in southern Italy. The
group was founded in the early fth century BCE by
Parmenides, and included Zeno of Elea and Melissus of
Samos. Methodologically, the Eleatics were broadly ra-
tionalist, and took logical standards of clarity and neces-
sity to be the criteria of truth. Parmenides chief doctrine
was that reality is a single unchanging and universal Be-
ing. Zeno used reductio ad absurdum, to demonstrate the
illusory nature of change and time in his paradoxes.
Heraclitus of Ephesus, in contrast, made change central,
teaching that all things ow. His philosophy, expressed
in brief aphorisms, is quite cryptic. For instance, he also
taught the unity of opposites.
Democritus and his teacher Leucippus, are known for for-
mulating an atomic theory for the cosmos.[24] They are
considered forerunners of the scientic method.
17.4.4 Chinese metaphysics
Metaphysics in Chinese philosophy can be traced back
to the earliest Chinese philosophical concepts from the
Zhou Dynasty such as Tian (Heaven) and Yin and Yang.
The fourth century BCE saw a turn towards cosmogony
with the rise of Taoism (in the Daodejing and Zhuangzi)
and sees the natural world as dynamic and constantly
changing processes which spontaneously arise from a sin-
gle immanent metaphysical source or principle (Tao).[25]
Another philosophical school which arose around this
time was the School of Naturalists which saw the ultimate
183
The modern yin and yang symbol (taijitu).
metaphysical principle as the Taiji, the supreme polar-
ity composed of the forces of Ying and Yang which were
always in a state of change seeking balance. Another con-
cern of Chinese metaphysics, especially Taoism, is the
relationship and nature of Being and non-Being (you
and wu ). The Taoists held that the ultimate, the Tao,
was also non-being or no-presence.[25] Other important
concepts were those of spontaneous generation or natural
vitality (Ziran) and correlative resonance (Ganying).
After the fall of the Han Dynasty (220 CE), China saw the
rise of the Neo-Taoist Xuanxue school. This school was
very inuential in developing the concepts of later Chi-
nese metaphysics.[25] Buddhist philosophy entered China
(c 1st century) and was inuenced by the native Chi-
nese metaphysical concepts to develop new theories. The
native Tiantai and Huayen schools of philosophy main-
tained and reinterpreted the Indian theories of shunyata
(emptiness, kong ) and Buddha-nature (Fo xing )
into the theory of interpenetration of phenomena. Neo-
Confucians like Zhang Zai under the inuence of other
schools developed the concepts of principle (li) and vi-
tal energy (qi).
17.4.5 Socrates and Plato
Socrates is known for his dialectic or questioning ap-
proach to philosophy rather than a positive metaphysical
doctrine.
His pupil, Plato is famous for his theory of forms (which
he places in the mouth of Socrates in the dialogues he
wrote to expound it). Platonic realism (also considered a
form of idealism)[26] is considered to be a solution to the
problem of universals; i.e., what particular objects have
in common is that they share a specic Form which is
universal to all others of their respective kind.
184 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

The theory has a number of other aspects: school of Indian philosophy.[31] It is most related to the
Yoga school of Hinduism, and its method was most inu-
Epistemological: knowledge of the Forms is more ential on the development of Early Buddhism.[32]
certain than mere sensory data.
The Smkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose
Ethical: The Form of the Good sets an objective epistemology accepts three of six pramanas (proofs) as
standard for morality. the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These
include pratyaka (perception), anuma (inference)
Time and Change: The world of the Forms is eternal
and abda (ptavacana, word/testimony of reliable
and unchanging. Time and change belong only to
sources).[33][34][35]
the lower sensory world. Time is a moving image
of Eternity. Samkhya is strongly dualist.[36][37][38] Smkhya philoso-
phy regards the universe as consisting of two realities;
Abstract objects and mathematics: Numbers, geo- purua (consciousness) and prakti (matter). Jiva (a living
metrical gures, etc., exist mind-independently in being) is that state in which purua is bonded to prakti in
the World of Forms. some form.[39] This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars,
led to the emergence of buddhi (spiritual awareness)
Platonism developed into Neoplatonism, a philosophy
and ahakra (ego consciousness). The universe is de-
with a monotheistic and mystical avour that survived
scribed by this school as one created by purusa-prakti en-
well into the early Christian era.
tities infused with various permutations and combinations
of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activ-
17.4.6 Aristotle ity and mind.[39] During the state of imbalance, one of
more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form
Platos pupil Aristotle wrote widely on almost every sub- of bondage, particularly of the mind. The end of this im-
ject, including metaphysics. His solution to the prob- balance, bondage is called liberation, or moksha, by the
[40]
lem of universals contrasts with Platos. Whereas Pla- Samkhya school.
tonic Forms are existentially apparent in the visible world, The existence of God or supreme being is not di-
Aristotelian essences dwell in particulars. rectly asserted, nor considered relevant by the Samkhya
Potentiality and Actuality [27]
are principles of a philosophers. Skhya denies the nal cause of Ishvara
[41]
dichotomy which Aristotle used throughout his philo- (God). While the Samkhya school considers the Vedas
sophical works to analyze motion, causality and other as a reliable source of knowledge, it is an atheistic philos-
issues. ophy according to Paul Deussen and other scholars.[42][43]
A key dierence between Samkhya and Yoga schools,
The Aristotelian theory of change and causality stretches state scholars,[43][44] is that Yoga school accepts a per-
to four causes: the material, formal, ecient and nal. sonal, yet essentially inactive, deity or personal god.[45]
The ecient cause corresponds to what is now known as a
cause simpliciter. Final causes are explicitly teleological, a Samkhya is known for its theory of guas (qualities, in-
[46]
concept now regarded as controversial in science.[28] The nate tendencies). Gua, it states, are of three types:
Matter/Form dichotomy was to become highly inuential sattva being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive,
in later philosophy as the substance/essence distinction. and constructive; rajas is one of activity, chaotic, pas-
sion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and tamas being
The opening arguments in Aristotles Metaphysics, Book the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic,
I, revolve around the senses, knowledge, experience, the- negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings,
ory, and wisdom. The rst main focus in the Metaphysics state Samkhya scholars, have these three guas, but in
is attempting to determine how intellect advances from dierent proportions. The interplay of these guas de-
sensation through memory, experience, and art, to theo- nes the character of someone or something, of nature
retical knowledge.[29] Aristotle claims that eyesight pro- and determines the progress of life.[47][48] The Samkhya
vides us with the capability to recognize and remember theory of guas was widely discussed, developed and re-
experiences, while sound allows us to learn. ned by various schools of Indian philosophies, including
Buddhism.[49] Samkhyas philosophical treatises also in-
17.4.7 Classical India uenced the development of various theories of Hindu
ethics.[32]
More on Indian philosophy: Hindu philosophy
Vednta
Skhya
Realization of the nature of Self-identity is the principal
Skhya is an ancient system of Indian philosophy based object of the Vedanta system of Indian metaphysics. In
on a dualism involving the ultimate principles of con- the Upanishads, self-consciousness is not the rst-person
sciousness and matter.[30] It is described as the rationalist indexical self-awareness or the self-awareness which is
17.4. HISTORY AND SCHOOLS OF METAPHYSICS 185

self-reference without identication,[50] and also not the
self-consciousness which as a kind of desire is satised by
another self-consciousness.[51] It is Self-realisation; the
realisation of the Self consisting of consciousness that
leads all else.[52]
The word Self-consciousness in the Upanishads means the
knowledge about the existence and nature of Brahman.
It means the consciousness of our own real being,
the primary reality.[53] Self-consciousness means Self-
knowledge, the knowledge of Prajna i.e. of Prana which
is Brahman.[54] According to the Upanishads the Atman
or Paramatman is phenomenally unknowable; it is the ob-
ject of realisation. The Atman is unknowable in its es-
sential nature; it is unknowable in its essential nature be-
cause it is the eternal subject who knows about everything
including itself. The Atman is the knower and also the
known.[55]
Metaphysicians regard the Self either to be distinct from
the Absolute or entirely identical with the Absolute. They
have given form to three schools of thought a) the Dual-
istic school, b) the Quasi-dualistic school and c) the Monis-
tic school, as the result of their varying mystical experi-
ences. Prakrti and Atman, when treated as two separate
and distinct aspects form the basis of the Dualism of the
Shvetashvatara Upanishad.[56] Quasi-dualism is reected
in the Vaishnavite-monotheism of Ramanuja and the ab-
solute Monism, in the teachings of Adi Shankara.[57]
Self-consciousness is the Fourth state of consciousness or
Turiya, the rst three being Vaisvanara, Taijasa and Pra-
jna. These are the four states of individual consciousness.
There are three distinct stages leading to Self-realisation.
The First stage is in mystically apprehending the glory of
the Self within us as though we were distinct from it. The
Second stage is in identifying the I-within with the Self,
that we are in essential nature entirely identical with the
pure Self. The Third stage is in realising that the Atman
is Brahman, that there is no dierence between the Self
and the Absolute. The Fourth stage is in realising I am
the Absolute - Aham Brahman Asmi. The Fifth stage is
in realising that Brahman is the All that exists, as also
that which does not exist.[58]
concept of dharmas which are the ultimate physical and
mental events that make up experience and their rela-
tions to each other. Noa Ronkin has called their approach
"phenomenological".[60]
Later philosophical traditions include the Madhyamika
school of Nagarjuna, which further developed the theory
of the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena or dharmas
which rejects any kind of substance. This has been inter-
preted as a form of anti-foundationalism and anti-realism
which sees reality has having no ultimate essence or
ground.[61] The Yogacara school meanwhile promoted a
theory called awareness only (vijnapti-matra) which has
been interpreted as a form of Idealism or Phenomenology
and denies the split between awareness itself and the ob-
jects of awareness.[62]
17.4.9 Islamic metaphysics
Islamic philosophy was highly active during Europes
'Dark Ages, beginning with the arrival and translation of
Aristotle into Arabic.
17.4.10 Scholasticism and the Middle Ages
Between about 1100 and 1500, philosophy as a disci-
pline took place as part of the Catholic church's teach-
ing system, known as scholasticism. Scholastic philoso-
phy took place within an established framework blending
Christian theology with Aristotelian teachings. Although
fundamental orthodoxies could not be challenged, there
were nonetheless deep metaphysical disagreements, par-
ticularly over the problem of universals, which engaged
Duns Scotus and Pierre Abelard. William of Ockham is
remembered for his principle of ontological parsimony.
17.4.11 Rationalism and Continental Ra-
tionalism
Main article: Rationalism

In the early modern period (17th and 18th centuries), the

17.4.8 Buddhist metaphysics system-building scope of philosophy is often linked to the
rationalist method of philosophy, that is the technique of
In Buddhist philosophy there are various metaphysical deducing the nature of the world by pure reason. The
traditions that have proposed dierent questions about scholastic concepts of substance and accident were em-
the nature of reality based on the teachings of the Bud- ployed.
dha in the early Buddhist texts. The Buddha of the early
texts does not focus on metaphysical questions but on
Leibniz proposed in his Monadology a plurality of
ethical and spiritual training and in some cases, he dis-
non-interacting substances.
misses certain metaphysical questions as unhelpful and
indeterminate Avyakta, which he recommends should Descartes is famous for his Dualism of material and
be set aside. The development of systematic meta- mental substances.
physics arose after the Buddhas death with the rise of
the Abhidharma traditions.[59] The Buddhist Abhidharma Spinoza believed reality was a single substance of
schools developed their analysis of reality based on the God-or-nature.
186 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

17.4.12 British empiricism modern analytical conception of the subject .

British empiricism marked something of a reaction to ra-

tionalist and system-building philosophy, or speculative
metaphysics as it was pejoratively termed. The sceptic
David Hume famously declared that most metaphysics
should be consigned to the ames (see below). Hume
was notorious among his contemporaries as one of the
rst philosophers to openly doubt religion, but is better
known now for his critique of causality. John Stuart Mill,
Thomas Reid and John Locke were less sceptical, em-
bracing a more cautious style of metaphysics based on
realism, common sense and science. Other philosophers,
notably George Berkeley were led from empiricism to
idealistic metaphysics.
17.4.14 Kantians
Nineteenth century philosophy was overwhelmingly in-
uenced by Kant and his successors. Schopenhauer,
Schelling, Fichte and Hegel all purveyed their own
panoramic versions of German Idealism, Kants own cau-
tion about metaphysical speculation, and refutation of
idealism, having fallen by the wayside. The idealistic
impulse continued into the early twentieth century with
British idealists such as F. H. Bradley and J. M. E. Mc-
Taggart. Followers of Karl Marx took Hegels dialectic
view of history and re-fashioned it as materialism.

17.4.13 Kant 17.4.15 Early analytical philosophy and

positivism
Immanuel Kant attempted a grand synthesis and revi-
sion of the trends already mentioned: scholastic philos-
During the period when idealism was dominant in philos-
ophy, systematic metaphysics, and skeptical empiricism,
ophy, science had been making great advances. The ar-
not to forget the burgeoning science of his day. As did
rival of a new generation of scientically minded philoso-
the systems builders, he had an overarching framework
phers led to a sharp decline in the popularity of idealism
in which all questions were to be addressed. Like Hume,
during the 1920s.
who famously woke him from his 'dogmatic slumbers,
he was suspicious of metaphysical speculation, and also Analytical philosophy was spearheaded by Bertrand Rus-
places much emphasis on the limitations of the human sell and G. E. Moore. Russell and William James tried to
mind. Kant described his shift in metaphysics away from compromise between idealism and materialism with the
making claims about an objective noumenal world, to- theory of neutral monism.
wards exploring the subjective phenomenal world, as a The early to mid twentieth century philosophy also saw
Copernian revolution, by analogy to (though opposite in a trend to reject metaphysical questions as meaningless.
direction to) Copernicus' shift from man (the subject) to The driving force behind this tendency was the philoso-
the sun (an object) at the center of the universe. phy of logical positivism as espoused by the Vienna Cir-
Kant saw rationalist philosophers as aiming for a kind cle.
of metaphysical knowledge he dened as the synthetic At around the same time, the American pragmatists were
apriorithat is knowledge that does not come from the steering a middle course between materialism and ideal-
senses (it is a priori) but is nonetheless about reality (syn- ism. System-building metaphysics, with a fresh inspira-
thetic). Inasmuch as it is about reality, it diers from tion from science, was revived by A. N. Whitehead and
abstract mathematical propositions (which he terms ana- Charles Hartshorne.
lytical apriori), and being apriori it is distinct from empir-
ical, scientic knowledge (which he terms synthetic apos-
teriori). The only synthetic apriori knowledge we can
have is of how our minds organise the data of the senses;
17.4.16 Continental philosophy
that organising framework is space and time, which for
Kant have no mind-independent existence, but nonethe- The forces that shaped analytical philosophythe break
less operate uniformly in all humans. Apriori knowledge with idealism, and the inuence of sciencewere much
of space and time is all that remains of metaphysics as less signicant outside the English speaking world, al-
traditionally conceived. There is a reality beyond sensory though there was a shared turn toward language. Con-
data or phenomena, which he calls the realm of noumena; tinental philosophy continued in a trajectory from post
however, we cannot know it as it is in itself, but only as Kantianism.
it appears to us. He allows himself to speculate that the The phenomenology of Husserl and others was intended
origins of phenomenal God, morality, and free will might as a collaborative project for the investigation of the fea-
exist in the noumenal realm, but these possibilities have tures and structure of consciousness common to all hu-
to be set against its basic unknowability for humans. Al- mans, in line with Kants basing his synthetic apriori on
though he saw himself as having disposed of metaphysics, the uniform operation of consciousness. It was ocially
in a sense, he has generally been regarded in retrospect as neutral with regards to ontology, but was nonetheless to
having a metaphysics of his own, and as beginning the spawn a number of metaphysical systems. Brentano's
17.5. ETYMOLOGY 187

concept of intentionality would become widely inuen- eth century. Philosophers such as David K. Lewis and
tial, including on analytical philosophy. David Armstrong developed elaborate theories on a range
Heidegger, author of Being and Time, saw himself as of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and ne-
re-focusing on Being-qua-being, introducing the novel cessity and abstract objects. However, the focus of ana-
concept of Dasein in the process. Classing himself an lytical philosophy generally is away from the construction
existentialist, Sartre wrote an extensive study of Being of all-encompassing systems and toward close analysis of
and Nothingness. individual ideas.

The speculative realism movement marks a return to full Among the developments that led to the revival of meta-
blooded realism. physical theorizing were Quines attack on the analytic
synthetic distinction, which was generally taken to under-
mine Carnaps distinction between existence questions in-
17.4.17 Process metaphysics ternal to a framework and those external to it.[65]
The philosophy of ction, the problem of empty names,
Further information: Process philosophy and the debate over existences status as a property have
all come of relative obscurity into the limelight, while
There are two fundamental aspects of everyday experi- perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and
ence: change and persistence. Until recently, the West- the philosophy of time have had new life breathed into
[66][67]
ern philosophical tradition has arguably championed sub- them.
stance and persistence, with some notable exceptions, The analytic view is of metaphysics as studying phenom-
however. According to process thinkers, novelty, ux and enal human concepts rather than making claims about the
accident do matter, and sometimes they constitute the ul- noumenal world, so its style often blurs into philosophy
timate reality. of language and introspective psychology. Compared to
In a broad sense, process metaphysics is as old as West- system-building, it can seem very dry, stylistically simi-
ern philosophy, with gures such as Heraclitus, Ploti- lar to computer programming or mathematics. Despite,
nus, Duns Scotus, Leibniz, David Hume, Georg Wil- or perhaps because of, this scientic dryness, it is gen-
helm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von erally regarded as having made progress where other
Schelling, Gustav Theodor Fechner, Friedrich Adolf schools have not. For example, concepts from analyti-
Trendelenburg, Charles Renouvier, Karl Marx, Ernst cal metaphysics are now routinely employed and cited as
Mach, Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, mile Boutroux, useful guides in computational ontologies for databases
Henri Bergson, Samuel Alexander and Nicolas Berdyaev. and to frame computer natural language processing and
It seemingly remains an open question whether major knowledge representation software.
Continental gures such as the late Martin Heidegger,
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Fou-
cault, or Jacques Derrida should be included.[63] 17.5 Etymology
In a strict sense, process metaphysics may be limited to
the works of a few founding fathers: G. W. F. Hegel, The word metaphysics derives from the Greek words
Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, Henri Bergson, (met, beyond, upon or after) and
A. N. Whitehead, and John Dewey. From a European (physik, physics).[68] It was rst used as the title for
perspective, there was a very signicant and early White- several of Aristotle's works, because they were usually
headian inuence on the works of outstanding scholars anthologized after the works on physics in complete edi-
such as mile Meyerson (18591933), Louis Couturat tions. The prex meta- (after) indicates that these
(18681914), Jean Wahl (18881974), Robin George works come after the chapters on physics. However,
Collingwood (18891943), Philippe Devaux (1902 Aristotle himself did not call the subject of these books
1979), Hans Jonas (19031993), Dorothy M. Emmett Metaphysics": he referred to it as rst philosophy.
(19042000), Maurice Merleau Ponty (19081961), The editor of Aristotles works, Andronicus of Rhodes, is
Enzo Paci (19111976), Charlie Dunbar Broad (1887 thought to have placed the books on rst philosophy right
1971), Wolfe Mays (1912), Ilya Prigogine (1917 after another work, Physics, and called them
2003), Jules Vuillemin (19202001), Jean Ladrire (t met t physik bibla) or the books
(1921), Gilles Deleuze (19251995), Wolfhart Pannen- that come after the [books on] physics. This was misread
berg (1928), and Reiner Wiehl (19292010).[64] by Latin scholiasts, who thought it meant the science of
what is beyond the physical.
17.4.18 Later analytical philosophy However, once the name was given, the commentators
sought to nd intrinsic reasons for its appropriateness.
While early analytic philosophy tended to reject meta- For instance, it was understood to mean the science of
physical theorizing, under the inuence of logical posi- the world beyond nature ( - phsis in Greek), that
tivism, it was revived in the second half of the twenti- is, the science of the immaterial. Again, it was under-
188
stood to refer to the chronological or pedagogical or-
der among our philosophical studies, so that the meta-
physical sciences would mean those that we study after
having mastered the sciences that deal with the physical
world (St. Thomas Aquinas, Expositio in librum Boethii
De hebdomadibus, V, 1).
A person who does, or is doing, metaphysics is called a
metaphysician.[69]
There is a widespread use of the term in current popular
literature which replicates this understanding, i.e. that the
metaphysical equates to the non-physical: thus, meta- [10] Hull, David (1967). The Metaphysics of Evolution.
physical healing means healing by means of remedies British Journal for the History of Science. 3 (4): 309337.
that are not physical.[70]
17.6 See also
Creation myth
Metaphilosophy
Metaethics
Personal identity
Philosophical logic
Philosophical realism
Philosophical theology
Philosophy of physics
17.7 References
[1] Geisler, Norman L. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian
Apologetics page 446. Baker Books, 1999, http://plato.
stanford.edu/entries/metaphysics/ Metaphysics (Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy)].
[2] What is it (that is, whatever it is that there is) like? Hall,
Ned (2012). David Lewiss Metaphysics. In Edward
N. Zalta (ed). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Fall 2012 ed.). Center for the Study of Language and
Information, Stanford University. Retrieved October 5,
2012.
[3] Griswold, Charles L. (2001). Platonic Writings/Platonic
Readings. Penn State Press. p. 237. ISBN
9780271021379.
[4] Peter Gay, The Enlightenment, vol. 1 (The Rise of Modern
Paganism), Chapter 3, Section II, pp. 132141.
[5] Shoemaker, Sydney. Time without change. The Journal
of Philosophy 66.12 (1969): 363-381.
[6] Identity and Individuality in Quantum Theory, Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/
entries/qt-idind/
CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS
[7] Koyr, Alexandre (1968). Metaphysics and Measurement.
Harvard University Press. p. 80.
[8] Brekke, John S. (1986). Scientic Imperatives in Social
Work Research: Pluralism Is Not Skepticism. Social Ser-
vice Review. 60 (4): 538554. doi:10.1086/644398.
[9] Lakatos, Imre (1970). Science: reason or religion. Sec-
tion 1 of Falsication and the methodology of scientic
research programs in Imre Lakatos & Alan Musgrave,
Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge. Cambridge Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-521-07826-1.
doi:10.1017/s0007087400002892.
[11] Arenhart, Jonas R. B. (2012). Ontological frameworks
for scientic theories. Foundations of Science. 17 (4).
doi:10.1007/s10699-012-9288-5.
[12] Hawking, Stephen (1999). Does God play dice?". Re-
trieved September 2, 2012.
[13] See, e.g., Ronny Desmet and Michel Weber (edited by),
Whitehead. The Algebra of Metaphysics. Applied Process
Metaphysics Summer Institute Memorandum, Louvain-la-
Neuve, ditions Chromatika, 2010 (ISBN 978-2-930517-
08-7).
[14] Rodebush, Worth H. (1929). The electron theory of va-
lence. Chemical Reviews. American Chemical Society.
5 (4): 509531. doi:10.1021/cr60020a007.
[15] Hawley, Katherine (2006). Science as a Guide to Meta-
physics?" (PDF). Synthese. Springer Netherlands. 149
(3): 451470. doi:10.1007/s11229-005-0569-1. ISSN
0039-7857.
[16] Hume, David (1748). An Enquiry Concerning Human Un-
derstanding. 132.
[17] Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1922), Tractatus Logico-
Philosophicus
[18] Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
Major Works: Selected Philosophical Writings. Harper
Perennial Modern Classics, 2009.
[19] Carnap, Rudolf (1935). The Rejection of Metaphysics.
Philosophy and Logical Syntax. Archived from the origi-
nal on 14 January 2015. Retrieved September 2, 2012.
[20] Ayer, A. J. (1936). Language, Truth and Logic (PDF).
Victor Gollantz. p. 22.
[21] Carnap, Rudolf (1928). Der Logische Aufbau der Welt.
Trans. 1967 by Rolf A. George as The Logical Structure
of the World. University of California Press. pp. 333f.
ISBN 0-520-01417-0.
[22] Feser, Edward (2014). Scholastic Metaphysics: A Contem-
porary Introduction. p. 302. ISBN 978-3-86838-544-1.
[23] Chalmers, David; Manley, David; Wasserman, Ryan
(2009). Metametaphysics. Oxford University Press.
[24] Barnes (1987).
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[25] Perkins, Franklin, Metaphysics in Chinese Philoso-
phy, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Win-
ter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL
= <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/
chinese-metaphysics/>.
[26] As universals were considered by Plato to be ideal forms,
this stance is confusingly also called Platonic idealism.
This should not be confused with Idealism, as presented
by philosophers such as Immanuel Kant: as Platonic
abstractions are not spatial, temporal, or mental they are
not compatible with the later Idealisms emphasis on men-
tal existence.
[27] The words potentiality and actuality are one set of
translations from the original Greek terms of Aristotle.
Other translations (including Latin) and alternative Greek
terms are sometimes used in scholarly work on the sub-
ject.
[28] Where Thomas Nagel Went Wrong. The Chronicle of
Higher Education.
[29] McKeon, R. (1941). Metaphysics. In The Basic Works of
Aristotle (p. 682). New York: Random House.
[30] Samkhya, Websters College Dictionary (2010),
Random House, ISBN 978-0-375-40741-3, Quote:
"Samkhya is a system of Hindu philosophy stressing
the reality and duality of spirit and matter.
[31] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-
0-415-64887-5, pages 4346
[32] Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and con-
temporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et
al.), Ashgate, ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3, pages 149158
[33] Larson 1998, p. 9
[34] Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion
: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett),
Routledge, ISBN 978-0-8153-3611-2, pages 245
248;
John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian
Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Dened in English,
State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-
7914-3067-5, page 238
[35] John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philoso-
phy: Sanskrit Terms Dened in English, State University
of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-3067-5, page 238
[36] Michaels 2004, p. 264
[37] Sen Gupta 1986, p. 6
[38] Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 89
[39] Samkhya - Hinduism Encyclopdia Britannica (2014)
[40] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An In-
terpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsi-
dass, ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3, pages 3647
[41] Dasgupta 1922, p. 258.
189
[42] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-
0-415-64887-5, page 39
[43] Lloyd Pueger, Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in
Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen),
Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-3232-9, pages
3839
[44] Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An
Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, ISBN 978-
0-415-64887-5, page 39, 41
[45] Kovoor T. Behanan (2002), Yoga: Its Scientic Basis,
Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-41792-9, pages 5658
[46] Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Skhya: An In-
terpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsi-
dass, ISBN 978-81-208-0503-3, pages 154206
[47] James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclope-
dia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, ISBN
978-0-8239-3179-8, page 265
[48] T Bernard (1999), Hindu Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass,
ISBN 978-81-208-1373-1, pages 7476
[49] Alex Wayman (1962), Buddhist Dependent Origination
and the Samkhya gunas, Ethnos, Volume 27, Issue 1-4,
pages 1422, doi:10.1080/00141844.1962.9980914
[50] Andrew Brook. Self-Reference and Self-awareness. John
Benjamins Publishing Co. p. 9.
[51] Robert B. Pippin. Hegels concept of Self-consciouness.
Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. p. 12.
[52] F.Max Muller. The Upanishads. Wordsworth Editions.
p. 46.
[53] Theosophy of the Upanishads 1896. Kessinger Publishing
Co. p. 12.
[54] Epiphanius Wilson. Sacred Books of the East. Cosimo
Inc. p. 169.
[55] Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade. The constructive survey
of Upanishadic philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan. p. 198.
[56] Warren Mathews. World Religions. Cengage Learning. p.
73.
[57] Alfred Bloom. Living in Amidas Universal Vow. World
Wisdom Inc. p. 249.
[58] Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade. The constructive survey
of Upanishadic philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan. p. 203.
[59] Ronkin, Noa; Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making
of a Philosophical Tradition, page 1
[60] Ronkin, Noa; Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making
of a Philosophical Tradition, page 5
[61] Westerho, Jan; Nagarjunas Madhyamaka: A Philosoph-
ical Introduction (2009), Conclusion
190 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

[62] Lusthaus, Dan, Buddhist Phenomenology
[63] Cf. Michel Weber (ed.), After Whitehead: Rescher on
Process Metaphysics, Frankfurt / Paris / Lancaster, ontos
verlag, 2004, p. 46.
[64] Cf. Michel Weber (ed.), After Whitehead: Rescher on
Process Metaphysics, Frankfurt / Paris / Lancaster, ontos
verlag, 2004, p. 45.
[65] S. Yablo and A. Gallois, Does Ontology Rest on a Mis-
take?", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supple-
mentary Volumes, Vol. 72, (1998), pp. 229261, 263
283 rst part
Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (2000). A Companion
to Metaphysics. Malden Massachusetts, Blackwell,
Publishers.
Koons, Robert C. and Pickavance, Timothy H.
(2015), Metaphysics: The Fundamentals. Wiley-
Blackwell.
Le Poidevin R. & al. eds. (2009). The Routledge
Companion to Metaphysics. New York, Routledge.
Loux, M. J. (2006). Metaphysics: A Contemporary
Introduction (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.

[66] Everett, Anthony and Thomas Hofweber (eds.) (2000),
Empty Names, Fiction and the Puzzles of Non-Existence.
[67] Van Inwagen, Peter, and Dean Zimmerman (eds.) (1998),
Metaphysics: The Big Questions.
[68] In the English language, the word comes by way of the
Medieval Latin metaphysica, the neuter plural of Medieval
Greek metaphysika. Various dictionaries trace its rst ap-
pearance in English to the mid-sixteenth century, although
in some cases as early as 1387.
Lowe, E. J. (2002). A Survey of Metaphysics. Ox-
ford: Oxford University Press.
Tuomas E. Tahko (2015). An Introduction to
Metametaphysics. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.
17.9 Further reading

[69] Random House Dictionary Online metaphysician
[70] Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Metaphysics".
Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton
Company.
The London Philosophy Study Guide oers many
suggestions on what to read, depending on the stu-
dents familiarity with the subject: Logic & Meta-
physics.

17.10 External links

17.8 Bibliography
Assiter, Alison (2009). Kierkegaard, metaphysics
and political theory unnished selves. London New
York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
ISBN 978-0-8264-9831-1.
Butchvarov, Panayot (1979). Being Qua Being:
A Theory of Identity, Existence and Predication.
Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press.
Metaphysics at PhilPapers
Metaphysics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Inwagen, Peter van. Metaphysics. Stanford Ency-
clopedia of Philosophy.
Metaphysics. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Gale, Richard M. (2002). The Blackwell Guide to Metaphysics at Encyclopdia Britannica

Metaphysics. Oxford: Blackwell. The Metaphysics of Origin by A.D. Toms
Gay, Peter. (1966). The Enlightenment: An Inter-
pretation (2 vols.). New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.

Harris, E. E. (1965). The Foundations of Meta-

physics in Science. London: George Allen and Un-
win.

Harris, E. E. (2000). The Restitution of Metaphysics.

New York: Humanity Books.

Heisenberg, Werner (1958), Atomic Physics and

Causal Law, from The Physicists Conception of Na-
ture

Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa Ed. (1999). Metaphysics:

An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.
17.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 191

17.11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Mr Stephen, SandyGeorgia, Mets501, Anonymous anonymous, Teenage wedding and, Ryulong, Dr.K., RichardF, Jose77, SuperNitro,
Jcbutler, Politepunk, Levineps, Iridescent, Lakers, Markan~enwiki, Manishtulijnv, David Little, J Di, RekishiEJ, AGK, 94chauj, Anger22,
Historyfan04, WakiMiko, Victorbatista, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Braddodson, Flubeca, Depressio, Ryt, JForget, CmdrObot, Zakian49,
Irwangatot, Dodgerdave, Rootybeer4eva, N2e, ShelfSkewed, MarsRover, Ballista, .mdk., WeggeBot, Ken Gallager, Mattyh190, Sopoforic,
Doctormatt, Cydebot, NealIRC, Nick Y., Astrochemist, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Sgodth, Daven200520, UberScienceNerd,
NadirAli, Emojones, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Bill Nye the wheelin' guy, Jbmann, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, MP123, Spudst3r, Philip-
wgustafson@msn.com, Wingman chemie, Headbomb, Dren55, James086, Second Quantization, JohnVbs, Philippe, Tyler-07, Zachary,
Whoda, Sikkema, Historyfan40, Keithaber, SusanLesch, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, Pie Man 360, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Luna Santin,
Targetter, Vitalii.com, Turlo Lomon, Opelio, EarthPerson, CobraWiki, Tpth, Quintote, Matt0d, Jayron32, TheLegendLions, Mary Mark
Ockerbloom, Isiz, Kesegich, Dylan Lake, RedCoat10, Braindrain0000, JAnDbot, Husond, Jimothytrotter, Pipedreamergrey, MER-C, The
Transhumanist, DigitalGhost, Physical Chemist, Desertsky85451, Gilligan mark, Savant13, Demophon, Yahel Guhan, Magioladitis, Bong-
warrior, VoABot II, Wikidudeman, JamesBWatson, Sarahj2107, SineWave, Girdi, Michele123, Dinosaur puppy, Neem11, Fiestabowl
2003, Srice13, Mindunder36, Cyktsui, Nposs, Bmeguru, Adventurer, Vaultdoor, Dawn1234, Vssun, AuGold, DerHexer, JaGa, PatPeter,
Johnbrownsbody, TheRanger, Wayne Miller, DinoBot, NatureA16, Hdt83, MartinBot, Grandia01, Apha, Arjun01, Obssession, Bfesser,
Hs0225, WiiWillieWiki, Padillah, R'n'B, Vox Rationis, Io anthony, Nono64, Leyo, Paulmcdonald, Js11, Darenshan54, Wikipediausernum-
ber1, Mausy5043, F2020, EscapingLife, Numbo3, SuPeRnAtUrAlLoVeR, Cyw90, Shimmeringtilly, Sbrown411, SU Linguist, Century0,
Snisfrealaaa, St.daniel, It Is Me Here, Stan J Klimas, Smeira, Mikael Hggstrm, Clackmannanshireman, SimpsonGrl, AntiSpamBot,
M-le-mot-dit, The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, SmilesALot, Master shepherd, Mike133742, Brian Pearson, Lanternix,
BookSquirrel, Bob, Glossary, VDWI2, Smtaylor, Gossip14, Fdevilbis, Chemistrypal, Samlyn.josfyn, S (usurped also), Micmic28, Jd323,
Scottydude, Squids and Chips, ThePointblank, Fte, Idioma-bot, J0taj0ta, Remi0o, Wikieditor06, VolkovBot, A Macedonian, Onzenus, Ke-
lapstick, AlnoktaBOT, Nikhil s n, Philip Trueman, Pking123, TXiKiBoT, 08walta, Filere, The Original Wildbear, OverSS, Paul EJ King,
Hqb, Planetary Chaos, GDonato, Mr blo0bby, Ann Stouter, Brent45801, ElinorD, Sankalpdravid, Arnon Chan, Qxz, Hotdog123, Voor-
landt, KyleRGiggs, Yilloslime, JhsBot, Votd, Hummer0800, Aiowe ;nhg8ohegpo8haeog, Jeeny, Johnny1926, Steveohare, Maxim, Shanata,
Fuzzywallaby, Owlly1, Maples1212, Sploonie, Azareal7, Synthebot, IvaB~enwiki, Tomaxer, Basketballcooliog, Burntsauce, Skixz, Paracit,
Ajrocke, Brianga, AlleborgoBot, TheBendster, PGWG, LuigiManiac, Yojodo, HansHermans, Katzmik, EmxBot, Thabhab, Kbrose, Fatde-
mon, SieBot, SailorMan1863, Work permit, ToePeu.bot, Gerakibot, Caltas, Astrovega, Whiteghost.ink, Physicsformorons, Seijihyouronka,
Jerryobject, Leeman056, Steveking 89, Adabow, Lepps67, Tiptoety, Djcozmik, Oxymoron83, Punanypounder619, Jhafkjdasfhkjalsdfh,
BenoniBot~enwiki, Sunrise, Kumioko, Pf, Dodger67, HighInBC, Vig vimarsh, Fahlmanb, TracySurya, Myepraine, Tjayh913, Explicit,
ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith, Mx. Granger, Laburke, Tomasz Prochownik, DarkCatalyst, ClueBot, Dick slicky, Deviator13,
192 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jian Heseri, Plastikspork, RYNORT, Neyring, J8079s, Killerkoz, Masterchamp2, Pizzaav,
RebelBodhi, Masterpiece2000, DragonBot, Ktr101, Themaab, Immortal301, Cenarium, Jotterbot, Nukeless, Gryphn, Rayquang, JDPhD,
Cronullasoutherland, Itsokcuzzimme, Anon126, Ban Bridges, DumZiBoT, Eugenedakin, EdChem, MADDOX456, Saeed.Veradi, Iranway,
Gashead 12, Addbot, Denali134, Bonnerman, Hattar393, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Z. Patterson, Stitches2021, Glass Sword, Ryan-
leyland, LinkFA-Bot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Greyhood, CountryBot, Legobot, Yobot, WikiDan61, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Nallimbot,
AnomieBOT, Shootbamboo, Daniele Pugliesi, Galoubet, AdjustShift, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Andyso, Vulcan Hephaestus, Xqbot,
Timir2, Intelati, Poetaris, P99am, Locos epraix, Pmlineditor, Omnipaedista, Brandon5485, Under22Entreprenuer, RibotBOT, Basharh,
Smallman12q, Eugene-elgato, StevieNic, Timehigh, Velblod, FrescoBot, Dogposter, Tobby72, VS6507, Saehrimnir, HJ Mitchell, Steve
Quinn, Sakimonk, Citation bot 1, , I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Dazedbythebell, MastiBot, Wurdwiz, Facklere, Gamewiz-
ard71, FoxBot, Puzl bustr, Fama Clamosa, Vanished user kiij3irj4tihns, Dinamik-bot, Extra999, Diannaa, Fireyair, Innotata, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, Techhead7890, Coinpeice, EmausBot, John of Reading, Nima1024, Surlydu50, Never
give in, Faolin42, Syncategoremata, Rarevogel, ZxxZxxZ, Dcirovic, JSquish, Rogianos, SporkBot, Scythia, TransientAircraft, L Kens-
ington, Noodleki, Silverturtle1, Ilinardi, Loelymistayke, Scientic29, Negovori, Theislikerice, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, Taz
hunt, Llightex, Movses-bot, Frietjes, Nanoman657, Atepnurdjaman, Miracle dream, Helpful Pixie Bot, Supermaster2011, Car Henkel,
Mohamed CJ, ChessBOT, Northamerica1000, Goatberg, AvocatoBot, Jahnavisatyan, IraChestereld, FutureTrillionaire, Atomician, Ex-
ercisephys, Ramos1990, MLearry, Cadiomals, Palaxzorodice, Harizotoh9, XenoVon, Gibbja, Happenstancial, BattyBot, Biosthmors,
Justincheng12345-bot, DarafshBot, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, Layzeeboi, JYBot, Dexbot, Mogism, OakRunner, DarkToonLink, CsDix,
Artoria2e5, Hoggardhigh, Mass6531, Wikifan2744, Vinny Lam, Susan.graye, Gravuritas, OccultZone, Stamptrader, Mahusha, Monkbot,
Wikicology, JonathanHopeThisIsUnique, Piledhighandeep, Zppix, Isambard Kingdom, KasparBot, DivermanAU, Asimova, The name,
RenedThinking, InternetArchiveBot, Atomsman, B-Alberts and Anonymous: 796
Computer engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_engineering?oldid=772487073 Contributors: Jlinton, Davi-
dLevinson, Camembert, Hephaestos, Edward, Michael Hardy, Kku, Seav, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Darkwind, Andres, Grin, An-
drewman327, Wernher, Bevo, Joy, Stephane Simard, FlyByPC, Fredrik, Aaron Pannell, Hadal, Filemon, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Niteowl-
neils, Brockert, Jackol, Scurra, Utcursch, Bact, CryptoDerk, Jiu, Yayay, Klox, Robin klein, McCart42, Trevor MacInnis, Corti, Mike
Rosoft, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Sgauria, El C, Smalljim, GTubio, A-Day, Slipperyweasel, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Pearle,
Mdd, Pion, Bart133, Snowolf, Velella, Cburnett, Versageek, Redvers, TheCoee, Kenyon, Oleg Alexandrov, Pol098, Commander Keane,
Ruud Koot, Scm83x, Prashanthns, Graham87, Rsg, BD2412, Sj, Astronaut, KamasamaK, XP1, Bruce1ee, Bubba73, Yamamoto Ichiro,
FayssalF, Titoxd, RexNL, Czar, Malhonen, Wrightbus, Hall Monitor, Dnadan, ATH500, YurikBot, Wavelength, Tamzid, MMuzam-
mils, Crazytales, Skyhoper, Arado, Stephenb, NawlinWiki, InformationalAnarchist, Jpbowen, Voidxor, Tony1, JHCaueld, Dbrs, Samir,
ICberg7, Marcelo-Silva, Typer 525, Bakkster Man, Light current, Demus Wiesbaden, Willtron, Katieh5584, ScottWinder~enwiki, Palapa,
Veinor, SmackBot, Prodego, Prestinian, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, Blue520, Oceanm, Jhwilliams, Vilerage, Timotheus Ca-
nens, Powo, Gilliam, Skizzik, Rmosler2100, Keegan, MK8, JDCMAN, Jprg1966, Rhoeg, Xbxg32000, Shion Uzuki, Rrelf, Can't sleep,
clown will eat me, Bsodmike, Sephiroth BCR, JonHarder, Rrburke, Rsm99833, Allan McInnes, Easwarno1, Weregerbil, DMacks, Imecs,
Supaplex~enwiki, Molerat, Kuru, Euchiasmus, Disavian, RCX, Melody Concerto, Callred, Csyberblue, Meco, Tmcw, Dcyer, Drdes-
tiny77, Zorxd, Squirepants101, Informationplusgood, KJS77, BranStark, Iridescent, Mintaddict, Aaronsells, Tawkerbot2, Pi, Mkuusela,
Ashok2006, DJGB, Vanamyn, TysK, Tuvas, TheJMan, Cydebot, MC10, Travelbird, Skittleys, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Christian75,
Garik, Septagram, Omicronpersei8, Epbr123, Andyjsmith, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, Nick Number, J Clear, Dalliance, AntiVan-
dalBot, Davido, Widefox, Seaphoto, NightwolfAA2k5, Maksud, ClassicSC, CombatWombat42, Dreadengineer, MER-C, Fadikaouk,
Hut 8.5, Bookinvestor, Geniac, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, Blaserules, Loonymonkey, User A1, Hi mostafa, Ahmad87, Talon Artaine,
DerHexer, Patstuart, MartinBot, Iboixo, ShaunL, Anaxial, R'n'B, ZThomas12349876, Mausy5043, Erkan Yilmaz, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of
the Wizards, Trusilver, Juangaman, Storm9, Newsmen~enwiki, Slithymatt, Shay Guy, Mimigu, Chriswiki, Tonyshan, Rwessel, Aervanath,
Johonn, Potatoswatter, KylieTastic, Remember the dot, Vanished user 39948282, Funandtrvl, Burlywood, Philip Trueman, Technopat,
Neo63, L46kok, Figureskatingfan, David in DC, Mwilso24, Suriel1981, Andy Dingley, @pple, IndulgentReader, Tiddly Tom, Smudd,
Luker3, Triwbe, Yintan, Vanished User 8a9b4725f8376, Calabraxthis, Keilana, Bentogoa, Cocomaxwater, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210,
Arbor to SJ, Momo san, Oxymoron83, Pac72, Techman224, Alex.muller, Vanished user kijsdion3i4jf, Svick, TrevorPace, Superbeecat,
Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Atif.t2, Martarius, Tanvir Ahmmed, Elassint, ClueBot, Vorik111, Mfaridh, The Thing That Should Not Be,
R000t, Boing! said Zebedee, Ottawahitech, N najjar85, Excirial, Eeekster, Hanifbbz, Robertdodson, Winston365, Gtstricky, JK-RULZ,
Ykhwong, GeneralMacAwesome, Arjayay, Kryptonian250, Aitias, Andrew Jameson, Scalhotrod, Versus22, Qwfp, SoxBot III, Nafsadh,
XLinkBot, Fastily, Rror, Baudday, Karaku, Mitch Ames, Mifter, Dekart, JinJian, Dwilso, AdamCox9, Addbot, Some jerk on the In-
ternet, Thomas888b, Hda3ku, Silikonvadisi~enwiki, Jonathanasdf, Ronhjones, Moosehadley, EconoPhysicist, UserD, Blakecyrus, Tide
rolls, Lightbot, Luckas Blade, Vanuan, Jarble, Yobot, 2D, Fraggle81, Aa223, Noah03, AnomieBOT, Floquenbeam, Jim1138, Piano non
troppo, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Law, Materialscientist, Matt365, Danno uk, A123a, Citation bot, Qproq, Capnleonardo, Bagumba,
Zad68, Cureden, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Gilo1969, Gap9551, Coretheapple, GCompsupport, Omnipaedista, Mferyo, , Doulos Chris-
tos, Shadowjams, 55h1lkasf97a1lhas7fal2ha, FrescoBot, Mark Renier, HJ Mitchell, Cannolis, HamburgerRadio, Laciportbus, Eagle-
Eye96, Joaopelicano, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Edderso, Serols, Colin.holzman, Rick1653, IJBall, Bucko94, SchreyP, Thi Nhi,
Dark Lord of the Sith, Sumone10154, Vrenator, Rzuwig, Jd0gg9, Quaos, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, AXRL, Onel5969, Jtsandlund, Maz-
gard, Lbrown123, Autumnalmonk, AndyHe829, John of Reading, Immunize, Look2See1, Philowiki, Super48paul, Racerx11, Primefac,
, RenamedUser01302013, Illogicalpie, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Anirudh Emani, John Cline, Daonguyen95, Wum-
botom, MIT-Alumini, Kiwi128, Njit352, FILTHY JACK SPARROW, Dr.Franklin R. Thomason ll, Wayne Slam, Frigotoni, Tolly4bolly,
Isarra, Butterylunch, Computer Engineering, MaGa, Donner60, Jack sparrow mit, Pun, Carmichael, Peter Karlsen, TYelliot, DASH-
BotAV, Freemankevin15, Davey2010, ClueBot NG, Vacation9, Repseki, Talvinder.grewaal, Duecre, Widr, Reify-tech, Ashish Gaikwad,
MerlIwBot, Oddbodz, HMSSolent, Calabe1992, Devojam, BZTMPS, BG19bot, Krenair, Sasan Geranmehr, JohnChrysostom, Ajith P
V, Red Rover112, Mark Arsten, OneThousandTwentyFour, Kidloco3214, Cynthia627, Millennium bug, David Greener, Cyberbot II,
ChrisGualtieri, Mediran, Cossr, Fabianhjr, Hksuj91, Take of pants manager, Bobaseth, Uzidon92, User051828339, Lugia2453, Jeth888,
The Triple M, Wywin, Siggy13, Samee, Phamnhatkhanh, Faizan, Quantum Fox, Waqasbeyg, Salience129, Jordyced, Ruby Murray, Mel-
onkelon, Infamous Castle, Kritimailbox, Babitaarora, Baconfry, My name is not dave, YiFeiBot, Cypherquest, AliH121, Fixuture, Ja-
conaFrere, Skr15081997, Hpham122, Monkbot, Justin15w, Thisisnotcam, NATHANWASHERE2014, BethNaught, Shivaaa1123, Joven
parazo, ChamithN, Ajosh02, Crystallizedcarbon, StewdioMACK, Gurnoor kaur, TDRinnity, Wiki1tikitaka, Timothyjosephwood, Kas-
parBot, Ryytdnbd fsb, Qaei, Brecapla000, JeremiahY, My Chemistry romantic, Jebox049, Arifuzzamanbhuiyan, CLCStudent, UnitTwo,
Brennan patterson, Peter SamFan, Eno Lirpa, Inzamam ul haq bhatti, BlackDeath8162, John Hannibal Smith, Adotchar, Fuckboi069,
RunnyAmiga, Tevlev3, Iambic Pentameter, Ttrbwki413, FishStampLover52, Sinyal., Kityt, Nova003 and Anonymous: 943
Computer science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science?oldid=771021423 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross,
LC~enwiki, Lee Daniel Crocker, Tuxisuau, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Robert Merkel, Espen, The Anome, Tarquin, Taw, Jzcool, DanKeshet,
17.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 193

Andre Engels, Khendon, LA2, Jkominek, Aldie, Fubar Obfusco, SolKarma, SimonP, Peterlin~enwiki, Hannes Hirzel, Ole Aamot, Camem-
bert, B4hand, Hephaestos, Olivier, Stevertigo, Edward, Ghyll~enwiki, DrewT2, JohnOwens, Ted~enwiki, Michael Hardy, Erik Zachte,
Gretyl, Kwertii, JakeVortex, Dante Alighieri, Fuzzie, Rp, Bensmith, Mic, Ixfd64, Phoe6, Sannse, TakuyaMurata, Delirium, Loisel,
7265, Minesweeper, Pcb21, Kvikeg, MartinSpamer, Ahoerstemeier, Haakon, Stan Shebs, Docu, J-Wiki, Kazuo Moriwaka, Angela, Jd-
forrester, Salsa Shark, Glenn, Cyan, LouI, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Azazello, Kwekubo, Jiang, Cryoboy, Rob Hooft, Jonik, Mxn, BRG,
Denny, Dgreen34, Schneelocke, Nikola Smolenski, Revolver, Popsracer, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Sbwoodside, Dys-
prosia, Jitse Niesen, Jay, Daniel Quinlan, Michaeln, Greenrd, Quux, HappyDog, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Cleduc, Morwen, Buri-
dan, Ed g2s, Persoid, Mikez80, Wakka, Wernher, Samsara, Bevo, Spikey, Traroth, Shizhao, Farmerchris, Dbabbitt, Raul654, Jim Ma-
honey, Marc Girod~enwiki, Guppy, Carbuncle, ThereIsNoSteve, RadicalBender, Robbot, Sdedeo, Fredrik, Hobbes~enwiki, Soilguy2,
R3m0t, RedWolf, Troworld, Altenmann, Naddy, Lowellian, Chris Roy, Mirv, MathMartin, Merovingian, Hellotoast, Rfc1394, Aca-
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Guy Peters, Xanzzibar, Iain.mcclatchie, Pengo, Tea2min, Applegoddess, Ancheta Wis, Decumanus, Honta, Gbali, Giftlite, Thv, Fen-
nec, Kenny sh, Netoholic, Abigail-II, Levin, Lupin, Zigger, Everyking, Henry Flower, Guanaco, Eequor, Matt Crypto, Just Another
Dan, Arvind Singh, Wmahan, Neilc, Quackor, Andycjp, Dullhunk, Bact, Kjetil r, Mineminemine, Antandrus, BozMo, Thray, Bill-
poser, APH, Josephgrossberg, Kntg, Bumm13, Sovereigna, Eiserlohpp, Leire Snchez, Robin klein, Fvilim~enwiki, Andreas Kaufmann,
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cospinster, Leibniz, Notinasnaid, SocratesJedi, Michael Zimmermann, Mani1, BBB~enwiki, Bender235, ESkog, Android79, Kbh3rd,
S.K., Mattingly23, Project2501a, Relix~enwiki, Barfooz, Linn~enwiki, Barcelova, Brisis~enwiki, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Matteh, Aaron-
brick, Coolcaesar, Bobo192, AmosWolfe, Smalljim, Shenme, Matt Britt, Maurreen, NattyBumppo, Sam Korn, Haham hanuka, Pearle,
Mpeisenbr, Nsaa, Mdd, Passw0rd, Poweroid, Alansohn, Liao, Pinar, Samuel.Jones, Tek022, Jason Davies, Hellhound, TheVenerableBede,
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erything counts, The Divine Flualizer, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Hankhuck, Andy Dingley, Julcia, Yk Yk Yk, Wolfrock, Piecemealcranky,
Careercornerstone, Lake Greifen, Oldwes, Nighthawk19, Insanity Incarnate, Sebastjanmm, Pjoef, Palaeovia, E. H.-A. Gerbracht, Demize,
FlyingLeopard2014, Matthe20, D. Recorder, S.rvarr.S, SieBot, EllenPetersen, Dawn Bard, Poisoncarter, Bruchowski, Yintan, Ham Pas-
trami, Jerryobject, Happysailor, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, JCLately, JetLover, JSpung, Aruton, Oxymoron83, Anjin-san, Vpovilaitis,
Lightmouse, Poindexter Propellerhead, Ceas webmaster, StaticGull, Mori Riyo~enwiki, Maxime.Debosschere, Denisarona, Savie Kumara,
Kayvan45622, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, MBD123, Bwfrank, Foxj, The Thing That Should Not Be, Chocoforfriends, Keeper76,
HairyFotr, Diana cionoiu, Meisterkoch, Ndenison, Keraunoscopia, R000t, WDavis1911, Der Golem, Uncle Milty, Agogino, SuperHam-
ster, Niceguyedc, Zow, Amomam, Darkstar56, Jmcangas, Masterpiece2000, Excirial, Pumpmeup, Bedwanimas214, Diderots dreams,
Jusdafax, M4gnum0n, Waiwai933, Farisori, John Nevard, Jakraay, Hezarfenn, Muhandes, Buscalade, Alejandrocaro35, Sun Creator, Ben-
bendc, Turnipface, Brianbjparker, Hans Adler, Morel, H.Marxen, ChrisHamburg, Thehelpfulone, GlasGhost, La Pianista, Thingg, Hun-
hot, PCHS-NJROTC, Apparition11, DumZiBoT, AzraelUK, XLinkBot, Spitre, Pichpich, Mohammadshamma, Rror, Pasha11, Pimped-
shortie99, Dhall1245, Little Mountain 5, Srikant.sharma, Dimoes, MCR789, Skarebo, WikHead, Galzigler, Airplaneman, Branrile09,
Ackmenm, Max the tenken, Maimai009, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Farzan mc, Fyrael, Betterusername, Fgnievinski,
Elsendero, CanadianLinuxUser, MrOllie, Download, LaaknorBot, Favonian, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Unknown483, Gusisgay, Cu-
pat07, Systemetsys, Tide rolls, Bguras puppy, Verbal, Teles, Jarble, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Fraggle81, MarioS, Cyanoa Crylate,
SergeyJ, Jnivekk, KamikazeBot, Khalfani khaldun, Sajibcse, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, IRP, Ga-
loubet, Royote, JackieBot, 9258fahskh917fas, Piano non troppo, Danielt998, Law, Flewis, Lilgip01, Giants27, Materialscientist, Rtyq2,
Salem F, Danno uk, Citation bot, Neurolysis, Roxxyroxursox, Quebec99, Xqbot, WikiNSK, Hubbard rox 2008, DSisyphBot, Grim23, Raj
Wijesinghe, Blix1ms0ns, Tyrol5, Miym, Deadbeatatdawn, , Shirik, Mathonius, Erstats, Amaury, Doulos Christos, Dontknoa,
Shadowjams, Methcub, CSgroup7, Luminique, Remshad, Velblod, CES1596, ESpublic013, FrescoBot, Skylark2008, Vitomontreal, To-
194 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

bby72, Mark Renier, ToxicOranges, Recognizance, Vacuunaut, Steve Quinn, MTizz1, Machine Elf 1735, Louperibot, OgreBot, Citation
bot 1, Maggyero, Intelligentsium, Dilaksan, MacMed, Pinethicket, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, LittleWink, BRUTE, Achraf52, Ezrdr, Serols, Space-
Flight89, Talbg, Meaghan, RandomStringOfCharacters, Jauhienij, Weylinp, Keri, Trappist the monk, SchreyP, Si23mk4n32i, Alexmilt,
Lotje, Keith Cascio, Thefakeeditor, Ladies gifts, Weedwhacker128, Mttcmbs, Lysander89, Yondonjamts, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Red-
nas1234, Mean as custard, Saywhatman, , Sarang, John.legal, Star-Syrup, Gnabi82, EmausBot, John of Reading, Acather96,
WikitanvirBot, Pfuchs722, Surlydu50, N, Ibbn, Primefac, Tinytn, Xiaogaozi, Pratapy, Solarra, Tommy2010, Lightdarkend, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Djembayz, Lucas Thoms, Sciprecision, AaronLLF, Namastheg, BigMattyO, Cogiati, Spykeretro, F, Josve05a, Bijuro,
Steave77, H3llBot, Dennis714, Bveedu, Tolly4bolly, Prashant Dey, Jay-Sebastos, Vanished user jtji34toksdcknqrjn54yoimascj, Don-
ner60, Junip~enwiki, Orange Suede Sofa, Rangoon11, Tijfo098, Danushka99999, Srshetty94, TYelliot, 28bot, BigMatty93, Scotty16-2007,
GreenEdu, Petrb, Hughleat, TheDramatist, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Matthiaspaul, LogX, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Sdht,
Jcrwaford5, Fauzan, Hon-3s-T, Astew10, Dfarrell07, Bergbra, Rinaku, Cntras, Cnkids, O.Koslowski, Mcasswidmeyer, Widr, Tonywchen,
Ashish Gaikwad, Ajjuddn, Lawsonstu, Saketmitra, Jk2q3jrklse, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mulhollant, HMSSolent, Jkimdgu, Wald, Wbm1058, Ji-
ule0, Trunks ishida, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Furkhaocean, ISTB351, MusikAnimal, J991, Neutral current, FutureTrillionaire, Sick-
dartzepic, Cadiomals, Mayuri.sandhanshiv, CalaD33, CitationCleanerBot, Kairi p, Mihai.stefanache, Salesvery1, Bryson1410, Zhenyan-
wang1, Sreedharram, Carso empires, Isacdaavid, Abilngeorge, Klilidiplomus, Pavankbk1113, Anbu121, XIN3N, LloydOlivier, BattyBot,
Computer tower, Mburkhol, Alkafriras, David.moreno72, ComputerScienceForum, Valueindian, Fagitcasey, E prosser, Varagrawal, Cy-
berbot II, The Illusive Man, GoShow, Chitraproject, JYBot, Tow, Dexbot, Mogism, Mani306, BlackHawkToughbook, Lugia2453, Sem-
perVinco, , Jamesx12345, Elcashini, Zziccardi, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Itoula, Snehlata1102, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Phamnhatkhanh,
Ekips39, Faizan, Epicgenius, Babara150504, Crap12321, Littlejimmylel, Maggots187, Perfecshun, Netiru, Agenbola1, Red-eyed demon,
I am One of Many, RG3Redskins, Eyesnore, PhantomTech, Tiberius6996, Satassi, Tentinator, Dad29, JpurvisUM, Nbak, Kanoog, NJIT
HUM dad29, Backendgaming, DavidLeighEllis, Diptytiw, Jumbowing, Hollylilholly, Sibekoe, Spyglasses, , Ginsuloft, Cypherquest,
Quenhitran, MrLinkinPark333, Dannyruthe, Manul, TCMemoire, Rons corner, UY Scuti, Ritik2345678, Philroc, Sbrankov05, Magical-
beakz1, JaconaFrere, Indiasian mbe maa, 7Sidz, Eaglepus, Kgeza71, CompSci, Bobobobobobobdup, Monkbot, MarioProtIV, Wigid,
Vieque, Ahsannaweed101, James.hochadel, 1908rs, BobVermont, Swet.anzel mee, NishantRM, Stuartbrade, Chacha2001, Typherix, Cr-
franklin, Mr. 1100100, Antithesisx, Oy284, Robie024, Nigerhoe, Psychedgrad, ChamithN, Crystallizedcarbon, Prachi2812, 0xF8E8,
TheOtherUnknown, Cynulliad, Yilinglou, Iman.haghdost, Hansguyholt, Yaourrrt, Gladamas, Pishcal, Esquivalience, Iazyges, Quivico, Er-
ickaAgent, Rimavich, Astrachano, Yuil.Tr, K scheik, Swagkid1010, ABWarrick, Niceguy69, Stkl, KasparBot, Jamieddd, PACIFICASI-
AWiki, Brahma Pacey, Zakzak1112, Vinodcd1, Lr0^^k, Gtouchan94, Arun po, GalacticGamer774, FiendYT, Shahbaz Yousafzai, Hap-
pony, Lifeisshubh, Psci, Harmon758, Entranced98, Donk chippy, Umetimo, Marianna251, GreenC bot, Supriyaadessai, Cplusplusislife,
Fmadd, Micheal Ethan, Acecotex, Aea68, DavidGreens, Pictomania, Thinker0248, AakanshaComputerInstitute, Bender the Bot, Thefake-
jhondoe, Cookieiscool, Yashrajkarthikey, Bigmanjoe, Nom0302, Premed6, Rhoan99 and Anonymous: 1508
Theoretical computer science Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science?oldid=768857691 Contributors: Stan
Shebs, David.Monniaux, Tea2min, Giftlite, Mahanga, Ruud Koot, Arbor, Protez, SLi, Intgr, Lmatt, RussBot, Arado, Dv82matt, Samuel-
Riv, Haon, JLaTondre, Bsod2, SmackBot, Impaciente, Renku, Powo, OrangeDog, Arindamp, Salt Yeung, SpyMagician, RekishiEJ,
Zhoadon~enwiki, Irwangatot, BeenAroundAWhile, Gregbard, GPhilip, Pascal.Tesson, Christian75, Kilva, Ideogram, Ben1220, Hermel,
JAnDbot, Cic, David Eppstein, Maurice Carbonaro, Mrseacow, Merzul, Squids and Chips, Jimmaths, Jaime v torres heredia~enwiki, Natg
19, Robertekraut, Palaeovia, Ivan tambuk, Arapajoe, Maxime.Debosschere, Sbshah25, ClueBot, EoGuy, Niceguyedc, Brianbjparker, Ad-
dbot, Yobot, Legobot II, Pcap, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, HRV, Papppfae, Ohspite, Miym, Thore Husfeldt, , Prari,
FrescoBot, Kiefer.Wolfowitz, Zedoul, RobinK, SchreyP, EmausBot, Surlydu50, Dcirovic, Chricho, Cogiati, Ian Rastall, Sarimurat, Fort-
now, Helpful Pixie Bot, Neutral current, Mejoribus, Rodrigo Folha, SemperVinco, Je Erickson, Computhematics, Brirush, Balamurugan
Kanakaraj, Andywear1, KasparBot, Klairh.fr, Udubey, Andjela1013, H.dryad and Anonymous: 70
Physics Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics?oldid=769962242 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Trelvis, Lee Daniel
Crocker, CYD, Brion VIBBER, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Ap, -- April,
Andre Engels, Youssefsan, XJaM, Fredbauder, Christian List, PierreAbbat, Daniel Mahu, M~enwiki, Little guru, SimonP, DavidLevin-
son, Ark~enwiki, Imran, Heron, Camembert, Isis~enwiki, Olivier, Someone else, Stevertigo, Spi~enwiki, Edward, Quintessent, Patrick,
RTC, Ghyll~enwiki, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, Dhc529, Fred Bauder, Lexor, Isomorphic, Nixdorf, Gabbe, Tannin, Mic,
Ixfd64, Bcrowell, Karada, Dori, Minesweeper, Dgrant, Egil, 168..., Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, William M. Connolley, An-
netit, Tspilman, Snoyes, Angela, Darkwind, Julesd, Salsa Shark, Bogdangiusca, Susurrus, Kwekubo, Rotem Dan, Llull, Kaihsu, Ever-
cat, Panoramix, Inyuki, Rl, Cryoboy, Chelman, Mxn, BRG, Nikola Smolenski, Hike395, Karlwick, Agtx, Crusadeonilliteracy, Charles
Matthews, Timwi, Przepla, Reddi, Dysprosia, Jitse Niesen, Daniel Quinlan, Dandrake, Fuzheado, Dtgm, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Tp-
bradbury, Maximus Rex, Morwen, SEWilco, Fibonacci, Phys, Ed g2s, Wakka, Traroth, Rls, Raul654, Jusjih, Noeckel, Huangdi, Jni,
Nufy8, Robbot, 1984, Moriori, Fredrik, Jredmond, Scott McNay, Moncrief, Jmabel, Nyh, ZimZalaBim, Sverdrup, Academic Challenger,
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Dina, Carnildo, Ramir, Alan Liefting, Dave6, Keo~enwiki, Cedars, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Marnanel, 0x0077BE,
Haselhurst, Wolfkeeper, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Art Carlson, Lupin, Herbee, Monedula, Koyn~enwiki, Bradeos Graphon, Everyking,
No Guru, Dratman, Curps, FeloniousMonk, Jorend, Niteowlneils, Jfdwol, Cyberied, Andris, Ptk~enwiki, Sundar, Matthead, Wronkiew,
Jackol, Golbez, Tonymaric, Slowking Man, Pcarbonn, Quadell, Antandrus, Beland, Jossi, Karol Langner, Rdsmith4, APH, DragonySix-
tyseven, Kevin B12, Icairns, Neonstarlight, Haisch, Lumidek, Creidieki, Ukexpat, Hugh Mason, Deglr6328, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis,
Grunt, Bluemask, PhotoBox, Mike Rosoft, Brianjd, Ta bu shi da yu, Davidcliord, Freakofnurture, CALR, EugeneZelenko, Urvabara,
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Paul August, Dmr2, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Brian0918, RJHall, Aecis, Mr. Billion, El C, Lycurgus, Mwanner, Laurascudder, Con-
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Danski14, Mithent, Alansohn, Karlthegreat, Andrewpmk, Plumbago, Logologist, Riana, AzaToth, Goldom, WhiteC, BryanD, Walkerma,
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DarkRain, RyanGerbil10, Oleg Alexandrov, Woohookitty, TigerShark, Ukulele~enwiki, ^demon, Ruud Koot, MONGO, Mpatel, Schzmo,
Wikiklrsc, Bbatsell, Sengkang, Sam Coutu-Oughton, Noetica, Wayward, , TSchwab, Joke137, Estarriol, Zpb52, Jbarta, LexCorp,
Tevatron~enwiki, Graham87, Magister Mathematicae, BD2412, Nimocks, FreplySpang, Island, Canderson7, Sj, Coneslayer, Sjakkalle,
Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Fieari, Zbxgscqf, Erebus555, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, MarSch, Quiddity, JHMM13, Mike Peel, JHBrewer, Crazy-
nas, Jehochman, Ems57fcva, Rbeas, Hermione1980, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Kasparov, Titoxd, FlaBot, Kiba, RobertG, Old Moon-
raker, Doc glasgow, Airumel, Winhunter, Nihiltres, Crazycomputers, GnniX, Nivix, Frito, JYOuyang, RexNL, Gurch, G. Moore, Codex
Sinaiticus, Alphachimp, Malhonen, Srleer, Theshibboleth, Miy900, King of Hearts, Chobot, HKT, Celebere, Sharkface217, DVdm,
Bgwhite, Gwernol, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sceptre, Wolfmankurd, Sputnikcccp, Petiatil, Muchness, Loom91, JabberWok, Sasuke Saru-
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ing, PaddyLeahy, The Random Editor, EJF, Nineg, SieBot, EllenPetersen, Madman, Tresiden, Work permit, Euryalus, Jim E. Black, Bot-
Multichill, Jsc83, Josh the Nerd, Dawn Bard, Caltas, DBishop1984, RJaguar3, Triwbe, Vinay tv, Odd nature, Smenge32, Wing gundam,
Calabraxthis, M.thoriyan, Physicsformorons, Til Eulenspiegel, Quest for Truth, Flyer22 Reborn, Downw thesickness, Radon210, Exert,
Gina va gina va, Budster0, Taejin, Carlos177567, Ciozi137, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Thenamenottaken, Beast of traal, Thehote-
lambush, Lisatwo, Steven Crossin, Lightmouse, Tombomp, MASQUERAID, Javainone, Spades92, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Relehcs,
Anarchic Fox, Murdajvc, Randomblue, Sign Creator, ReluctantPhilosopher, Wardigong, TracySurya, Naveeyindren Thangrajah, Velvetron,
Troy 07, Explicit, Anand.sadasivam, Khirurg, Faithlessthewonderboy, Tomasz Prochownik, Martarius, Tanvir Ahmmed, ClueBot, LAX,
Avenged Eightfold, Binksternet, Ozcep, PipepBot, Flashgordon12, Fyyer, Ballsdeep420, TheFox3, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ard-
Close, Plastikspork, ImperfectlyInformed, Rahulvohra29, Ryugahideki, YassineMrabet~enwiki, Herakles01, Arakunem, Av99, Drmies,
Cp111, Zac wise, Boing! said Zebedee, Keith-07, Niceguyedc, Razism99, Laverty-j2, Olgaow13, Karen Holman, Bennirubber, Vatok-
ing, Thegargoylevine, Cab91, Paulcmnt, Cphighkid, Kville105125, Graysen98, Grunty Thraveswain, Djr32, Awickert, Canis Lupus, Jus-
dafax, Reerpizza, Wikitumnus, Eeekster, Bmromero, 97parnellj, Winston365, SpikeToronto, Holbergj, Jaydawg89, Tyler, Ice Cold Beer,
PhySusie, JamieS93, Dumdumdom, Razorame, Shepherrd, Dekisugi, ChrisHamburg, GlasGhost, Matthew Desjardins, BigBritt08, Albino
196 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

Ibis2, Just Call Me Einstein, Thingg, Franklin.vp, Darren23, Atallcostsky, Aitias, Horselover Frost, Dank, Versus22, Straighter~enwiki,
BlueDevil, Vikasmorankar, Theunixgeek, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, Party, Trulystand700, Crowsnest, Vanished User 1004, Chhe, DumZ-
iBoT, ImGladMyMomIsDead, Mynameisearl12345, Seatdistrict, Leobyun, Ramisses, Pandanator75, TimothyRias, Jmanigold, BarretB,
Evan Mayer, XLinkBot, Tarheel95, Teh Rote~enwiki, Patilsagar09, Rror, Jim woz ere, Saeed.Veradi, Sjking92, Edwardo66, Azadehdeath,
Hungrypoo, PL290, Noctibus, Kmizzledabombdizzle, Truthnlove, Yes, I'm A Scientist, WPjcm, Skeye1215, Connorcostello, Addbot,
ERK, CWatchman, AVand, DOI bot, Tcncv, Nuclear ace, Hellboy2hell, Fgnievinski, EjsBot, Thaejas, 15lsoucy, TutterMouse, Njaelkies
Lea, Fieldday-sunday, Ironholds, Wikimichael22, KorinoChikara, Marijuanaboy, Charley white, Aznmastaz, MrOllie, SoSaysChappy,
CarsracBot, Blackynorris, Petitspois, Glane23, Z. Patterson, Chzz, Debresser, Squishey, Favonian, Samsonov1947, LinkFA-Bot, 5 al-
bert square, CosmiCarl, Barak Sh, Shadowbane1001, Numbo3-bot, , Anpecota, F Notebook, Nnedass, Washable20, Tide rolls,
Alan16, Lightbot, Santaisnotyourfriend, WikiWacked, Apteva, Gail, Ashandpikachu, Cesaar, Jackelve, Ben Ben, Yobot, 2D, Preston-
henry, Rocks on the road, Newportm, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Uugedsaz, Ojay123, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Passandid, Kamikaze-
Bot, TheresNoTime, TestEditBot, MassimoAr, Magog the Ogre, Szajci, Orion11M87, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, PianoDan, Madesfuga, IRP,
Galoubet, Royote, Ipatrol, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Imadeausrname, Hollyellis, Bishop of banter, Csigabi, Flewis, Materialscientist, Goo-
zle, Rtyq2, Billtheshirk, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, Maddemo, Maxis ftw, Bci2, Frankenpuppy, ArthurBot, Qorilla, Vulcan
Hephaestus, Rightly, Xqbot, Samoboow, TinucherianBot II, Tasudrty, Typuifre, Simi 11 krish, Sionus, Radhisure, Livilou517, Haljo-
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Markashley1990, Chich03, Crzer07, Chocolog, J04n, Pmlineditor, Trumpetplaya44, Frosted14, Marsrocks09, Laxragaza, Oisuzie, Omni-
paedista, IIsL337, Yugolervan, Tmac88ivrsn, Doulos Christos, Traord09, MLauba, Methcub, , A7x4ev7x7x7x7x,
KLHS6, DumbAndDumber2000, Ghurtad1, E0steven, Aaron Kauppi, Nygiants2744, A. di M., Erik9, SD5, Dougofborg, , BoomerAB,
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virBot, Josephcunningham, Surlydu50, Immunize, Faustina.minor, Never give in, Asdfghjklqwertyuiopo, Ajraddatz, IncognitoErgoSum,
Tankmaster01, Fergo100, Vanished user sjg38jgkjwefoinq3rk4y, LaRouxEMP, Freakinadrian, Alex7796, Tommy2010, Blink'em, Fs923,
Amrator, K6ka, Unknown123123123, Hhhippo, AvicBot, JSquish, F, Ericnutsch, Dondervogel 2, Cobaltcigs, Mista poe, Captain Screebo,
Silambarasan Physics, Denting5, Revilowaldow, SporkBot, Talyor Will, Nowrunningweb, Magnumstealth, HelpInHandy, Fbazjohn, Pan-
plenty, Purplees2, Ray765, Brandmeister, Huppafa, Shesterov, Chrisman62, Phisicsfa, Bollywoodfarsia, Pennie666, Chewings72, Denholm
Reynholm, GKaczinsky, Ems2715, Theislikerice, Rexc2011, RockMagnetist, LaurenceBoss, Teapeat, Llightex, Support.and.Defend, Bill-
gates2, ClueBot NG, Anagogist, Movses-bot, Snotbot, Navasj, Widr, MattjenningsXxXxXD, Helpful Pixie Bot, Faus, Bibcode Bot, Ariel
C.M.K., BG19bot, MKar, JacobTrue, MissionNPOVible, Muneeb2000, FiveColourMap, Cadiomals, Ashqy57, Snow Blizzard, Zedshort,
Ema--or, StarryGrandma, Zhaofeng Li, Cyberbot II, Layzeeboi, 786b6364, Gdrg22, JYBot, IjonTichyIjonTichy, AutomaticStrikeout,
Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Hmainsbot1, Belief action, Jamesx12345, Josophie, Corinne, JustAMuggle, LMANSH, CsDix, Ybidzian, String-
line, Sol1, The Herald, Quenhitran, Chern038, Triolysat, Wikifan2744, Meteor sandwich yum, THetardis123, Robinfhill, Qwerty123uiop,
MelaniePS, Monkbot, Yikkayaya, Trackteur, Jrafner, Oiyarbepsy, TheMagikCow, Arvind asia, Tetra quark, Isambard Kingdom, Zuss-
man1, Matan Kovac, KasparBot, Sir Cumference, ElectricController, Ttt74, GreenC bot, Gulumeemee, Ogill636, Inimesh, Rantemario,
Artm7777, TheProgrammerMan, Penskins, Island of stability and Anonymous: 1728

Mechanical engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_engineering?oldid=773205258 Contributors: Tobias Ho-

evekamp, XJaM, DavidLevinson, Ubiquity, Michael Hardy, Dan Koehl, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, TakuyaMurata, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, J-Wiki,
Angela, Andres, Astudent, Dwo, Pheon, DrewJ, Greglocock, Phoebe, Mackensen, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Chrism, Roscoe
x, Moink, Hadal, Tea2min, Alan Liefting, Buster2058, Cedars, Giftlite, Tom harrison, Ssd, Yangzhourong~enwiki, KitSolidor, Utcursch,
Antandrus, Monn0016, Karl-Henner, Imjustmatthew, Bluemask, Cypa, Heegoop, Indosauros, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth,
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Nsaa, Mdd, Storm Rider, Alansohn, Andrewpmk, Mrholybrain, Hu, Malo, LearnMore, Amorymeltzer, Dirac1933, Kernoz, Endangered
Specie, Nuno Tavares, OwenX, Commander Keane, Ruud Koot, Kmg90, Dbl2010, Dionyziz, Scm83x, Tslocum, MassGalactusUniver-
sum, Graham87, Rjwilmsi, Commander, Margospl, Crazynas, FlaBot, Amrik, RobertG, Old Moonraker, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL,
Gurch, Otets, TheDJ, Chobot, DVdm, Gwernol, Dnadan, Flcelloguy, YurikBot, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, Daverocks, JarrahTree, Phan-
tomsteve, RussBot, Pi Delport, Anders.Warga, Admiral Roo, Ytrottier, Grubber, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Madcoverboy, LaszloWalrus, See-
goon, Irishguy, Moe Epsilon, Tony1, SFC9394, Wknight94, 21655, Poppy, Zzuuzz, (3) Livonia Ave. Local, Closedmouth, Eric Jack Nash,
Donhalcon, Wbrameld, Caballero1967, Charlie Tango, DVD R W, Luk, ChemGardener, Vanka5, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, McGed-
don, Hoo0, C.Fred, Jagged 85, Ultramandk, Eskimbot, Onebravemonkey, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Skizzik, Angelbo, Andy M.
Wang, Bluebot, NCurse, Rhoeg, MalafayaBot, SchftyThree, The Rogue Penguin, Bazonka, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Rrburke, TKD,
VMS Mosaic, Nakon, James.kendall, EndingPop, DMacks, Ronank, Luigi.a.cruz, Imecs, Gamer83, SashatoBot, Revolution363, Kuru,
General Ization, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Willy turner, Mr Stephen, Ryulong, Peter Horn, Dl2000, Levineps, Hetar, BranStark,
Iridescent, Onestone, JoeBot, Shoeofdeath, Francl, Courcelles, Linkspamremover, Bzzh8c, Tawkerbot2, Pi, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb,
TysK, Shukaro, Novous, Wuneyeddog, Tex, Grein, No1lakersfan, Mct mht, Wingman358, Fnlayson, Ladida, 206504564, Gogo Dodo,
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ticus88, Ante Aikio, Mojo Hand, Imusade, Pjvpjv, Marek69, John254, Gerry Ashton, James086, Dachande, Cdf333fad3a, Dfrg.msc,
Amitauti, Natalie Erin, Escarbot, EdJogg, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Widefox, Seaphoto, Bhajay, Lyricmac, Ame Errante, Bakabaka,
me Errante, Fireice, Dhrm77, JAnDbot, MER-C, Dcooper, Connormah, VoABot II, Firebladed, JamesBWatson, CheMechanical, Bzero,
Zephyr2k~enwiki, Ian TO, Kel.jackson, JOJI JOSE, Chemical Engineer, Jeb8828, Blaserules, CrimsonEye, DerHexer, Ac44ck, Bryt, Xtifr,
MartinBot, Lginger, APT, Jay Litman, Leeharvey418, CommonsDelinker, Jon W, Bravesfan10, Piyush mishra, Arogon, Mausy5043, Thir-
dright, Shellwood, J.delanoy, Taalo, Trusilver, BillWSmithJr, Snowfalcon cu, Dlandeck, Dav115, AtholM, Zuejay, Ncmvocalist, Caykoylu,
Victuallers, Dmitri Yuriev, Mrg3105, Ontherun949, Winto100, NewEnglandYankee, Ls6777, Cometstyles, Kbono, Jamesontai, Y2H,
Tevonic, Bonadea, KudzuVine, Inwind, JavierMC, Rod Giobbs, The enemies of god, Funandtrvl, Burlywood, Remi0o, Signalhead, Icarus
Dream, VolkovBot, ABF, DSRH, Je G., Soliloquial, TheOtherJesse, 3Coins, Philip Trueman, Salamc, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT,
Oshwah, Technopat, Mkoronowski, Lradrama, Nedian, LeaveSleaves, Q7946w, RiverStyx23, Andy Dingley, Kilmer-san, Ian Goggin,
Kolumbus~enwiki, Enviroboy, RaseaC, Jknut, Logan, Bhaskar51, Jr wilfred, PericlesofAthens, FlyingLeopard2014, D. Recorder, Ic-
sunonove, Sky97~enwiki, Arafel6, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Tiddly Tom, BotMultichill, Krawi, Gerakibot, Phe-bot, Caltas, Smsarmad,
M.thoriyan, Hirohisat, Flyer22 Reborn, Nopetro, Taemyr, CriticalMass34, Oxymoron83, Smilesfozwood, Harry-, Bryancwk, Lightmouse,
17.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 197

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Porge, Thepizzaman182, RS1900, Martarius, De728631, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Ideal gas equation, Wkdurfee, Fyyer, Foxj, The Thing
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Jusdafax, Chrispreece2007, Estirabot, The Founders Intent, Rhododendrites, NuclearWarfare, Kryptonian250, SoxBot, Dekisugi, Kako-
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ical, Skraz, Gwernol, Roboto de Ajvol, Summalogicae, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Sceptre, Sarranduin, WhatPotato?, Jlc46,
Mark Ironie, Cswrye, Markus Schmaus, Netscott, SpuriousQ, Ansell, Matt Fitzpatrick, Akamad, Stephenb, Grubber, Cate, Gaius Cornelius,
CambridgeBayWeather, Alex Bakharev, KSchutte, Ergzay, Ugur Basak, MosheA, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Rick Norwood, Nowa, Wiki alf,
198 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

Hwasungmars, Deskana, Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, InformationalAnarchist, Ino5hiro, Jfsaiya, Dureo, Nick, Ragesoss, Brythain, Banes, Daniel
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Zzuuzz, Snotface, Andrew Lancaster, Mike Dillon, Closedmouth, The Son of Oink, Arthur Rubin, KGasso, Reyk, Dspradau, Jake Spooky,
BorgQueen, GraemeL, JoanneB, CWenger, Cjwright79, HereToHelp, ArielGold, CKelly, Ilmari Karonen, Kungfuadam, Junglecat, Pster-
meister, Aeosynth, Meegs, Bsod2, Benandorsqueaks, Paul Erik, Asterion, MansonP, DVD R W, Algae, Jdcompguy, Luk, Sardanaphalus,
Xygtshadow, A bit iy, BonsaiViking, SmackBot, NSLE, Rtc, Zazaban, Brianyoumans, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot, Hydrogen
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Chauncey27, Shamalyguy, Jpvinall, Edgar181, Commander Keane bot, M stone, Sloman, Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Skizzik, Pp-
ntori, Jwgraham, Kmarinas86, Lindosland, Anwar saadat, Wigren, Bluebot, SlimJim, Samosa Poderosa, Bartimaeus, Persian Poet Gal,
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mer1980, Jklin, Wizardman, Just plain Bill, Metamagician3000, Mystaker1, Sadi Carnot, Ck lostsword, Pilotguy, Kensor, Kukini, Dku-
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200 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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Anonymous: 283

Biology Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology?oldid=771713187 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Magnus Manske, Marj Tiefert,

LC~enwiki, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Koyaanis Qatsi, Taral, Gareth Owen, -- April,
Ed Poor, Alex.tan, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Scipius, Josh Grosse, Youssefsan, Christian List, SimonP, Peterlin~enwiki, DavidLevin-
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Ghyll~enwiki, Chas zzz brown, JohnOwens, Fred Bauder, Lexor, Norm, Shyamal, Kku, Gabbe, Ixfd64, Tomi, Delirium, Skysmith, Egil,
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Salsa Shark, Glenn, Llull, Evercat, Mxn, Nikola Smolenski, Quizkajer, Karlwick, Adam Bishop, Ralesk, Reddi, Ike9898, Dysprosia, Tedius
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Wakka, Samsara, Traroth, Shizhao, Jecar, Pir, Pakaran, Secretlondon, Jusjih, G4p3, Richman, Lumos3, Denelson83, PuzzletChung, Donar-
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Peters, Pengo, Alan Liefting, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Marnanel, Washington irving, Wolfkeeper, Kenny sh, Netoholic,
Ferkelparade, SwissMoomin, Aphaia, Obli, Peruvianllama, Average Earthman, Everyking, Bkonrad, Brona, Curps, Bensaccount, Jgritz,
Cyberied, Guanaco, Ezhiki, Mboverload, Node ue, Eequor, Jackol, Kandar, Wmahan, Reilly, Adenosine, Kennethduncan, Shoaib~enwiki,
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Bfjf, Mani1, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kbh3rd, Kelvinc, Brian0918, RJHall, CanisRufus, Mr. Billion, MBisanz, El C, Ascor-
bic, Mwanner, QuartierLatin1968, Shanes, Iant, RoyBoy, Jpgordon, Adambro, Guettarda, Causa sui, Bobo192, Viriditas, R. S. Shaw,
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Johntex, Ceyockey, Dennis Bratland, Cskin, Dejvid, Stemonitis, Angr, JarlaxleArtemis, NewbieDoo, LOL, Muya, Nameneko, WadeSim-
Miser, Acerperi, Gengiskanhg, Sengkang, SCEhardt, Hard Raspy Sci, CharlesC, TheAlphaWolf, Prashanthns, Turnstep, LexCorp, GSlicer,
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Tigershrike, FF2010, TheSeer, Mike Dillon, Barryob, Closedmouth, Perfectlover, Petri Krohn, WhiteRhino, JoanneB, Mustafarox, Just An-
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aphias, Macellarius, TastyPoutine, Dhp1080, Ryulong, Dr.K., RichardF, Jose77, Caiaa, Sportsbang, Autonova, KJS77, Levineps, Seqsea,
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Danger, Farosdaughter, North Shoreman, Robert A. Mitchell, Myanw, Figma, Bobozz, Rubi yakuta, Kariteh, Erxnmedia, JAnDbot, Leuko,
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man1974, Adrian J. Hunter, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Bmeguru, User A1, Cpl Syx, Memotype, Glen, DerHexer, Edward321, Ghostof-
Superslum, Esanchez7587, Evy Surender, Johnbrownsbody, Shiconia, Bbowenjr, JRWalko, Gwern, NatureA16, Rymosquito, Hdt83, Mar-
tinBot, Church of emacs, Nehwyn, Rupesh.ravi, Mike6271, Kateshortforbob, AlexiusHoratius, EverSince, PrestonH, Hyfzyz, Paranomia,
J.delanoy, 068152, Trusilver, Danimoth~enwiki, EscapingLife, Numbo3, Ben4mn, Athaenara, KeepItClean, Jackblackhead, Sirtrebuchet,
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namitra, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Dkudel1, HRoestBot, Constance182, Jonesey95, Gugaua, J4tt, Geogene, RedBot, EditGenius,
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RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Ripchip Bot, FetchcommsAWB, Emble64, Castro92, Palaototkaka101, Mandolinface, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot,
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abo and Anonymous: 1664

Electrical engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering?oldid=773059333 Contributors: Mav, Ap, Danny,

XJaM, Mudlock, DavidLevinson, Waveguy, Heron, Hirzel, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Nixdorf, Ixfd64, Ee79, Tiles, Spliced, Dgrant,
Ahoerstemeier, Mac, TUF-KAT, Andres, Hectorthebat, Denny, Hashar, Charles Matthews, Reddi, Hydnjo, Zoicon5, Radiojon, Dougjih,
Tpbradbury, Taxman, Omegatron, Phoebe, Shizhao, Raul654, Phil Boswell, Branddobbe, Robbot, Fredrik, Babbage, Academic Chal-
lenger, Blainster, Andrew Levine, Sunray, Wikibot, Borislav, Fuelbottle, HaeB, Wile E. Heresiarch, Cedars, Giftlite, DocWatson42,
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mon, Edcolins, SoWhy, Knutux, Quadell, Antandrus, Xinit, Quarl, Phil Sandifer, Cihan, McCart42, Abdull, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ta bu
shi da yu, Freakofnurture, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rmalloy, Slipstream, Mani1, Bender235, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Sietse Snel,
Bookofjude, Thu, Adambro, Bobo192, Spalding, Duk, Johnteslade, Matt Britt, Pokrajac, WikiLeon, Ardric47, Axyjo, Haham hanuka,
Nsaa, Mdd, Benschop, Nashikawa, Papeschr, Alansohn, Gary, Mick8882003, JoaoRicardo, Nick Moss, MarkGallagher, Pouya, Scoot-
erSES, Lightdarkness, Wdfarmer, Spangineer, LearnMore, Bart133, Judson, Wtshymanski, Cburnett, Suruena, Powerelectronics, Alai,
Bookandcoee, Markaci, Mahanga, Pravit726, Robin F., Starblind, Woohookitty, Henrik, PoccilScript, Myleslong, BillC, Scjessey, Com-
mander Keane, Ruud Koot, JeremyA, Je3000, Cbdorsett, Hughcharlesparker, Graham87, Nirvelli, Kbdank71, Bunchofgrapes, Fre-
plySpang, Josh Parris, Sj, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Commander, Vary, Tangotango, Vegaswikian, HappyCamper, Ligulem, Brighterorange,
Ttwaring, Klonimus, Yamamoto Ichiro, RobertG, Doc glasgow, Gurch, RobyWayne, OrbitOne, Intgr, DVdm, Bgwhite, Jpkotta, Aluvus,
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202 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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Josh3580, Donhalcon, Allens, Kungfuadam, Meegs, Maxamegalon2000, Airconswitch, Asterion, Sbyrnes321, Benhoyt, TravisTX, A bit
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Rodney Boyd, J 1982, Lenasarah, Mbeychok, Tim Q. Wells, Mgiganteus1, Aleenf1, IronGargoyle, Jameshiggott, CyrilB, MarkSutton,
Willy turner, Slakr, Yvesnimmo, Mr Stephen, VdSV9, Geologyguy, Lachlancooper, Ryulong, RCIWesner, Dr.K., Peter Horn, Dacium,
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question, Moreschi, Cahk, Bryan, Usgside, B, DumbBOT, Ssilvers, Kozuch, Editor at Large, Brad101, Omicronpersei8, Daniel Olsen,
JamesAM, Epbr123, Kablammo, Berria, Oliver202, Pjvpjv, Marek69, Gerry Ashton, Nezzadar, Cool Blue, JustAGal, Leon7, Escarbot,
Mentisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, Prolog, Dr. Blofeld, Dylan Lake, Dhrm77, Erlyrisa, JAnDbot, Husond,
The Transhumanist, Xeno, LittleOldMe, Pablothegreat85, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dekimasu, CheMechanical, Doug Cold-
well, Sodabottle, Jim Douglas, Jatkins, Avicennasis, Randolph02, Theroadislong, Animum, Grey Wanderer, Blaserules, DerHexer, Zeesh-
nets, Gwern, MartinBot, Coolguy2680, Naohiro19, Jonathan Hall, Glrx, JonathonReinhart, Mausy5043, J.delanoy, DrKay, Pmonon, Azn-
dope, Herbythyme, SoEz2Hack, Terrek, Choihei, Akaustav, Katalaveno, Phild 99, Rosemead, Skier Dude, Mrg3105, NewEnglandYankee,
Fountains of Bryn Mawr, Sunderland06, Rebthered, Treisijs, Mwmillar, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Burlywood, Remi0o, VolkovBot, CWii,
AlnoktaBOT, Barneca, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Stephenkirkup, Caster23, B Pete, Qxz, DBZROCKS, Imasleepviking, LeaveSleaves,
Cremepu222, Ilyushka88, Wiae, Andy Dingley, Dirkbb, Yk Yk Yk, VinylCollector82, Careercornerstone, CephasE, Spinningspark, Mas-
ter of the Orchalcos, Nibios, Logan, Demmy100, SMC89, SieBot, Scarian, Triwbe, Yintan, Flyer22 Reborn, A. Carty, Zucchini Marie,
Namee, Oxymoron83, Hello71, Johnothon, Lightmouse, Hobartimus, Vanished user kijsdion3i4jf, Svick, Cyfal, Mygerardromance, Josh-
schr, Id02365, Virusunknown, SallyForth123, Loren.wilton, Martarius, ClueBot, Smart Viral, Artichoker, Snigbrook, TACJ, The Thing
That Should Not Be, Tanglewood4, Wispanow, Meekywiki, CrazyGlu, Acid478, Blanchardb, Gsonnenf, Drew335, Biria64, Excirial, Jus-
dafax, Chrispreece2007, Lihmwiki, Dspark76, Wiki libs, Ember of Light, Palakmathur, Nobody of Consequence, Stepheng3, Thingg,
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nydeg, Fieldday-sunday, GyroMagician, CanadianLinuxUser, WikiUserPedia, CarsracBot, Glane23, CUSENZA Mario, Greyerg, LinkFA-
Bot, Shekure, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Andrevruas, Zorrobot, Jarble, Greyhood, Luckas-bot, EagleAg04, M.geselowitz, OrgasGirl, Fraggle81,
Cm001, Ojay123, Wikipedian Penguin, Washburnmav, KamikazeBot, Reindra, South Bay, , Eric-Wester, AnomieBOT,
XL2D, DemocraticLuntz, 1exec1, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Honeyonline, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Lapost, Xqbot, Grey lover,
Coretheapple, Call me Bubba, RibotBOT, Kyng, Nedim Ardoa, Quaerendo, Doulos Christos, Moxy, Kebeta, Fingerz, FrescoBot, Jc3s5h,
KerryO77, Failurerules, Intelligentsium, XxTimberlakexx, JonathanBuck IEC, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Licsak, Space-
Flight89, Jujutacular, RazielZero, Twistor96, SchreyP, Mr Mulliner, Vrenator, Acs272, Stegop, Matuenih, Tbhotch, AXRL, Pluemaster,
Mean as custard, Dtalexone, Ripchip Bot, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Surlydu50, Dewritech, DMChatterton, Solarra,
Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Nosterdude, Hhhippo, Sepguilherme, ZroBot, Josve05a, Mar4d, Bamyers99, H3llBot, Wikitrke, Karthikndr,
Peterh5322, Be gottlieb, Jess, Donner60, Pun, Judygreenberg, JonRicheld, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, This lousy T-shirt, Vacation9,
Mrgates, Frietjes, Redingley, Duecre, Stefandprins, Suresh 5, Mouse20080706, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, HMSSolent, SzMithrandir,
Calabe1992, Wbm1058, KLBot2, BG19bot, Rijinatwiki, Northamerica1000, Mrxxteamplayerxx, Piguy101, Mark Arsten, Comleck, Dh-
ern029, J88g, Uppalapadu, Slushy9, Absconditus, Kingsocarso, BattyBot, Aaron Nitro Danielson, Morganson691, Sabanh, Fouseelds,
Dexbot, FoCuSandLeArN, MaKorraluvr, Invisibledoogey, Prof. Sanjay Kumar, Trixy chui, Faizan, Melonkelon, DavidLeighEllis, Eric
Corbett, NottNott, Wikifan2744, JaconaFrere, Surya4444, Justin15w, Abhishek kumar ceon, Jonwillis628, Grizzly77, Trackteur, Qwer-
tyxp2000, Lauren.khan222, Johnsoniensis, Amortias, TerryAlex, Asdklf;, Sujit kumar das, Thingmaker, KH-1, ChamithN, Narky Blert,
Weedwizard420, Loobo2012, M Siddique khan, Kethrus, Morcohen2, ToonLucas22, Ffdddsf, Prabhatjyani, Amccann421, KasparBot, 3 of
Diamonds, Vinodcd1, BBQ, Sro23, CAPTAIN RAJU, Selsh surya, Ielectricalengineering, 1Wiki8Q5G7FviTHBac3dx8HhdNYwDVstR,
Bill bentlony, UnitTwo, Tpdwkouaa, Dhirajgopalyeole, Harmon758, Komps, Ssh10, GoTBRAYS, Ckalvinsamu766, Marianna251, GreenC
bot, Sperth, Fmadd, UNSC Luke 1021, Keithzillion1, Combustion2016, R myrvvv, PiGuy3, Pek daddy, Adeeeez, Pounder6969, Khgkhg
and Anonymous: 841

Engineering Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering?oldid=773144874 Contributors: Tobias Hoevekamp, Brion VIBBER,

Robert Merkel, The Anome, Tbackstr, Ap, Andre Engels, Mirwin, Rmhermen, Aldie, Fubar Obfusco, William Avery, Mudlock, Pe-
terlin~enwiki, Jlinton, DavidLevinson, Anthere, Waveguy, Heron, Quercusrobur, Stevertigo, Kchishol1970, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy,
Vera Cruz, Nixdorf, Eric Desart, 6birc, Dori, Jlburf, Paul A, Pagingmrherman, Ahoerstemeier, G Colwell, Mac, Ronz, Docu, J-Wiki,
Snoyes, Angela, Kingturtle, BigFatBuddha, Salsa Shark, Glenn, Poor Yorick, Nikai, Hemant kumar, Astudent, BAxelrod, Samuel~enwiki,
Mxn, Lommer, Quickbeam, Ideyal, Adam Bishop, EmphasisMine, Reddi, Ww, Ike9898, Wik, Pheon, DJ Clayworth, Markhurd, Maximus
Rex, Grendelkhan, Greglocock, Paul-L~enwiki, Omegatron, Phoebe, Bevo, Stephane Simard, Jusjih, David.Monniaux, Rogper~enwiki,
Robbot, YahoKa, BenBreen2003, Merovingian, Texture, Meelar, Diderot, Caknuck, Hadal, Diberri, Jleedev, GreatWhiteNortherner,
Dina, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, LutzPrechelt, CrazyCanuck, Greyengine5, Wolfkeeper, Inkling, Geeo-
haree, Netoholic, Tom harrison, Quadra23, 0x6D667061, Theon~enwiki, Everyking, Jacob1207, Cantus, KaLogain, Jfdwol, H-2-O,
Guanaco, Finn-Zoltan, Solipsist, JRR Trollkien, Stevietheman, Barneyboo, Utcursch, CryptoDerk, Quadell, Bgbot, Jiu, Catdude, Rjsc,
TomS, Yayay, Pethan, Grimey, Fintor, NJBUDD, Imjustmatthew, Shadowlink1014, MementoVivere, Ratiocinate, Bluemask, Gazpacho,
Corti, Mike Rosoft, DanielCD, GoodStu, Lone Isle, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Magic5ball, Jakob~enwiki, Vsmith,
Smyth, HCA, SocratesJedi, Mani1, Pavel Vozenilek, Vivers, Paul August, SpookyMulder, Bender235, Neko-chan, STHayden, Pmet-
zger, SamanthaPr, Kaszeta, El C, Lankiveil, Art LaPella, Bookofjude, Coolcaesar, Femto, Bobo192, Stesmo, Smalljim, Func, Viriditas,
Elipongo, Matt Britt, Malafaya, Maurreen, Kjkolb, Clyde frogg, Haham hanuka, Nsaa, Jakew, Mdd, Passw0rd, Linuxlad, Storm Rider,
Alansohn, PaulHanson, JamesTseng, Mick8882003, Qwe, Guaca, Andrewpmk, Paleorthid, AzaToth, Corwin8, Spangineer, Hu, Learn-
More, PaePae, Wtmitchell, Velella, SidP, Wtshymanski, JM Robert, Cburnett, Suruena, Bsadowski1, Versageek, Oleg Alexandrov, Siafu,
Stemonitis, Thryduulf, Woohookitty, Grillo, MattGiuca, Commander Keane, WadeSimMiser, MONGO, Tabletop, Dbl2010, Husainweb,
Cbdorsett, Wikiklrsc, Sengkang, CharlesC, TheAlphaWolf, Prashanthns, Jacj, PeregrineAY, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Graham87, NebY,
Canderson7, Sj, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, DeadlyAssassin, Vary, MarSch, PCStu, Tangotango, Trlovejoy, Vegaswikian, Yug, Marnet-
teD, Yamamoto Ichiro, Mg2005, RobertG, Pavlo Shevelo, Awotter, GnniX, Nivix, JYOuyang, RexNL, Gurch, AndriuZ, Pythro, Chobot,
DVdm, Korg, Antiuser, Roygbiv666, YurikBot, RobotE, MMuzammils, RussBot, Arado, Rincewind42, Polluxian, Gaius Cornelius, Cam-
17.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 203

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gyl, Light current, Zzuuzz, Encephalon, Nwk, Freeformer, Fang Aili, Jor70, NeilN, GrinBot~enwiki, Zvika, SkerHawx, DVD R W, Luk,
A bit iy, SmackBot, Tclose, Ant har05, Prodego, KnowledgeOfSelf, Hydrogen Iodide, K-UNIT, C.Fred, Blue520, KocjoBot~enwiki,
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carthecat, Skizzik, Saros136, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Haenaroad, Kurykh, Keegan, Persian Poet Gal, NCurse, Rhoeg, Pylori, Fplay,
MalafayaBot, Villarinho, Kungming2, Colonies Chris, HyperX, MaxSem, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Tartan, Chlewbot, Racklever,
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Nexus Seven, Ryan Roos, Sporkot, Hammer1980, SpiderJon, Wizardman, Kotjze, Springnuts, Sadi Carnot, Kukini, Imecs, The undertow,
SashatoBot, DragonFly31, Kuru, UberCryxic, Poa, Vgy7ujm, Wtwilson3, Cronholm144, Tim bates, Butko, Peterlewis, PseudoSudo, 16@r,
Beetstra, Martinp23, Wstomv, Mr Stephen, Csyberblue, Dicklyon, Drdestiny77, KurtRaschke, Tasoskessaris, Jose77, Xionbox, Levineps,
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Courcelles, Anger22, Tawkerbot2, Pithecanthropus, Cryptic C62, Dan1679, Alexthe5th, IanWills, Joostvandeputte~enwiki, JForget, Cm-
drObot, Megaboz, Tshepang, Johnreep, Hans-J. Wendt~enwiki, Requestion, WeggeBot, Karenjc, Basar, Maxxicum, AndrewHowse, Cyde-
bot, THESHAN, Future Perfect at Sunrise, Reywas92, SyntaxError55, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, ST47, Julian Mendez, Skittleys, Dancter,
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Epbr123, Michagal, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Purple Paint, Mchtegern, Marek69, Gerry Ashton, Ryansdistrict, Dmitri Lytov, D.H, Natalie
Erin, Dieselman, Escarbot, Thomaswgc, Mentisto, Ela112, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Khin007, Mr Grim Reaper, Bak-
abaka, Manionc, Alphachimpbot, Hwachang82, Gkhan, Golgofrinchian, Ioeth, JAnDbot, Harryzilber, Barek, Caracaskid, PhilKnight,
Savant13, Kerotan, LittleOldMe, Acroterion, Magioladitis, Jaysweet, Gsaup, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, AtticusX, JNW, JamesBWatson,
Jatkins, Recurring dreams, Catgut, Gabriel Kielland, Sgr927, Nposs, Blaserules, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Wwmbes, XMog, Bmeguru, User
A1, FOK SD OA, MCG, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, Kgranados, Khalid Mahmood, Nankai, TheRanger, Oicumayberight, Gun Powder
Ma, Gjd001, Kornfan71, Hdt83, MartinBot, Grandia01, Sigmundg, Lginger, Anaxial, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Gah4, Thirdright, Shell-
wood, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, Numbo3, Uncle Dick, Tom-3124, FactsAndFigures, G. Campbell, Katalaveno, Zue-
jay, Smeira, Kangie, Ephebi, Davandron, Gurchzilla, Tkn20, AntiSpamBot, Vanished user g454XxNpUVWvxzlr, Tonyshan, Elcielo917,
The Transhumanist (AWB), NewEnglandYankee, SJP, MKoltnow, BigHairRef, Mouradvt, Jabeluroz, KylieTastic, Bob, Cometstyles,
Treisijs, BryXEng, Ja 62, S (usurped also), Useight, Baljitisgay, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Remi0o, Lights, VolkovBot, Cireshoe, ABF,
Meaningful Username, Mrorvig UTexas Aerospace Engineering, Lears Fool, Martinra, Station1, Barneca, Kps2, Taraborn, Philip True-
man, Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Ldonna, Jkstark, Prasadga, Vipinhari, Walor, Anonymous Dissident, Ocolon, Adolf Hi+ler the
second, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Q7946w, Wiae, Waycool27, Thunder Krieg, Mwilso24, InternetHero, Winengineer, Andy Dingley, Farkas
Jnos, Jaguarlaser, Careercornerstone, Phmoreno, The Devils Advocate, Chenzw, AlleborgoBot, Symane, Logan, Matthe20, Qwazywabbit,
M.hayek, Ponyo, Technion, SieBot, Ivan tambuk, Brenont, Scarian, Caltas, Qoose, Smsarmad, Yintan, Student1980~enwiki, Bentogoa,
Aillema, Happysailor, 4engr, Genesis1155, Arbor to SJ, Yerpo, Webschem, Oxymoron83, Kellenb, Brown480, Hobartimus, Manway,
Ks0stm, Rfortner, Vedhas hirwe, Solo Deo Gloria, Arindam.2011, StaticGull, Mygerardromance, Maralia, Echo95, Yhkhoo, Masoudsa,
Dolphin51, Denisarona, Willy, your mate, Pacersfan999, Kanonkas, ImageRemovalBot, Niclond23, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Tanvir Ah-
mmed, ClueBot, Alnatour 2000, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, TrigWorks, Lawrence Cohen, Wysprgr2005, Av99,
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president, 10braunsteinc, Zlerman, Tonyjohn84, Bbb2007, DragonBot, Paul Ruby, Excirial, Gnome de plume, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Seyer-
odla, Nonamemark, Chrispreece2007, Wiki libs, Kryptonian250, Zeldafreakx86, Dekisugi, 7, Johnuniq, SoxBot III, Egmontaz, Vanished
user uih38riiw4hjlsd, KieferFL, Mostvaluableplanner, DumZiBoT, LightAnkh, Deshanel X, XLinkBot, Rajeevm1989, Gatutigern, SE
SME, Nepenthes, ProfDEH, Skarebo, Fahsja, Frood, Padfoot79, Mightyblue, Donmu, Mr. IP, Thatguyint, HexaChord, Miro modo,
Addbot, AVand, Some jerk on the Internet, Jkkjjk, DOI bot, Tinkerbell767, Friginator, ScottyXS, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Moose-
hadley, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jaczuk, Fluernutter, Transkey, Cst17, MrOllie, Mentisock, Protonk, LaaknorBot, CarsracBot,
JerryTheShrimp, Glane23, DJBarr, , CUSENZA Mario, AnnaFrance, Tackswright, Seeker alpha806, Ehrenkater, JJ92780,
NeD80, Golden0103, Teles, Neurovelho, Gail, Zorrobot, HerculeBot, Jim, Xvn, Luckas-bot, Yobot, OrgasGirl, Pink!Teen, Fraggle81,
TaBOT-zerem, The Grumpy Hacker, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Brandy Frisky, JamesJohena, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?,
Mongose8, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Floquenbeam, Rubinbot, 1exec1, Parker2334, Ld. Ata, Jim1138, IRP, JackieBot, Piano non
troppo, Oliverar, Um, LiuyuanChen, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Nathannae, Lapost, Roux-HG, Awonsgay, Neurolysis, The Firewall,
Xqbot, Wamman11, Hammack, Plasmarob, Capricorn42, Wether B, Invent2HelpAll, Anthonyhase, Almabot, Crzer07, RadiX, Grou-
choBot, Earlypsychosis, AlexPlante, 78.26, The Greatest Man That Ever Lived, Shadowjams, SD5, Lukenjoel, Remshad, Bekus, Velblod,
GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Biolawyer, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Jc3s5h, Mytic789, Fanman72, Boda77, Zulucoast, Anterior1, Wdwalt-
man, Jamesooders, Tetraedycal, Rgvis, Louperibot, Citation bot 1, , Balapuba, Abraham70, , MacMed,
JonathanBuck IEC, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Johan Torbjrn Gustaf Wrede, Boulaur, 10metreh, Skyerise, Pmokeefe, Church-
man6718, Mohammed Prince, Tom loves snatch, Serols, SpaceFlight89, le ottante, Meaghan, Paulralph, Footwarrior, Shaken Earth,
Vikas1234, Cemalardil, Anticent, Engology, C messier, Corinne68, FoxBot, TobeBot, 026fatih, FudgeFury, Eranjenes2, SchreyP, Dari-
gan, Fama Clamosa, Gorockytop101, Cjlim, Egasee, Kijacob, Arunmails, Vrenator, Alexmason14, Jusinjacob, Acs272, Reaper Eternal,
Specs112, Linguisticgeek, Diannaa, Skk146, Brian the Editor, Tstormcandy, Robbin' Knowledge, Riomack, Mean as custard, Bhawani
Gautam, Z H J G FR G People, Mhurtz, Indianw200i, Techhead7890, Per7, LibertyDodzo, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Efcmagnew,
WikitanvirBot, Immunize, Ajraddatz, ScottyBerg, Racerx11, Faolin42, GoingBatty, RA0808, Pahazzard, Iklln6, TuHan-Bot, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, K6ka, Anirudh Emani, WittyMan1986, Hhhippo, Jodema12, Theirrulez, Traxs7, Jenks24, Joelloyd7, Aavindraa, Cheese86549,
Monster7823, Cymru.lass, Shmilyshy, QEDK, Donaldm314, Wayne Slam, Goldleafblueautumn, Tolly4bolly, Scythia, Engini86, Jwmu, L
Kensington, Joaolouven, Donner60, Grizanthropy, Newchild123, Clementina, Assassin15, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gareth Grith-Jones, Uziw,
Incompetence, WikiDMc, Ryanslurpee29, This lousy T-shirt, SusikMkr, Sdrakos, Tihanyi Joci, Frietjes, BrookesAkram, Widr, Aaidila-
mindar, Vibhijain, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alexk33alt, Sinmoc 16, Titodutta, Calabe1992, Gob Lofa, Yzyzyz1979, BG19bot,
GREG23456789, Ganandkumar mscit, Hallows AG, Kaspuhler, MusikAnimal, Bsv109, Jogi don, Wildman177, L.viramontes, Mark Ar-
sten, Mariraja2007, Cadiomals, Joydeep, CitationCleanerBot, Choldax, Polmandc, Glacialfox, Raonebest, Avery.mabojie, Conifer, Spy-
ingcactus, EdwardH, Dilliondelaoure, Anbu121, Er factory, BattyBot, David.moreno72, BellBoy32, Several Pending, Hahaholocaust,
Dr. Bek, Zhaofeng Li, ChrisGualtieri, Bharu12, Whatisupmahboii, KingJahfy, Shkane, FoCuSandLeArN, Dedoch, Xcjisamonster, Web-
client101, Tangoran, Magicturnips, Matthewhayduk, Lugia2453, Graphium, Dalton951565, Cpmrodriguez, Richdawson, Melissa Bennett,
Samrat.k74, Ninja4evaa, Rahulmansa.patel, Reatlas, Epicgenius, 12345roza1234, Salience129, Redd Foxx 1991, Madmen22, Eyesnore,
Biomedicinal, Dennis Weijers, Tacomonkey222, MGray98, Chase Hughey, DavidLeighEllis, JohnGreenstein, JadeGuardian, Ugog Nizdast,
Yellaboinaumesh, 1qazxswedc, Jo457, Ginsuloft, Engeduaust, Sriganesh33, Manul, GulfamUlRehman, MrScorch6200, Noyster, Gravuri-
tas, Juaningr, Ccmcc2012, JRArocks, Bee0916, Aster554, JaconaFrere, Rashicutedoll, MarkArstenLovesDrK, Famallament, SilayHraka,
204 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

Shiva the Lover of Destruction, Antrocent, Cwbr77, Der-Wir-Ing, Horseless Headman, Venzer89, Ach8, RhymeBoy, BethNaught, Aziz
Alwayse Boss, Yatharthsingh, Vacationlandman, Adtechweb, Marky98, Trackteur, Coolnessbaseball, Patricebruby, Lor, Henryjanssen,
Peadobear123469yolo, Alpha Monarch, MRD2014, Jithujo, Jkshandling, KH-1, Caliburn, Pchandu13, Bigyanpeace1, Crystallizedcar-
bon, Loraof, TheFappening, Mason2360, Edwiki212, Armstr86, Niki Goss, Coolmanresto, Some Gadget Geek, Lilshubey4, Junaid sipra,
Prerit33, Isambard Kingdom, Blestander, Rctillinghast, Fdhrolia, CV9933, Squiver, Syed ibrahim karaikudi, Jdcomix, Wishva de Silva,
KasparBot, Im to gr8 4 u, Mileve043, John Gayton, Engineeringinindia, CAPTAIN RAJU, Scasby, Linguist111, Deredededede, Icantspell-
well, Dogegull, Naisaiah, King Isaiah 323, Joshualouie711, Qzd, InternetArchiveBot, NgYShung, 9091mrsmack, Mythili Murugan, Fjoys,
Marianna251, LunaticPhantasm, Christower137, Sperth, ThePlatypusofDoom, Bender the Bot, Ryank2513, Chaotic21, Whatengineers,
AnonimiuZ, HathFury889, Zeeshan Ramzan, JueLinLi, Heididoerr061, Mathan Ram, Wizphysics, SuperSainGouku, Almrad, Gregjaco95,
Home Lander, Wmdly, Ravi Priya, Myca48, Jaimeolaer, Samqrs, Paul Park and Anonymous: 1540
List of engineering branches Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_branches?oldid=772105535 Contributors:
Ubiquity, Dan Koehl, Lousyd, Kku, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, H Padleckas, Vsmith, Smalljim, The wub, DVdm, Casey56, DragonHawk, Tjar-
rett, Tony1, Kkmurray, SmackBot, Thunder8, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Jprg1966, AussieLegend, OcarinaOfTime, Optakeover, Dr.K.,
Peter Horn, Netmouse, Markbassett, Hezbolarki Fun Ship, Johnlogic, Fnlayson, Skittleys, Alaibot, Marek69, Seaphoto, Robby, Jsobral,
User A1, MCG, Grandia01, R'n'B, Dave Dial, Nothingofwater, In Transit, Bonadea, Funandtrvl, Oshwah, Sintaku, Deekayfry, Andy Din-
gley, Kilmer-san, Jpalpant, FlyingLeopard2014, Yintan, Flyer22 Reborn, Henry Delforn (old), Sunrise, Denisarona, Ambassador Dunlop,
Hysocc, SuperHamster, Shustov, EBY3221, Sairushi, PCHS-NJROTC, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Don'tKnowItAtAll, Moosehadley, Canadi-
anLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Fraggle81, AnomieBOT, Ld. Ata, Materialscientist, RobertEves92, Dger, Gischgimmasch, Steve Quinn, Can-
nolis, Newwhist, Hellknowz, Cgdaley, Serols, Cnwilliams, Gamewizard71, SchreyP, Jerd10, Makki98, OptoMechEngineer, EmausBot,
Orphan Wiki, WikitanvirBot, Super48paul, Pahazzard, Marco Guzman, Jr, Dcirovic, K6ka, BigMattyO, Engini86, Jwmu, Donner60, New-
burro, 28bot, Petrb, ClueBot NG, WikiDMc, Andrei S, MelbourneStar, Messiahless, DavidPwnsome, Bped1985, PatDrane, Wmcscrooge,
Djxvillain, Widr, Eliaskhalil52, Titodutta, BG19bot, Siddharth1990, Mysterytrey, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, FutureTrillion-
aire, Mili1234, DPL bot, Wannabemodel, EdwardFlint, Mdann52, Afong10, Bhmurph, ToBeFree, Whizkid143, Hassan909, Lugia2453,
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17.11. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 207

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Conover, Peter Damian (original account), Bemoeial, Fuzheado, Glimz~enwiki, Wik, Markhurd, Freechild, Bhuston, Omegatron, Shizhao,
Carax, Optim, Eugene van der Pijll, Banno, Robbot, Goethean, Altenmann, Chancemill, Tim Ivorson, Rholton, Rursus, Texture, Blainster,
HaeB, Filemon, Marc Venot, Ancheta Wis, Antonis Christodes, DocWatson42, Nat Krause, Tom harrison, Wighson, Marcika, Everyking,
Curps, Michael Devore, Duncharris, Wikiwikifast, Gracefool, Eequor, Luigi30, Christofurio, Falcon Kirtaran, Golbez, Andycjp, SURIV,
Antandrus, Beland, Jeroboambramblejam, Karol Langner, Rdsmith4, JimWae, Maximaximax, Togo~enwiki, FrozenUmbrella, Gary D,
Zondor, Lacrimosus, Bluemask, Lucidish, R, Shipmaster, EugeneZelenko, RossPatterson, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough,
H0riz0n, Vsmith, Aliman, Paul August, Stereotek, Jorrell, Bender235, EUBanana, Helldjinn~enwiki, El C, Lycurgus, RoyBoy, Wareh,
Causa sui, Bobo192, Randall Holmes, K0hlrabi, Elipongo, Arcadian, Slicky, Giraedata, Nk, NickSchweitzer, Pearle, Gsklee, Knucmo2,
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Mark Ironie, Thoreaulylazy, Zuben, Mpfrank, Vaergoth, KSchutte, Thane, Bcatt, NawlinWiki, DJ Bungi, Grafen, Mccready, Aaron Bren-
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Searchme, 21655, Lt-wiki-bot, J. Van Meter, RDF, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Spondoolicks, Arthur Rubin, KGasso, Josh3580, Gar-
ion96, Trubye, Maxamegalon2000, Innity0, Groyolo, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Vanwae, PiCo, Sticky
Parkin, David Kernow, Lharvill, Reedy, Prodego, Jagged 85, Cesoid, Harald88, LonesomeDrifter, Eiler7, Gilliam, Portillo, Bluebot, Tim-
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F., InedibleHulk, Tuspm, O process, Dr.K., Dabean, Isokrates, Chgwheeler, Kobresia, Gotnoglory, D Hill, Sander Sde, IvanLanin,
Hollis-B, Tawkerbot2, SeanMD80, Flubeca, DKqwerty, CalebNoble, Igni, Davy555, Postmodern Beatnik, CmdrObot, Porterjoh, Amalas,
Editorius, Kylu, Dgw, Sdorrance, TheTito, Neelix, Georgiabiker, Myasuda, Gregbard, Equendil, Peterdjones, APCooper, Gogo Dodo,
Philbert2.71828, TuBorNot, Karlegerton, Red Director, JFreeman, Yuzz, GJRFMorelligu, Hughgr, Sa.vakilian, Doug Weller, Yesterdog,
DumbBOT, NaLalina, Mikewax, Stevag, NMChico24, Epbr123, Cleverings, Aey, Karl Sexton, 271828182, Jbernd, N5iln, Andyjsmith,
Marek69, Tinker Aumakua, John254, RichardVeryard, Scottandrewhutchins, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, WilsonjrWikipedia, Konman72,
Guy Macon, MengTheMagnicent, Jared Hunt, Uvaphdman, John Hansen, D. Webb, Colin MacLaurin, Sluzzelin, Skomorokh, Kedi the
tramp, Matthew Fennell, J-stan, Leolaursen, MSBOT, NightSky~enwiki, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Romanaccio999, SimonTempleton,
208 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

Frip1000, Mclay1, Spindash54, BjrnF~enwiki, Athanatis, MargaretBartley, PelleSmith, Snowded, D-rew, Mr. Good, Torchiest, Jrand-
hawa, Silentaria, Jacobko, Anbro, DerHexer, JaGa, Steevven1, DavidMonk, Macmelvino, Hdt83, David Awad, Xdvd, Arjun01, Anarchia,
Triumviron, Syzygy333, R'n'B, AlexiusHoratius, VirtualDelight, Lilac Soul, Pomte, Petter Bckman, Erkan Yilmaz, Manticore, Filll, Mes-
sanger, Trusilver, Jediforce, Numbo3, Maurice Carbonaro, All Is One, Ginsengbomb, Eliz81, Sayvandelay, Aviad2001, Cpiral, Slixster, It
Is Me Here, Shawn in Montreal, Renamed user 5417514488, DarwinPeacock, Bonylboy, RickardV, Xer21, BakuninXL~enwiki, Beloved-
freak, Molly-in-md, 83d40m, Thecarbanwheel, Kansas Bear, Jenglo, Han Solar de Harmonics, Dhaluza, FenderTele, Valorien77, Richiar,
Squids and Chips, Chinneeb, JStank, Johan1298~enwiki, Rucha58, Station1, Philip Trueman, Steve Newport, Simplywater, Sacramentis,
Hqb, Dj stone, Rei-bot, MysticReaders, IPSOS, Ontoraul, The Tetrast, Dsdssrsetghj, Philogo, George Poidevin, Don4of4, Sanfranman59,
Abdullais4u, LeaveSleaves, Styoplyoag, Rcasati, Amd628, JGHenson, Imdonatello, Enigmaman, Synthebot, Sapphic, Telogen, Kumail
ahmed, Symane, Tvinh, D. Recorder, Spudgun88, SieBot, Simplier, David keith2000, Gerakibot, Pengyanan, Approaching, Psychless,
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ian, Consecutive e, Wahrmund, Soporaeternus, Ricklaman, Martarius, Sheiko F, ClueBot, Noxnatio, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cani-
haschzburger, Burlon, Drravisharma, Drmies, Timberframe, Niceguyedc, Jbgloss, M^A^L, MattRyan90, SamuelTheGhost, DragonBot,
Alexbot, M4gnum0n, Crywalt, Brews ohare, Saebjorn, Aidan oz, Saritepe, Kikos, MelonBot, MetaphysicalAwarenessCom, Editor2020,
Aristobulitos, Tdslk, Pfhorrest, GordonUS, Arthur chos, Ost316, SilvonenBot, Wiki4jb, Aniiissha, Irandill, Luwilt, Addbot, Atethnekos,
LightSpectra, Jdtapaboc, Moosehadley, Stp123stp, Swiveler, NjardarBot, Looie496, MrOllie, Glane23, Peter Damian (old), Timoth-
yyuen, Debresser, Favonian, X AF X, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, Gail, Sarason, Luckas-bot, HuPi, Yobot, DavidBirnbaum, Ghourak,
Fraggle81, Gobbleswoggler, Dadathing, Absolutely Trustworthy, Keeratura, Pdutcher, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, Scienceisyourfriend,
Message From Xenu, UnitarianUniversalism, Rev. steven, Nazrani, Materialscientist, OllieFury, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Topdown bot-
tomup, Bozo9, WurstKopf, Bozo33, Jmundo, Almabot, Crzer07, J04n, GrouchoBot, Ivanlul, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Doulos Christos,
JeanandJane, Verbum Veritas, Vanished user giiw8u4ikmfw823foinc2, Iggymwangi, Aaron kelly111, Aaronjwerner, Spring12, FrescoBot,
T of Locri, Paine Ellsworth, Jokasta, GWilliker, Djrb1979, Steve Quinn, Tavernsenses, Machine Elf 1735, Mwaixtatlearn, Airborne84,
Xenfreak, Noqoilpi, Rhalah, Akinari42, Fellh, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Edderso, Codwiki, Wikijos, TRBP, De-
cember21st2012Freak, RobMacLachlan, Gamewizard71, TobeBot, Rudeboysliketoska, Lotje, Javierito92, Zvn, Csmith01, Dsurovtsev,
DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, Eikko, PPdd, Freezes, Alang pennstate '13, Salehnuru, Smd75jr, EmausBot, John of Reading,
Technologist9, WikitanvirBot, KentonF, Racerx11, RA0808, Buillon sexycat798, Slightsmile, Dcirovic, K6ka, Zero939, V3k, PBS-AWB,
Amlentjes, Kiwi128, Kilopi, Staszek Lem, HelloStrawberry, JoeSperrazza, Lorem Ip, Mr man1951, Peter M. Brown, Trifoliate, Zantier,
ChuispastonBot, Lizaweb, RockMagnetist, Zachtpower, Factchecksonline, ClueBot NG, Sekartaji Indri Hapsari, YSHAMAN16, SrSate,
Ronaldo99999, Rtucker913, Satellizer, Godsoogic, Sgnewson, Demon 83, Dream of Nyx, Widr, Rurik the Varangian, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Drachey, Abstroose, BG19bot, Flax5, Moonlightpegasus, Blazeroce, TheFluteMan, Graham11, Davidiad, Allecher, Mthoodhood,
CedricElijahHenry, Hoobz, Harizotoh9, MrBill3, Gibbja, DefnitelynotMattDarling, Factndersonline, Melodychick, David.moreno72,
Finestspace, ChrisGualtieri, Louey37, Bigfatguyabc, Elizah379, SD5bot, TheStebieG, Dexbot, Webclient101, Blackandgold71, Mogism,
Cerabot~enwiki, The Vintage Feminist, Lugia2453, Devanz2012, Hamerbro, Telfordbuck, Me, Myself, and I are Here, Robeatlas, CsDix,
Star767, Arnlodg, Ugog Nizdast, Prokaryotes, Sulazul, Emilyluvselvis, Vodajcek, Liz, Fixuture, JaconaFrere, LordWiki 4, Alexis1102,
G2dk7g, Emilyashley91907, NCoppedge, Poopusloopus, Mike2085, Aisiantonas, Zorori47, Codesmithe, LawrenceDickman, Rubbish
computer, Pjr 2005, Shahid741, MWS97, Hovamanta, Pmqn, KasparBot, Qaei, Lucasgoldfein, BjrnF, MB, Jasminks, Fountains-of-
Paris, KTSenna, Rtrust, TaZebroian, Theabsurdreigns, Tribe of Tiger, GreenC bot, Bear-rings, Wavetopia 11, Yasminev, What cat?, Twit-
bookspacetube, The-space-philosopher, Dirtlord, Glorkvorn and Anonymous: 908

17.11.2 Images
File:1543,Visalius{}OpticChiasma.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/1543%2CVisalius%
27OpticChiasma.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Original artist:
User Ancheta Wis on en.wikipedia
File:1u04-argonaute.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/1u04-argonaute.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Self created from PDB entry 1U04 using the freely available visualization and analysis package VMD raytraced with POV-Ray
3.6 Original artist: Opabinia regalis
File:3-Tasten-Maus_Microsoft.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/3-Tasten-Maus_Microsoft.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darkone
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210 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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214 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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216 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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218 CHAPTER 17. METAPHYSICS

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