Tutorial No.

-9 (Transmission lines)
(1) What is Transmission Lines?

Transmission lines are used to carry electromagnetic energy from one point to another. It
means it transfer from one point to another. Generally it consists of two conductors. It is used
to connect a source to a load. The source may be a transmitter or an electric generator and the
load may be an antenna. Transmission lines are used for operational frequencies equal to or
less than about 3 GHz. For frequency above 3 GHz they will be replaced by waveguides.

Transmission lines are commonly used in power systems for power transmission. These lines
can be used as circuit elements like capacitors, inductors at ultra-high frequencies (300-
3000MHz)

(2) Types of Transmission Lines

Various types of transmission lines are..

Types of transmission on the basis of hardware are given below:

1. Open-Wire
2. Twin-Wire
3. Co-axial Cable
4. Optical Fiber
5. Twisted Wire
6. Strip Line
7. Wave guide

1. Open-Wire:

An open wire transmission line is made up of two parallel wires. Non-conductive spacers are
used between the wires to separate and support them. The distance between the conducting
wires is anywhere between 2 to 6 inches.

Advantages:
i. The open wire transmission line pair is typically used to transmit acoustic waves for
telephone applications.
ii. The advantage of the open wire line is its simplicity construction.
Disadvantage:
i. The major disadvantage of the open wire line pair is its high energy loss.
ii. Additionally, the wire pair is capable of picking up random signals, resulting in
interference (crosstalk).
2. Parallel Twin-Wire:

Parallel Twin Wire often called flat-twin wire made up two conductors separate by a dielectric
plastic such as polyethylene. The distance between the conducting wires is 5/16 inch or 0.30
inch. Flat-twin lead is most common used because it is economically low, it has low losses,
and it is flexible for ease of handling. It is available with 300 ohms impedance and matches
with the receiver input impedance. It is used where balanced properties are required.

Advantages:
i. It is used in TV-Receivers (having 300 ohms impedance) or a rhombic-antenna to an
HF transmitter.
ii. Parallel transmission line has the advantage that its losses are an order of magnitude
smaller than coaxial cable.
Disadvantages:
i. It is most vulnerable to interference.
ii. It must keep away from metal objects which can cause power losses.
iii. It is unsuitable for use with frequencies exceeding one or two hundreds MHz

3. Co-axial Line or Cable:

This line consists of center (inner) conductor in a dielectric that is enclosed by a metallic
shield which is a flexible braided conductor of copper. A plastic jacket is molded over the
entire line as protective coating. The outer conductor acts as grounded shield with only one
inner conductor means that it is used in unbalanced transmission configuration due to
different parameters of both conductors.

Advantages:
i. Co-axial lines are best suited for high frequencies.
ii. This type of line does not radiate energy due to complete shielding.
iii. Co-axial lines are used in noisy locations.
 iv. It is work up to 18 GHz.
Disadvantages:
i. Common mode current occurs when stray currents in the shield flow in the same
direction as the current in the center conductor, causing the coax to radiate.
ii. A continuous current, even if small, along the imperfect shield of a coaxial cable can
cause visible or audible interference.
iii. The gaps or holes in braided shield allow some of the electromagnetic field to
penetrate to the other side

4. Optical Fiber:

Optical Fibers are usually thin glass wire which are used to transmission optical signals. Their
diameter is nearly equal to diameter of human hair. The central part of diameter is called the
core. It is made of silica gel of greater refractive index. Around the core an optical fiber has a
cladding of small refractive index. The optical signal is passed through optical fiber by Total
Internal Reflection. Optical Fiber is commonly used for telecommunication.

Types Of Optical Fiber : It has following two kinds.

(i) Single Mode:

If only one signal passed through the fiber then it is called Monomode. They are used
over long distance. But they are very costly. Therefore they are not used for short distance.
Here the diameter of the core is 5um.
(ii) Multimode Fiber:
If several signals pass through the fiber then it is called multimode fiber. Its core has
the diameter of 50um.

Advantages:
i. In a metal wire, an electrical signal is used whereas in an optical fiber the light signal
is used. Hence energy loss in optical fiber is less.
ii. Optical Fiber can transmit wide range of frequencies.
iii. The communication through optical fiber is not affected by electric and magnetic field.
iv. In metal wire the cross talk is possible where as it is not possible in optical fiber.
v. Optical fiber is light in weight.
vi. It is comparatively less affected with temperature.
vii. Raw material of optical fiber is easily available.
Disadvantages:
i. Manufacturing cost of optical fiber is very high.
ii. Optical fiber is very delicate and it breaks easily.
iii.
5. Twisted Pair wire:

A twisted pair transmission line is formed when two individual insulated wire conductors are
twisted around one other. Twisted pair lines are shielded to prevent energy loss and external
interference. The shielding offered is typically metallic. The twisting cancels out all
electromagnetic interference from neighboring sources. It is used as both configuration i.e.
(balanced & unbalanced) but it is recommended for balanced configuration. In balanced
pair operation, the two wires carry equal and opposite signals and the destination detects the
difference between the two. This is known as differential mode transmission which is used in
twisted pair.

Types Of Twisted Pair: (i) UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair), (ii) STP (Shielded Twisted Pair),
(iii) FTP (Foiled Twisted Pair):

Advantages:
i. A pair of twisted transmission lines is less expensive than other types of cables.
ii. Due to differential signals, the noise produce is cancel at the receiver end.
iii. Due to unique twisted rate, the induced noise will remain common mode.
iv. Differential signaling also reduces electromagnetic radiation from the cable.
v. An unshielded twisted pair (UTP) transmission line is used for telephonic applications
and to connect computer networks.
vi. UTP major advantage is its flexibility and installation ease.
vii. More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts.
Disadvantages:
i. In video application, the twisted pair cabling can introduce signaling delays.
ii. Twisted pairs susceptibility to electromagnetic interference greatly depends on the
pair twisting schemes.
iii. Its major disadvantages include increased external interference and energy loss.

6. Strip Line:
A type of transmission system which makes possible relatively inexpensive microwave circuit
components is strip-line type system. A strip line consists of flat metallic ground planes,
separated by a thickness of dielectric in the middle of which a thin metallic strip has been
buried.

Advantages:
i. It is used for circuit interconnection with solid-state devices.
ii. It is also used for passive components

7. Wave Guide:

Wave guides conduct microwave energy at lower loss than coaxial cables. Waveguides are
practical only for signals of extremely high frequency, where the wavelength approaches the
cross-sectional dimensions of the waveguide. Below such frequencies, waveguides are useless
as electrical transmission lines.

(3) Important parameters Transmission Lines

The transmission lines are modeled by means of the parameters resistance, inductance,
capacitance and conductance. Resistance and inductance together is called transmission line
impedance. Also capacitance and conductance in parallel is called admittance. The concepts
about the transmission line parameters is useful to understand the transmission line modeling
and in analyzing the power system.

Resistance (R)

The conductors of the transmission lines have small resistance. For short lines, resistance
plays an important role. As the line current increases so do the ohmic loss (I2R loss). When
the current exceed a certain value the heat generated due to ohmic loss starts to melt the
conductor and the conductor becomes longer that results in more sag. The current at which
this condition of conductor is irreversible is called thermal limit of conductor. Short overhead
lines should be operated well within this limit.

The resistance R of a conductor of length 'l' and cross section 'a' is given by the formula

R= l / a

Here is the resistivity of the conductor material which is a constant.

Inductance (L)

For medium and long distance lines the line inductance (reactance) is more dominant than
resistance. The value of current that flows in a conductor is associated with another parameter,
inductance. We know that a magnetic field is associated with a current carrying conductor. In
AC transmission line this current varies sinusoidally, so the associated magnetic field which is
proportional to the current also varies sinusoidally. This varying magnetic field induces an
emf (or induced voltage) in the conductor. This emf (or voltage) opposes the current flow in
the line. This emf is equivalently shown by a parameter known as inductance. The inductance
value depends upon the relative configuration between the conductor and magnetic field.
Inductance in simple language is the flux linking with the conductor divided by the current
flowing in the conductor. In the calculation of inductance the flux inside and outside of the
conductor are both taken care of. The inductance so obtained is total inductance. Now
onwards if not exclusively mentioned then inductance means total inductance due to
conductor internal and external flux linkages. The symbol L is used universally to
represent inductance. L is measured in Henry (H). It is usually expressed in smaller unit, milli
Henry (mH). Manufactures usually specify inductance value per kilometer or mile.

Capacitance (C)

As the flow of line current is associated with inductance similarly the voltage difference
between two points is associated with capacitance. Inductance is associated with magnetic
field and capacitance is associated with electric field.

The voltage difference between the phase conductors gives rise to electric field between the
conductors. The two conductors are just like parallel plates and the air in between the
conductors is dielectric. So this arrangement of conductors gives rise to capacitance between
the conductors. The value of capacitance depends on the configuration of conductors. Let the
capacitance between the two lines each of radius r is C Farad per meter of line length. Then,
.
C = -----------
ln(D/r)

( ln is for natural logarithm )

is the permittivity of air.
Conductance (G)

The leakage current flows between transmission lines and ground and also between phase
conductors. Leakage current flows to ground through the surface of insulator. This leakage
current depends upon the suspended particles in the air which deposit on the insulator surface.
It depends on the atmospheric condition. The other leakage current flows between the phase
conductors due to the occurrence of corona. This leakage current also depends upon the
atmospheric condition and the extent of ionization of air between the conductors due to
corona effect. Both these two are quite unpredictable and no reliable formula exist to tackle
these leakage currents. Luckily these two types of leakage currents are negligibly small and
their ignorance has not proved to influence much the power system analysis for line voltage
and current relationships. Here we will ignore the leakage currents so we will not show the
leakage resistance. Inverse of this leakage resistance is called line conductance
 (4) Equivalent circuit of Transmission Lines

We know that the conductors are present in a two wire line. Dielectrics are also present
between them. It is also clear that conductors can be of any length. Conductors also have
some diameter. If both the length and diameter are associated with the conductor then
resistance and inductance must be present there. If wires are separated from each other by
placing the dielectric between them then the leakage of charge will take place, because the
dielectric that we are using is an insulating material which cant be a perfect insulator. This
can be explained well by introducing the concept of shunt conductance. It is denoted by G.

Lumped elements of an arbitrary section of Transmission line

(Simplified equivalent of transmission line section)

(5) Analysis & Equations of Transmission Lines

Detailed analysis of a differential section

Analysis applies to all types of transmission lines such as coaxial cable, two-wire, micro strip,
etc.
Kirchhoffs laws on a microscopic level
Over a differential section we can again use basic circuit theory
Model takes into account line losses and dielectric losses
 Ideal line involves only L and C

Derivation of differential transmission line form :

Traveling Voltage and Current Waves

(6) Answer the following questions:

(i) ___________ is not transmission line parameter.

a. Resistance b. Conductance c. Inductance d. Luminance
(ii) The propagation constant is expressed as ___________
a. Per volt b. per meter c. per ampere d. per watt
(iii) The attenuation constant is expressed as __________ per km.
a. Neper b. radian c. degree d. steradian
(iv) The propagation constant is expressed as __________ per km
a. Neper b. decibel c. radian d. steradian
(v) 1 neper = _____________ dB
a. 0.8686 b. 86.86 c. 0.08686 d. 8.686
(vi) 1 dB = _____________ neper
a. 0.1151 b. 1.151 c. 0.01511 d. 11.513
(vii) Equation of wavelength is
a. = 2 b. = / c. = f / v d. = 2 /
(viii) for a 100 km long transmission line if phase constant is 0.03553 rad/km.
then wavelength is __________ km.
a. 17.68 b. 1768.41 c. 176.84 d. 1.76
(ix) The characteristic impedance of a lossless line with L = 2.5 H/m and C=
4.45 pF/m is ___________ Ohm.
a. 749.53 b. 7.49 c. 74.95 d. 7495.3
(x) A lossless line is operated at 10 MHz has L = 2.5 H/m and C= 4.45 pF/m
then its phase constant is___________ rad/m
a. 0.00295 b. 2.095 c. 0.02095 d. 0.2095
 Tutorial No.-9 (EMI and EMC)

(1) What do you mean by EMI explain it (3 Marks)

(2) What do you mean by EMC explain it (3 Marks)
(3) Write detailed short note on sources of EMI (7 Marks)
(4) Explain briefly about EMI coupling mechanism (4 Marks)
(5) Explain different methods of controlling EMI (7 Marks)
(6) What is the need of different EMC standard? List different EMC standards
(4 Marks)
(7) Explain in brief about biological effects of EMI and EMR (4 Marks)