Chandra

QOS IN AD-HOC Prakash

NETWORKS LPU
Objective
Introduction-
Issues and Challenges in Providing QoS in Ad HocNetworks
Classifications of QoS Solutions
MAC Layer Solutions
Network Layer Solutions;
QoS Model and Frameworks for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks
Typical QoS routing protocols
Conclusion and Open Issues
Introduction
Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are infrastructureless
and intercommunicate using single-hop and multi-hop paths
Nodes act both as hosts and routers
Topology changes could occur randomly, rapidly, and
frequently
Routing paths are created and deleted due to the nodal
mobility
Applications of MANETs
Collaborative computing
Communications within buildings, organizations, ad hoc
conferences
Communications in battlefields and disaster recovery areas
Sensor networks
Quality of services (QoS)
 Quality of Service (QoS)
QoS: A set of service requirements that are met by the network
while transferring a packet stream from a source to a destination
It is the performance level of a service offered by the network to
the user
Network or service provider provide different kinds of services to
the users.
Services : can be characterized by a set of measurable
prespecified service requirements such as min. bandwidth, max
delay, max. delay variance (jitter) and max packet loss.
QoS metrics could be defined in terms of one or a set of
parameters
 Quality of Service (QoS)
After accepting a service requirement from the user the network has to
ensure that the services requirements of the users flow are met, as per
the agreement, throughout the duration of the flow.
Network has to provide a set of services guarantees while
transporting a flow.

Video frame without QoS Support Video frame with QoS Support
Target of QoS Routing
To find a feasible path between source and destination, which
satisfies the QoS requirements for each admitted connection
and
Optimizes the use of network resources
<5,4>
<4,5>
B C
A <4,2> <5,3>
<2,4> <3,4> Tuple: <BW,D>
E F QoS requirement: BW4
<3,3>
D <2,2> <4,4> Shortest path
G QoS Satisfying path
 QoS in MANETs
QoS require negotiation between host and network
The use of QoS-aware applications are evolving in the wireless
environments
Resource limitations and variations adds to the need for QoS
provisioning
Real time traffic support in Ad Hoc Networks
Requires mechanisms that guarantee bounded delay and jitter
Can be classified two type of application
1. Hard real time application
requires strict QoS guarantees
Include nuclear reactor control system , air traffic control systems and
missile control system
Delay may lead to disastrous results.
 QoS in MANETs
2. Soft real time application
Can tolerate degradation in the guaranteed QoS to a certain extent
Eg: voice telephony, video-on-demand, and video conferencing
Delay may degrade the service but do not produce hazardous results.

Providing hard real time guarantee in MANET is extremely

difficult due to reasons such as unrestricted mobility of nodes,
dynamically varying network topology, time varying channel
capacity and the presence of hidden terminals .
Research community is currently focusing on providing
QoS support for soft real time applications
Use of MANETs in critical and delay sensitive applications
demands service differentiation
 QoS parameters in ad hoc wireless networks:

Different services require different QoS parameters.

Multimedia
- Bandwidth, delay jitter & delay
Emergency services
- Network availability
Group communications
- Battery life

11
 Issues and challenges in providing QoS in ad hoc wireless
networks:
1. Dynamically varying network topology:
QoS session may suffer due to frequent path breaks.
Require new path formation but results in delay.

2. Imprecise state information

State information is inherently imprecise due to dynamic changes in
network topology and channel characteristics
Link-specific state information-
bandwidth, delay, delay jitter, loss rate, error rate, stability, cost, and
distance values for each link.
1. flow-specific state information
session ID, source address, destination address, and QoS requirements of
the flow (such as maximum bandwidth requirement, minimum
12
bandwidth requirement, maximum delay, and maximum delay jitter).
 3. Lack of central coordination
No central controller to coordinate the activity of nodes

4. Error prone shared radio channel

Radio channel broadcast by nature
Radio waves suffer from several impairments such as attenuation , multipath
propagation and inferences.
5. Hidden terminal problem
results in retransmission of packets, which may not be acceptable for flows
that have stringent QoS requirements
6. Limited resource availability
Heterogeneous nodes and networks
Bandwidth, battery life storage space, and processing capability are limited in
adhoc wireless networks.
7. Insecure medium:
13 De to broadcast nature communication is highly insecure
 Design choices for providing QoS:

resource reservation: resources are reserved at

1.Hard state : at all intermediate nodes throughout the duration of the QoS
session
2.soft state: small time intervals
State approach:
1.Stateful approach: each node maintains either global state information
or only local state information
2.Stateless approach: such information is maintained at the nodes.
QoS approach: If QoS requirements of a connection are guaranteed to be
met
1.hard QoS approach : for the whole duration of the session.
2.soft QoS approach: are not guaranteed for the entire session
14
 Design choices for providing QoS:

Hard state vs soft state resource reservation: Hard state

resources are reserved at all intermediate nodes along the path from
the source to the destination throughout the duration of the QoS
session and for soft state small time intervals are used
Stateful vs stateless approach: In the stateful approach, each node
maintains either global state information or only local state
information, while in the case of stateless approach no such
information is maintained at the nodes.
Hard QoS vs soft QoS approach: If QoS requirements of a
connection are guaranteed to be met for the whole duration of the
session, the QoS approach is termed as hard QoS approach. If the
QoS requirements are not guaranteed for the entire session, the QoS
approach is termed as soft QoS approach.
15
 Classifications of QoS approaches

1. Based on the QoS approach:

a) Based on interaction between routing protocol and QoS provision
mechanism:
b) Based on interaction between network and MAC Layers
c) Based on the routing information update mechanism employed

1. Based on the Layer at which they operate:

a) QoS in Physical Layer
b) QoS in MAC layer
c) QoS Routing in Network Layer
d) QoS in Transportation layer
e) QoS in Application layer
16
1. Based on the QoS approach:

17
 a. Based on interaction between routing protocol
and QoS provision mechanism

Coupled QoS approach:

the routing protocol and the QoS provisioning mechanism closely
interact with each other for delivering QoS guarantees. If the
routing protocol changes, it may fail to ensure QoS guarantees
.
Decoupled approach:
the QoS provisioning mechanism does not depend on any specific
routing protocol to ensure QoS guarantees.

18
 b. Based on interaction between network and MAC
Layers

Independent QoS approach: the network layer is not dependent

on the MAC layer for QoS provisioning.

The dependent QoS approach: requires the MAC layer to assist

the routing protocol for QoS provisioning.

19
 c. Based on the routing information update mechanism
employed

In the table-driven approach: each node in the network

maintains a routing table which aids in forwarding packets.
In the on-demand approach: no such tables are maintained
at the nodes, and hence the source node has to discover the
route on the fly.
The hybrid approach : bothabove

20
 QoS Support in Physical Channels
Wireless channel is time varying, the SNR in channels fluctuates
with time
Adaptive modulation which can tune many possible parameters
according to current channel state is necessary to derive better
performance
Major challenge: channel estimation accurate channel
estimation at the receiver and then the reliable feedback to the
transmitter
Wireless channel coding needs to address the problems introduced
by channel or multipath fading and mobility
Cross-layer issue: Joint source-channel coding takes both source
characteristics and channel conditions into account
 2. Based on the Layer at which they operate:

22
QoS Provisioning at the MAC Layer
For providing QoS guarantee for real-time traffic support in
wireless networks, several MAC protocols based on
centralized control have been proposed
For multihop networks:
The MAC protocol must be distributed in nature
It should solve the hidden and exposed terminal problems
 QoS in MAC layer

24
1.

25
26
 2. IEEE 802.11
In MANET radio channel operating in ISM band
IEEE 802.11 is a CSMA/CA protocol; most deployed as media access
technology
2 modes of operation
Distributed coordination function (DCF) mode :
Doesnt use any kind of centralized control ;
provide best effort services
Point coordination function (PCF) mode :
Requires an access point to coordinate the activity of all nodes in coverage
area
designed to provide real time traffic support in infrastructure-based wireless
network thus not applicable in MANET
27 DCF mode is must in implementation of IEEE802.11 standard for WLANs
while PCF is optional
IEEE 802.11 DCF
IEEE 802.11 is a CSMA/CA protocol
In the distributed control function (DCF) mode:
After the node has sensed the medium to be idle for a time
period longer than distributed inter-frame space (DIFS), it
begins transmitting
Otherwise the node differs transmitting and backs off
When the medium becomes idle for a period longer than DIFS,
the backoff timer is decremented periodically. The node starts
transmission as soon as the timer expires
To reduce collisions, the sender and the receiver exchange RTS
and CTS packets
QoS Support using IEEE 802.11
DCF
IEEE 802.11 DCF is a best-effort type control algorithm
The duration of backoff is decided by a random number
between 0 and the contention window (CW).
Service differentiation can be achieved by using different
values of CW
When packets collide, the ones with smaller CW is more
likely to occupy the medium earlier
 Point Coordination Function (PCF)
Introduced to let stations have priority access to the wireless
medium
Uses a point coordinator (PC), which operates at an AP
PC decides which station should gain access to the channel
Useful only in infrastructure based network
PCF is not scalable to support real time traffic for a large
number of users.

Need of new mechanis

30
 IEEE 802.11e
IEEE 802.11e new standard to support real time traffic
(QoS in both infrastructure and infrastructure less networks
)
Enhanced DCF (EDCF)
Hybrid coordination function (HCF)

31
 Enhanced DCF (EDCF)
Support real time traffic by providing differentiated and
distributed DCF access to the wireless medium
Each frame from the higher layer carries its user priority
(UP).
After receiving each frame, the MAC layer maps it into an
access category (AC)
Each AC has a different priority of access to the wireless up
to eight AC to support UP.

32
33
 Hybrid Coordination function (HCF)
Combines feature of EDCF and PCF to provide the capability
of selectively handling MAC service data unit (MS-DU)
Has upward compatibility with DCF and PCF.
Usable only in infrastructure based BSS that provide QoS
Use a QoS aware point coordinator called HC .

34
 3. DBASE
Distributed bandwidth allocation/sharing/Extension
protocol supports multimedia traffic(both variable rate and constant bit
rate over adhoc WLANs.
In an adhoc WLAN, there is no fixed infrastructure to coordinate the
activity of individual stations.
For real time traffic, a contention based process is used in order to gain
access to the channel.
DBASE protocol permits real time station to acquire excess bandwidth
on demand.
The non real time stations regulate their accesses to the channel
according to the standard CSMA/CA protocol.

35
QoS-aware Routing at the Network
Layer
Types of MANET routing protocols:
Proactive, table-based routing schemes
Reactive, on-demand routing schemes
Constraint-based routing schemes
These algorithms are based on the discovery of shortest paths
QoS-aware routing protocol should find a path that satisfies
the QoS requirements in the path from source to the
destination
 Ticket based QoS routing protocol
Source node issues a certain number of tickets in probe packets
for finding a QoS feasible path.
Each probe packet carries one or more packets.
For example, when the source node issues three tickets, it
means a maximum of three paths can be probed in parallel.

37
 Predictive location based QoS
routing protocol
On demand routing protocol
QoS aware admission control is performed.
The QoS routing protocol takes the help of an update protocol
and location and delay prediction schemes.
The update protocol aids each node in broadcasting its
geographic location and resource information to its neighbors.
The update protocol has two types of update messages, namely
type 1 update and type 2 update.
Each node generates a type 1 message periodically.
A type 2 message is generated when there is a considerable
change in the nodes velocity or direction of motion.
38
 Cont
From its recent update messages, each node can calculate an
expected geographical location where it should be located at
a particular instant and then periodically checks if it has
deviated by a distance greater than from this expected
location. If it has deviated, a type 2 message is generated.

39
 Trigger-Based Distributed QoS Routing protocol (1)
TDR
Link failure, it Utilizes GPS
Each node maintains the local neighborhood
information and active routes only
INIR (Intermediate Node Initiated Rerouting)
Rerouting is attempted from the location of an imminent
link failure
SIRR (Source Initiated ReRouting)
Rerouting is attempted from the source
Database management
For each neighbor, each node maintains received
power level, current geographic coordinates,
velocity, and direction of motion

40
 Trigger-Based Distributed QoS Routing protocol (2)

Activity-based database
The node maintains a source table (STn), a
destination table (DTn), or an intermediate table
(ITn)
Depending on the role of the node in current session
A flag indicating the nodes activity NodActv
NodActv = 0, means idle
Also maintains an updated residual bandwidth
(ResiBWn) which indicates its ability to participate
in a session.
Databases are refreshed when packets belonging to
the on-going sessions are received
41
 Trigger-Based Distributed QoS Routing protocol (3)
Initial route discovery
1. The entry in source table is made, and NodActv sets to 0 (idle)
2. Selects the neighbors
1) lying closely toward the destination
2) with power level more than a threshold (Pth1)
and forward them a route discovery packet
1. The intermediate node checks if such packet was received
Yes discard
NO checks the ResiBW to meet the requirements
YES an entry in IT is made, and NodActv sets to 0 (idle)
forwards the packets with hop count +1
4. Upon receiving the first packet, if destination is able to satisfy the ResiBW
and MaxBW, the route is made, and the ACK is sent back to source along
the route
Route/ Reroute acknowledgement
All the nodes along the route set the NodActv to 1 (active) and refesh
their ResiBW status

42
 Trigger-Based Distributed QoS Routing protocol (4)
Alternate Route Discovery
In SIRR
When the received power level at an intermediate node falls below a threshold
Pth2, the intermediate node sends a rerouting indication to source
In INIR
When the power level falls below the threshold Pth1 (Pth1 > Pth2), a status query
packet is sent toward the source with a flag route repair status (RR_stat) set to 0
If the upstream nodes are in rerouting process
o The RR_stat is set to 1, and reply back to the querying node
If the query packet reaches source, the packet is discarded
If the querying node receives no reply
The SIRR could be triggered ( power level falls below Pth2)
Or simply give up the control of rerouting

Route Deactivation
The source sends a route deactivation packet toward the destination
The nodes received the packet update their ResiBW, and IT

43
Trigger-Based Distributed QoS Routing protocol (5)
Advantages
Reduced control overhead
Reduced packet loss during path breaks
Disadvantages
Threshold value?
Fading / multi-path propagation/ velocity etc

44
 QoS AODV (1)
QoS Extensions to AODV protocol
Modifications are made in routing table,
RouteRequest and RouteReply packet
The following fields are appended to routing table
entry
Max delay
Min available bandwidth
List of sources requesting delay guarantees
List of sources requesting bandwidth guarantees

45
 Network layer solutions
QoS AODV (2)

Max delay extension field

In a RouteRequest msg.
Indicates the max time (sec) allowed for a transmission for the current
node to the destination
The node compares its node traversal time (the time processing a
packet) to the delay field in RouteRequest msg.
If delay field is bigger, the msg. is discarded
Otherwise, delay field = delay field node traversal time
In a RouteReply msg.
Indicates the current estimation of cumulative delay for the current
intermediate node to the destination
The destination node reply a RouteReply msg. to the source with the
max delay field set to 0
Each node forwarding the RouteReply add its own node travaersal time, and
update the field
The routing table in the node is also updated

46
 QoS AODV (3)
Min bandwidth extension field
In a RouteRequest msg.
Indicates the min bandwidth (Kbps) that must be available along the
path
The node compares its available bandwidth to the min bandwidth field
in RouteRequest msg.
If the field is smaller, the msg. is discarded
Otherwise, processes the msg. like usual AODV
In a RouteReply msg.
Indicates the min bandwidth available on the route between the source
and destination
The destination node reply a RouteReply msg. to the source with the
min bandwidth field set to infinity
Each node forwarding the RouteReply compares its own link capacity to the
BW field, and update the field
The routing table in the node is also updated

47
 QoS AODV (4)

List of sources requesting QoS guarantees

A QoSLost msg. is generated when
An intermediate nodes traversal time increases, or
A link capacity decreases
The QoSLost msg. is forwarded to all sources that could be
affected by the change (RouteReply msg. has been forwarded to)
Advantages
Simplicity in provisioning QoS of extensions in AODV
Disadvantages
Difficult to provide hard QoS
No resources are reserved along the path
Major part of delay is packet queuing delay, and contention at the
MAC layer, not the packet processing time
48
 Bandwidth Routing Protocol(1)
The BR protocol consists of 3 algorithms
An end-to-end path bandwidth calcucation algorithm
A bandwidth reservation algorithm
A standby routing algorithm

The goal of this protocol is to find a shortest path satisfying the

bandwidth requirement

Only bandwidth is considered to be QoS parameter

In TDMA, bandwidth is measured in terms of the number of free slots
available at a node
Each frame is divided into 2 phases: control phase and data phase
Bandwidth :
the set of common free slots between 2 adjacent nodes

The BR protocol assumes a half-duplex CDMA-over-TDMA system in

which 1 packet can be transmitted in 1 slot
49
 Bandwidth Routing Protocol(2)

Bandwidth
calculation
1. pathBW(S,A)
= linkBW(A,S) = {2,5,6,7}
2. pathBW(S,B)
since linkBW(A,B) = {2,3,6,7},
we assign slots [6,7] on
link(S,A), and [2,5] on link(A,B)
3. pathBW(S,C)
since linkBW(B,C) = {4,5,8},
we assign slot[4,8] on link(B,C)
4. pathBW(C,D)
since linkBW(C,D) = {3,5,8}
50
we assign slot[3,5] on link(C,D)
 Bandwidth Routing Protocol(3)

Slot assignment
Requires periodic exchange of bandwidth information
Assigns free slots during the call setup
When a node receives a call setup packet,
it checks if the slot that sender will use is free or not, it also
checks if there is free slots for forwarding the incoming packets
Yes
reserves the slot, updates the routing table, forwards the call
setup packet

No
sends a Reset packet back to sender along the path to release the
slots assigned for this connection along the path
If the connection has been set up, the destination sends a reply
packet back to the source
The reservations are soft state to avoid resources lock-up due
51 to the path breaks
 Bandwidth Routing Protocol(4)
Standby routing mechanism
To re-establish a broken connection, using DSDV
(Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector)
The neighbor
with the shortest distance to destination becomes the next-
node in primary path
With the second shortest distance becomes the next-node
on standby route
The standby route is not guaranteed to be link- or
node-disjoint
if a primary path fails, and the backup path satisfies
the QoS requirements, a new path is set up by
sending a call setup packet hop-by-hop to the
52 destination
 Bandwidth Routing Protocol(5)
Advantages
Efficient bandwidth allocation scheme
The standby routing mechanism reduces the packet
loss during path breaks
Disadvantages
Impossible for a new node to enter the network
If a node leaves, the corresponding slot remains
unused, theres no way to reuse such slots
The model needs a unique control slot in control phase of
superframe for each node in the network

53
 On-Demand QoS Routing protocol(1)
In OQR, routing is on-demand. Therefore,
there is no need to
exchange control information periodically
Maintain routing table at each node

OQR is similar to bandwidth routing protocol

(BR)
Network is time-slotted
Bandwidth is the key parameter
Uses the path bandwidth calculation to measure the
end-to-end available bandwidth

54
 On-Demand QoS Routing protocol(2)

Route discovery
Source node floods network with QRREQ packet, which has following
fields:
Packet type, source ID, destination ID, sequence num, route list, slot array list
data and TTL
The pair {source ID, sequence num} uniquely identify the packet
A node N receiving a QRREQ performs the following steps
1. if the packet with same {source ID, seq. num.} is received, the packet is
discarded
2. else, N checks its address in route list. If it is in the list, the packet is
discarded
3. else,
-1) TTL = TTL -1, if TTL ==0, the packet is discarded
-2) calculate the BW from the source to N, if it doesnt satisfy the QoS
requirements, the packet is discarded
-3) N appends the address to the route list, and re-broadcast the packet

55
 On-Demand QoS Routing protocol(3)
Bandwidth reservation
The destination may receive many QRREQ packets,
it selects the least-cost path among them
The {route list, slot array list} from QRREQ is
copied to QRREP packet, and is sent back to source
According route list field
All the intermediate nodes receiving the QRREP
packet reserve the bandwith
According to the slot array list field
The reservation is soft state

56
 On-Demand QoS Routing protocol(4)
Reservation failure
Due to
Route breaks
The free slots is occupied by other connections
When reservation fails, the node sends a ReservFail
packet back to source
And source selects the next feasible path
If no connection can be set up, the destination
broadcasts a NoRoute packet to inform the source
node

57
 On-Demand QoS Routing protocol(5)

Route maintenance
When a route breaks
The upstream sends a RouteBroken packet to the source
The upstream sends a RouteBroken packet to the source
All the nodes receiving the RouteBroken packet frees the
reserved slots, and drop the data packet belonging to the
connection
Source restarts the route discovery procedure
Advantage
Low control overhead
Disadvantage
The network needs to be fully synchronized
High connection setup time
58
 On-demand Link-State Multipath QoS Routing protocol(1)

OLMQR idea:
Finding 1 single path satisfying all the QoS requirements is
very difficult
Searches mutlipath satisfying required QoS
The BW requirement is split into sub-BW requirements
Uses CDMA-over-TDMA channel model
In this protocol
The source floods QRREQ packets,
destination collects these packets, selects multiple paths, and
sends the reply back to the source
The operation of this protocol consists of 3 phases
On-demand link state discovery
Unipath discovery
Multipath discovery and reply
59
 On-demand Link-State Multipath QoS Routing
protocol(2)

On-demand Link-state Discovery

A QRREQ packet contains the following fields
Source ID, Destination ID, node history, free time-slot list, bandwidth
requirements, TTL
When receiving QRREQ,
1. Node N checks its address in route list. If it is in the list, the packet is discarded
2. else,
-1) TTL = TTL -1; if TTL == 0, the packet is discarded
-2) add its add in node history field, and re-broadcasts the packet
Build a partial view of network

60
 Unipath discovery
Build 2 trees: T and TLCF
Given a path SAB K D, and a = BW(S,A), b=
BW(A,B)
Build T:
1.) Root is represented as abcdxy
2.) ab means time slot is reserved
3.) build child abcd, abcd, abcd, ,abcxy. Recusively
4.) the reserved time slots are calculated in every link
Build TLCF:
Sort the reserved time slots in the same level in ascending order
from left to right

61
 Unipath discovery, an example

S A B D
a b c
2,5,9,10 1,5,8,9 1,6,8,9

Build tree T: Build tree TLCF:

abc abc

3 abc abc 2 2 abc abc 3

62
1 c a 3 3 a c 1
 2 unipaths
are found
S,A,B,D
2 time-slots
path
bandwidth
S,E,F,D
1 time-slot
path
bandwidth

63
 Multipath discovery and reply
The destination initiates the multipath discovery
operation by using unipath operation
The sum of path bandwidths fulfills the original bandwidth
request
Determines the max achievable path bandwidth of each
path
The destination sends a reply packet back to source
along the path, and all nodes on the path reserves
the resources
Advantage
Better average call acceptance rate
Disadvantage
High control overhead to maintain and repair paths

64
 Asynchronous slot allocation strategies(1)
AQR
Uses RTMAC (real time MAC), and is an extension
of DSR (dynamic source routing)
3 phases
Bandwidth feasibility test phase
Bandwidth allocation phase
Bandwidth reservation phase

65
 Bandwidth feasibility test phase
RouteRequest packet
If enough bandwidth is available, the packet is forwarded
The routing loop is avoided by identifying <seq. num. ,
source ADD. ,and traversed path informations.
Offset time field records the sum of processing time in all
nodes
Used to estimate the propagation delay of transmission
Reduces the synchronization problem
The destination selects a shortest path with enough
bandwidth
And construct a data structure called QoS frame for every
link in the path
To calculate the free bandwidth slots

66
 Bandwidth allocation phase
A bandwidth allocation strategy to assign free slots
to each intermediate link in the path
Early fit reservation
Minimum bandwidth-based reservation
Position-based hybrid reservation
K-hopcount hybrid reservation
The information is included in RouteReply packet
through the path to the source

67
 Slot allocation strategies
Early fit reservation (EFR)
1. Order the links in the path from source to destination
2. Allocate the first available free slot for the first link in the
path
3. For each subsequent link, allocate the first immediate free
slot after the assigned slot in the previous link
4. Continue step 3 until the last link is reached

Attemps to provide the least end-to-end delay

End-to end delay can be obtained as
tsf * (n-1) /2
n : hop count, tsf : the duration of the superframe

68
69
 Minimum bandwidth-based reservation (MBR)
1. Order the links in the non-decreasing order of free bandwidth
2. Allocate the first free slot in the link with lowest free bandwidth
3. Reorder the links, and assign the first free slot on the link with
lowest bandwidth
4. Continue step3 until bandwidth is allocated for all links
Allocates the badwidth in increasing order of free bandwidth
The worst case end-to-end delay can be (n-1)* tsf

70
71
 Position-based hybrid reservation (PHR)
1. Order the links in the increasing bandwidth
2. Assign a free slot of the link with least amount of bandwidth,
such that the position of assignment of bandwidth is
proportional to i/Lpath
o i is the position of the link, and Lpath is the length of the path
3. Repeat step 2, until bandwidth is allocated for all links
K-hopcount hybrid routing (k-HHR)
if (pathlength > k )
use EFR
else
use PHR;

72
73
 Advantages
Provide end-to-end bandwidth reservation in asynchronous
networks
The slot allocation strategies can be used to plan for the delay
requirements
Dynamically choose appropriate algorithms
disadvantages
Setup and reconfigure time can be high
On-demand routing
Bandwidth efficiency may not as high as fully synchronized
TDMA system
Formation of bandwidth holes (short free slots cant be used)

74
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc wireless networks

75
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc
wireless networks
A framework for QoS is a complete system that attempts to
provide required/promised services to each user

The key component is QoS service model

To serve users on a per session basis or on a per class
basis

The other key components

Routing protocol
QoS resource reservation signaling
Admission control
Packet scheduling

76
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
QoS models(1)
In wired network, IntServ and DiffServ have
been proposed
IntServ provides QoS on a per flow basis
3 types of services
Guaranteed service
Controlled load service,
Best effort service
RSVP is used
Not scalable for internet
DiffServ
Flows are aggregate into service classes
Both service model cant directly applied to ad
hoc wireless networks
77
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
QoS models(2)
FQMM
Flexible QoS model for mobile ad hoc networks
A hybrid service model
Per flow granularity of IntServ
Aggregation of services into classes in DiffServ
Assumes that the number of flows requiring per flow QoS
services is much less than the low-priority flows
Nodes are classified into 3 different categories
Ingress node (source)
Responsible for traffic shaping
Interior node (intermediate relay node)
Egress node (destination)
High priority flows are provided with per flow QoS services
Lower priority flows are classified into service classes
78
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
QoS models(3)

79
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
QoS models(4)

Advantages
Provides the ideal per flow QoS services
Overcomes the scalability problem
Disadvantages
Several issues remain un-solved
Decision upon traffic classification
Allotment of per flow or aggregated service for the given
flow
Amount of traffic belonging per flow service
The mechanisms used by the intermediate nodes to get
information regarding the flow
Scheduling or forwarding of the traffic by the intermediate
nodes

80
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
QoS resource reservation signaling(1)
The QoS resource reservation signaling
scheme is responsible for
reserving the required reources
Informing the applications to initiate transmission
Signaling protocol consists of 3 phases
Connection establishment
Connection maintenance
Connection termination

81
 QoS resource reservation
signaling(2)
MRSVP
A resource reservation protocol for cellular networks
Assumes that a mobile host predicts precisely the location that
the host is going to visit
Reservation is made before the host uses the path
2 types of reservation
Active
Data packets currently flow along that path
Made by local proxy agent
Passive
Resources are reserved to be used in future
Made by remote proxy agent

82
 QoS resource reservation
signaling(3)
Limitations of adapting MRSVP in Ad hoc network
Random and unpredictable movement of
intermediate nodes
Extremely to obtain the future locations of the host in
advance
Passive reservations could fail
Even the future location are known
Finding a path and reserving the resources on that path
may not be a efficient solution

83
INSIGNIA
Goal: To support adaptive services which can provide base QoS
assurances to real-time voice and video flows and data, allowing
for enhanced level of service to be delivered when resources
become available
Designed to adapt user sessions to the available level of service
without explicit signaling between source-destination pairs
QoS functionality is decoupled from the routing protocol
INSIGNIA uses in-band signaling approach to restore the flow-
state in response to topology changes
Uses the concept of soft connection
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(1)
Developed to provide adaptive services in ad hoc
wireless networks
2 service levels:
Base QoS: Minimum QoS requirements
extended QoS: when sufficient resources are available
User sessions adopt to available service level without
explicit signaling between source- destination pairs
2 design issues
How fast can the application switch between base QoS and
extended QoS?
How and when is ti possible to operate on the base QoS or
extended QoS for an adaptive application

85
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(2)

Key
components of
INSIGNIA

86
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(3)

Medium Access Control (MAC)

Provide access to wireless medium
INSIGNIA is transparent to underlying MAC protocol
Packet Forwarding Module
Classifies the incoming packets, and delivers them
If the packet has INSIGNIA option
Deliver it to INSIGNIA signaling module
If the node is the destination of the packet
Deliver it to application
If the node is not the destination of the packet
Relay it with the help of scheduling module

Packet Scheduling Module

87
The packets to be sent are scheduled based on the forwarding policy
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(3)
Routing module
Independent from other modules
Any routing protocol can be used

In-band signaling
Used to establish, adapt, restore, and tear down adaptive
services between source-destination pairs
Independent from MAC protocol
Control information is carried along with data packets
No explicit control channel
Each data packet has an optional QoS field to carry control
information
Can operate at speeds close to packet transmissions
Better suited for highly dynamic mobile network

88
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(4)
Admission control
Allocates bandwidth to flows based on max/min bandwidth
requirements
Soft state
When a intermediate node receives a packet with RES flag on,
If no reservation is made so far, the module allocates the resources
If other reservation is made, the module re-checks the availble resources
If no data are received for a period of time, the reservation
times out and get released in a distributed manner
The value of timeout should be set carefully to avoid false restoration
Time interval is smaller than the inter-arrival time of packets

89
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(5)
The service level can be upgraded or degraded in a distributed
manner
The INSIGNIA option field contains the following field
Service mode
Best-effort (BE) or requiring reservation (RES)
payload type
Base-QoS, enhanced QoS
bandwidth indicator
Has Min/Max value to reflect the status of the flow
bandwidth request

90
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(6)
For base-Qos application, bandwidth indicator is set
to min
For exhanced-Qos application, bandwidth indicator
is set to max
Can be degraded at intermediate nodes if no enough
resources are available
Bandwidth indicator set to min
Service mode set to BE
Can be restored when resources are available

91
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(7)
Releasing Resources
The destination monitors the delivered flow, and measures the
QoS, and sends a reports back to source
when source sends an enhanced QoS packet with MAX
requirements
At non-bottleneck nodes, the resources are reserved as requested
At bottleneck nodes, the bandwidth indicator flag are set to MIN
So resources are over-allocated at non-bottleneck nodes
When nodes receiving the report from destination
they release the extra allocated resources

92
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(8)
Route Maintenance
Supports 3 types of flow restoration
Immediate restoration
Occurs when a rerouted flow immediately recovers to its original
reservation
Degraded restoration
Occurs when a rerouted flow is degraded for a period bfore it recovers
to its original reservation
Permanent restoration
Occurs when the rerouted flow never recovers to its original
reservation

93
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INSIGNIA(9)

Advantages
An integrated approach provisioning QoS
Disadvantages
Supports only adaptive applications
Multimedia applications
Transparent to MAC protocol
fairness and reservation scheme have a significant influence in provisioning QoS
guarantees
Assumes that routing protocol provides new routes when topology changes
The route maintenance mechanism significantly affects the real time traffic
The QoS can be downgraded
No suitable for realtime application

94
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INORA
Coarse feed back scheme
When a node fails to provide QoS, it sends an admission control failure
(ACF) msg. to its upstream node
The upstream reroutes the flow through other nodes
If no neighbor can provide the requested QoS, it sends an ACF to
upstream node
When this happens, the packets are sent as best-effort packets
from source to destination

123

95
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INORA(1)
USE
INSIGNIA in-band signaling mechanism
TORA routing protocol
Coarse Feedback Scheme
Class-based Fine Feedback Scheme

96
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INORA(2)

97
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INORA(3)

98
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
INORA(4)
Advantages
Search multiple paths with lesser QoS guarantees (Compare
with INSIGNIA)
Use the INSIGNIA in-band signaling mechanism
Disadvantages
May not be suitable for applications that require hard service
guarantees
Because of the failure flow may only service as BE

99
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(1)
Stateless wireless ad hoc network
Assimes a best-effort MAC protocol
Uses feedback-based control mechanisms to support real-time
services and service differentiation
Uses local rate control, a source-based admission control, an
explicit congestion notification (ECN)
Unlike INSIGNIA and INORA, intermediate nodes dont have
to maitaining the per-flow state information

100
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(2)

101
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(3)
Local rate control of BE traffic
Assumes most traffic are BE
Uses the bandwidth left out by real time traffic
Traffic rate controller determines the departure rate of the
traffic using AIMD (additive increase multiplicative decrease)
algorithm
Every T secs, tx rate = tx rate + c (Kbps)
If rx rate exceeds the threshold
tx rate = tx rate * r percent
If shaping rate is greater than g percent of the actual rate
shaping rate is adjusts to be g percent above the actual rate

102
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(4)

Source-Based admission control of real-time traffic

The real time traffic should be admitted up to an admission
control rate; the best effort traffic should be allowed to use any
remaining bandwidth
Process of admitting a new real time session
The source sends a probe packet to estimate the end-to-end bandwidth
Each intermediate nodes update the bottleneck bandwidth field
Admits the real time sessions only if sufficent bandwidth is available
No bandwidth request is in probe packet, and no resource
allocation or reservation is done during the lifetime of an
admitted session

103
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(4)
Routing algorithms
1. Each node continuously estimates the locally available bandwidth
2. When a node detects congestion conditions, it starts marking the ECN bits
in real time packets
3. When destination receives these packets, it sends a regulate msg. back to
source
4. The source re-establish the session based on the original bandwidth
requirements by sending a probe packet to destination

The above approach is not efficient, the SWAN model consider 2

approaches
Source-based regulation
Network-based regulation

104
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(5)
Source-based regulation
The source waits for a random amount of time after receiving a regulate
msg. , then initiates the re-establishment process
Avoid flash-crowd conditions
Network-based regulation
The congested nodes randomly select a congestion set of rt-sessions, and
mark only packets in this set

105
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
SWAN(6)
Advantages
scalable
disadvantages
Cant provide Hard QoS
In worst case, the admitted rt-traffic can be dropped of live in
BE mode
Dont perform well when most traffic is real time

106
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(1)
PRTMAC is a cross layer framework
On-demand QoS extension of DSR routing protocol at layer 3
RTMAC at layer 2
Provides bandwidth availability estimation
Uses an out-of-band signaling channel to gather additional
information about the on-going real-time calls
A narrow band control channel that operates over a transmission range with
twice that of the data transmission, is used as the out-of-band signaling
channel
A greater transmission range than data channel
Mobility affects the real-time traffic in 2 ways
Breakaways
Reservation clashs

107
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(2)

Breakway clash

108
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(3)
Operation of PRTMAC
Every node sends out control beacons
at regular intervals over control
channel
The calls the source node is carrying
Start- and end- time of the real time
call
The slot reservation status
Signal strength is used to estimate the
relative distance between 2 nodes

109
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(4)
Crossover-time prediction
The time when a node crosses another nodes data transmission
range
A node stores number of <time, signal strength> tuples
received from other nodes

110
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(5)

111
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(6)
Handling Breakaways
Local reconfiguration
When a nodes downstream node is down, the node tries the local reconfiguration
End-to-end reconfiguration
Sends a RouteError packet back to source
Combines these two
Node C checks if there is a path to F in its routing table
If there is one, C makes the reservation.
When a call is interrupted, and local reconfiguration is tried for a number of times, the end-to-
end reconfiguration is attempted

112
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(7)
Handling Clashs
When clashs happens, the PRTMAC shifts one of the calls to a
new slot

113
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(8)
when clash happens,
suppose that N is responsible for reconfig calls
N tries to find a free slot in N and C
By going through its reservation table and its
neighbors table corresponding to C
If success
Shifts the call

If failed
Low priority gets dropped, and undergoes an
end-to-end reconfiguration

114
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(9)
Diffserv provisioning in PRTMAC
Class 1
Real-time calls
Preempt the law priority calls
Class 2
End-to-end bandwidth reservation
Best-effort

115
 QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc networks
Proactive RTMAC(10)
Advantage
Provides better rt-traffic support and service differentiation in
high mobility ad hoc wireless networks
disadvantage
Having another control channel may be a problem in low-power
and resource-constrained environments

116
Transport Layer Issues for QoS
Provisioning
TCP performs poorly in terms of end-to-end throughput in
MANETs
The assumption used in Internet that packet losses are due to congestion is
not valid in MANET environments
TCP performance improvement in wireless networks:
Local retransmissions
Split-TCP connections
Forward error corrections (FEC)
Explicit feedback mechanisms to distinguish between losses due to
errors and congestion is necessary for QoS provisioning in
MANETs
Efficient techniques for resource management is necessary for
QoS provisioning
Application Layer Issues
Application level QoS adaptation belong to adaptive
strategies that play a vital role in supporting QoS
Flexible user interfaces, dynamic QoS ranges, adaptive
compression algorithms, joint source-channel coding, joint
source-network coding schemes
Adaptive real-time audio/video streaming support can
be provided by enhancing:
Compression algorithms, layered encoding, rate shaping,
adaptive error control, and bandwidth smoothing
Inter-Layer Design Approaches
Efficient intercommunication protocols need to conserve
scarce resources something difficult to achieve following
the strict separation of the protocol layer functionalities
Inter-layer or cross-layer issues needs to be examined
Examples: INSIGNIA and iMAQ
 Outline
Introduction
Issues and challenges in providing QoS in Ad
hoc wireless networks
Classifications of QoS solutions
MAC layer solutions
Network layer solutions
QoS frameworks for Ad Hoc wireless networks
summary

120
 Summary
The issues and challenges in providing QoS
Classfication of QoS
MAC/ network layer solution
frameworks

121