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ELSEVIER Journal of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) l-21

3-D tomographic imaging of anomalous conditions in a deep

silver mine
M.J. Friedel a, M.J. Jackson a, D.F. Scott b, T.J. Williams b, M.S. Olson a
aU.S. Bureau ofMines, Twin Cities Research Center, 5629 Minnehaha Ave. S., Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA
b U.S. Bureau of Mines, Spokane Research Center, E. 31.5 Montgomery Avenue, Spokane, WA 99207, USA

Received 16 July 1994; accepted 20 April 1995

Abstract

Mining-induced stress-field changes pose both safety and economic hazards. In an effort aimed at developing technology for
mitigating such hazards, the Bureau of Mines together with Hecla Mining Company conducted an active 3-D seismic tomographic
investigation of anomalous rockmass conditions in a large underground, high-grade, remnant ore pillar, at the Lucky Friday
mine near Mullan, ID. IRoughly 2400 P-wave traveltime measurements, were simultaneously inverted to obtain a velocity
distribution. The resulting velocity structure appears extremely heterogeneous ( 1S-6.0 km/s) and well correlated with mechan-
ical models indicating the transfer of stress in direct response to mining. Regions of anomalous ground (intense fracturing or
high-stress) were identified using threshold probabilities; the minimum velocity regions surrounding drifts indicate a zone of
stress relief that extends up to three drift diameters into the rockmass, while regions of maximum velocity above and below
mined-out portions of veins indicate the likelihood of concentrated stress. Active tomographic imaging provides the engineer
with a flexible tool for routine underground 3-D monitoring of mechanical conditions in large mine structures.

1. Introduction Also, the associated clean up and rock support costs,

1.1. Problem signijicance
The ability to see and quantify risks associated
with existing or developing anomalous rockmass con-
ditions in three dimensions gives au engineer the poten-
tial to improve both the safety and economics of
underground mining. One of the immediate benefits of
such a technology is the identification of regions sub-
jected to elevated stress. This is particularly important
since catastrophic and violent failure of rock surround-
ing underground openings, i.e. rockburst, is believed
to occur in response to (eitheran over-stressed structure
or the passing of a seismic wave (Blake and Cuvelier,
1990). The safety problems associated with rockbursts
are serious, sometimes causing injuries and deaths.
and lost production time due to rockbursts are immense.
Although a variety of countermeasures are in use at
the Lucky Friday and other burst-prone mines, no
method has proven entirely reliable. Conventional
rockburst countermeasures can be passive, e.g. obser-
vation of temporal/spatial sequences of rockmass fail-
ure using microseismic monitoring, or active, e.g.
excavation sequencing, application of counter stresses
through bolt installation, and/or destressing through a
drill and blast sequence. Despite the use of these coun-
termeasures, rockbursts continue, often with no micro-
seismic precursors, (Blake and Cuvelier, 1990). As
mining proceeds to greater depths, rockbursts will
remain a persistent safety hazard and an impediment to
production. Presently, there remains the need to
develop a simple, rapid, and cost-effective tool for peri-

0926-9851/95/$09.50 0 1995 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved

SSD10926-985 1(95)00007-O
2 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal
odic imaging of mine structures under the full range of
stress conditions. One such promising high-resolu-
tion geophysical technology is active 3-D seismic
tomography. This paper describes the results of a study
designed to evaluate the feasibility of imaging stress
conditions in a deep mine through the use of seismic
tomography.
1.2. Rationale
The rationale for using seismic velocity tomograms
to aid in mapping mine-induced, stress-related phe-
nomena is based largely on laboratory observations
showing that P-wave velocity increases under loading
(Thill, 1989). The increase in velocity is related fun-
damentally to the closure of void space, e.g. pores and
cracks. In general, the rate of velocity increase is non-
linear and greatest with an early incremental increase
in stress. As stress increases further, the rate at which
velocity increases is reduced in response to the for-
mation of new cracks (yield point) parallel to loading.
These observations suggest that regions of high veloc-
ity are likely to indicate zones of high stress concentra-
tion, whereas low-velocity regions indicate zones of
stress relief.
1.3. Background
To date, a number of workers have investigated the
application of seismic tomography to assist in solving
mine-induced stress-related problems. The earliest
application was in 1981, when Mason guided com-
pressional waves (P-waves) along a mine roof to locate
the position of adjacent coal pillars (Mason, 198 1) . A
few years later, seismic tomography was used to mon-
itor large-scale changes in stress behind an advancing
longwall (Kormendi et al., 1986). Similar experiments
were conducted in Hungary and Poland to detect anom-
alous bump prone regions, i.e. locate stress concentra-
tion, in a coal panel (Ivansson, 1985; Dubinski and
Dworak, 1989).
United States and Canadian researchers have applied
improved methods of traveltime tomography to eval-
uate mechanical conditions in metal and nonmetal
mines (Young and Hill, 1985; Friedel et al., 1992,
1993, 1994; McCreary et al., 1992; Young and Max-
well, 1992; Jackson et al., 1993). Friedel et al. (1993,
1994) demonstrated that yield pillar behavior in coal
of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
could be monitored as the longwall advanced, throug
the use of seismic refraction tomography. In the fir;
3-D tomographic mining application, passive-sourc
images were computed from induced seismicity usin
a simultaneous linear inversion procedure for bot
source location and velocity structure (Maxwell an
Young, 1992). This paper describes the application c
3-D active source seismic tomography for assessin
anomalous conditions in a large, heterogeneous, ren
nant mine pillar at the Lucky Friday mine.
2. Lucky Friday mine
2.1. Local geology
The Lucky Friday (LF) mine, owned and operate
by Hecla Mining Company, is located in the Coeu
dAlene Mining District near Mullan, ID. The two pti
mary rock formations at the mine are the argillitic S
Regis, and the Revette, composed primarily of vitreou
quartzite with thinly ( 1 cm to tens of cm) interbedde
sericitic quartzite and argillite (Scott, 1993). Th
steeply southward-dipping (about 80)) E-W-trend
ing, LF vein is a silver-lead-zinc deposit that continue
to depths of more than 1.62 km. In the region of study
the LF vein bifurcates into what are known locally a
the hanging and footwall veins. Unconfined laborator
sonic measurements conducted on intact samples a
vitreous quartzite revealed that P-wave velocities aver
age about 4.45 km/s.
The study region, known as the remnant ore pi1
lar, represents a block of ground that is vertical1
defined by previous mining activity (Fig. 1) delimite
by the 4900 and 5 100 levels (the level designatio
indicates the approximate depth in feet from the SUI
face). Note that at some locations mining activit
(stoping) has also occurred both below the 4901
(underhand cut-and-fill) and above the 5100 leve
(overhand cut-and-fill). In all cases, these features ar
backfilled with a low-modulus sand mix (200 psi)
consequently, they are likely to act as localized stres
risers within this block of ground.
The width of this remnant structure is defined by th
lateral extent of crosscuts on the two levels, e.g. 4900
87, 93 and 95; and 5100: haulage, 88, 92, while it
length is defined by the distance spanning the outermos
crosscuts (Fig. 2). In this region, bedding strikes E.
 h4.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
Fig. 1. Vertical cross-section through the main Lucky Friday vein. Region between levels is the study region and is known as the remnant
pillar.
W, essentially parallel to the vein, and dips SSW at
approximately 60. The N40W trending South Control
fault terminates the western edge of the LF vein. At the
time of this survey, mining activity using underhand
cut and fill was engaged at the 5500 level, a cover depth
of 1700 m, and proceeding to greater depths.
2.2. In-situ stress
To assess the general influence of mining activities
on the local stress distribution (and thus tomographic
outcome), a finite-element model was used to solve the
plane strain problem gjiven local mining geometries and
far field stress conditions for the 20,000 E and 20,050
E sections of the remnant structure. Noteworthy mine
features include the 4900 and 5 100 lateral haulage drifts
and ramp. The location of geologic structures, such as
the veins and SC fault, were interpolated between levels
for the stress modeling. Previous mining activity asso-
ciated with stoping has left portions of the vein back-
filled with a low-modulus sand composite at top and
bottom locations of this structure.
95 crosscut
?-_---IO
Scala. m
Sandfilled Stope VE??Z??Z
ore
The plane strain condition assumes that features are
infinite in extent normal to the plane of investigation.
In reality, however, the continuity of mining, e.g. drifts
and stopes, and geologic features, e.g. veins and fault,
exists only over relatively short distances ( < 50 m).
The feature that most grossly violates the plane strain
condition is the 93 crosscut in the 20,000 E section.
Also, displacements are assumed to be continuous sin-
gle valued functions that are independent of the direc-
tion perpendicular to the solution domain. Obviously,
such a displacement field precludes the possibility of
gaps, e.g. joints, faults, etc. To introduce fractured
regions, such as around drifts and where rockbursting
occurred, the adjacent elemental modulus was
decreased to half that of the host rock. Other simpli-
fying rockmass assumptions include a massive homo-
geneous and anisotropic host (principal component
oriented 60 from the horizontal, i.e. in the direction of
bedding), homogeneous and isotropic veins and sand-
fill (no attempt was made to account for the fault), all
subject to far field stresses (Whyatt et al., 1993). The
far field stresses were assigned based on prior in situ
M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
 20,200 N
w w W W W w W
II I

0
Spad lOCatiOnS
-___-----_______-. I
75 Argillite
I
-.
. ,$
_- -
- $5
60
92 fractures
??
I
Geophone locations
0 15 meters
I 1 0
Scale (5100 level ( Vein I
Fig. 2. Lucky Friday mine geometry and geologic structure on (a) the 4900 and (b) the 5 100 levels.
4i
6 M.J. Friedel et ul. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
tests, i.e. the vertical and horizontal stresses were set to
lithostatic and two times this value, respectively (stress
ratio of 2).
Fig. 3 shows the finite-element grid and resulting
maximum principal compressional stress distributions
( 10-70 MPa) for the two vertical sections; 20,000 E
and 20,050 E. In general, stress appears elevated
between the 4900 and 5100 levels with a region of
maximum stress ( > 50 MPa) occurring immediately
above the sandfilled stopes. Conversely, a region of
minimum stress is present across the lower portion of
these figures where the ramp and backfilled stopes are
present. The interpretation is that the sandfill cannot
support any stress, and it is shed to the adjacent more
competent vein.
In the 20,000 E section (Fig. 3a), the zone of stress
concentration is more pervasive, extending from the
5 1OO-level sandfill to the end of the 4900 level 93
crosscut. In this case, the high stress follows along the
dip of the vein until it is influenced by the 93 crosscut,
where it turns southward, eventually meeting up with
the end of this crosscut. Other anomalies present in the
20,000 E section include an intermediate stress region
that wraps from the lower side of the 4900 lateral to the
far side of the 93 crosscut. Superimposed on this hem-
ispherical shape are several disconnected and higher
stress features. Note that these features bound a low-
stress region directly below and adjacent to this same
drift. Another smaller ( l-2 drift diameters) interme-
diate zone of stress occurs to the south of and above
the 5 100 crosscut.
In the 20,050 E section (Fig. 3b), the zone of max-
imum stress concentration ( > 50 MPa) also follows
along the dip of the vein ( > 50 MPa); however, it is
more localized. Intermediate stresses extend up and
outward between the upper (4900 level) and lower
(5 100 level) sandfilled stopes. Below the interburden,
a low-stress region wraps around the bottom and
through the 5 100 level stopes toward the north along
the outer perimeter up to the 4900 lateral. Assuming
that velocity is a sensitive indicator of stress, the general
trends indicated by high and low compressional fea-
tures should appear in the tomogram as high and low
velocity anomalies, respectively.
2.3. Microseismic measurements
In previous studies, a fair correlation was shown to
exist between compressional velocity and location of
seismicity in active mining regions (Maxwell and
Young, 1992; McCreary et al., 1992). In a rockmass,
the seismicity is attributed to a sudden release of accu-
mulated strain energy. The release of strain energy is
then accompanied by the propagation of an elastic
wave. Depending on the magnitude of seismic energy
and/or its incident angle, this may critically alter the
stress state across structural heterogeneities located in
the mine vicinity. With this in mind, the Lucky Friday
microseismic database (recorded using an MP250
monitoring system) was queried for all events occur-
ring in the proximity of the mine structure during the
week of the tomographic survey, as well as one week
before and after. Only those events with an estimated
source location accuracy of less than 6 m were saved
for comparative evaluation with the velocity tomo-
grams.
3. Data acquisition
3.1. Ray path coverage
Perhaps the most important tomographic survey con-
siderations are to achieve a high density of seismic ray
paths and a wide range of viewing angles through the
rockmass. During this 3-D tomographic survey, more
than 2400 seismic traces were recorded for ray paths
between drifts on common levels, as well as between
levels. The global survey represents the compilation of
smaller 2-D cross pillar surveys, and level-to-level sur-
veys. For example, on the 4900 level, seismic energy
traversed pillars defined by the 87-haulage-93, and 93-
haulage-95 combinations (Fig. 2a). Similarly, on the
5 100 level seismic energy traversed a pillar defined by
the 92-haulage-ramp combinations (Fig. 2b). Follow-
ing a cross pillar survey at the upper 4900 level, receiv-
ers were left in place, and seismic energy was excited
at locations on the lower 5100 level. In total, the trav-
eltime response for 1650 interburden seismic ray paths
(between the 4900 and 5100 levels) were recorded.
The fact that source-receiver geometries surrounding
a pillar approximated a horizontal plane, and recogniz-
ing that the velocity gradients are probably greatest in
this plane, made it possible to invert the traveltime data
2-dimensionally for a same-day evaluation of the gross
velocity structure.
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21

25
I I
Scale, m
Fig. 3. Modeled maximum compressional stress distribution and mine related features for (a) the 20,000 E and (b) the 20,050 E vertical
sections. Modeled assuming a plane strain condition.
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal
Fig. 4. 3-D seismic ray path orientations assuming straight rays.
The individual tomographic surveys were combined,
into a global 3-D data set, representing seismic energy
that traveled along intersecting ray paths throughout
the remnant structure. Fig. 4 shows a stereographic pro-
jection of the seismic ray path orientations, which are
restricted to inclinations between zero and 10 (sub-
horizontal) and between 50 and 90 (steeply inclined).
While this appears to indicate a lack of moderately
inclined viewing angles, it should be noted that this is
compensated to some degree by curvature of rays in
the presence of velocity heterogeneities (completeness
of the curved ray path coverage is shown later).
3.2. Digital recording
Seismic energy was introduced into the rockmass by
impacting rock bolts along mine drifts using an 8-lb
sledge-hammer as the source. The first arriving seismic
energy traveled from the point of impact, across the
mine structure, to 24 single-component 100 Hz geo-
phones. Each of the geophones was screwed into a rock
bolt at varying locations along the mine drift (see
Fig. 2a,b). A digital instantaneous floating-point seis-
mograph enabled rapid, multichannel data collection
and storage, with a total dynamic range of 120 dB . The
signal character was optimized by stacking an average
of 20 records (each sampled at 0.1 ms intervals, result-
ing in a Nyquist frequency of 5 kHz), and applying
analog 5 12 Hz highpass and 2 kHz anti-aliasing filters.
Fig. 5 shows a typical 24-channel common source
gather (following a hammer blow to station R7, in
crosscut 95 recorded while surveying the 93-4900-95
of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) l-21
d lb i0 40 50
TIME, ms
Fig. 5. Typical common source gather: hammer blow (source) at
station R7, geophones (receivers) mounted to rock bolts in 93-49-
95 pillar walls.
pillar. Reciprocity checks were conducted to test the
repeatability of timing.
The complete 3-D seismic data acquisition phase
took about three g-hour shifts, using a 3-person team.
An additional day was required to determine the spatial
coordinates for each source and receiver location. The
actual amount of time required for a tomographic study
depends on a number of factors including the number
of seismic records, manpower, number of recording
channels, takeout spacing, ambient noise, and other
mine related issues, e.g. drilling, blasting, mucking and
hauling of the ore, and rockbursts. Experience suggests
that optimum tomographic survey conditions are
achieved while recording during off production
time, e.g. during a maintenance shift. Alternatively,
quality seismic data can also be recorded in regions that
are a minimum of 200 m away from drilling activities.
4. Data reduction and analysis
The tomographic information is organized in an
ordered format: label, source and receiver coordinates,
and traveltimes. The tomographic data file is typically
constructed using a spreadsheet. The spreadsheet facil-
itates basic data reduction and analysis from which
improper coordinate and/or traveltime information,
outliers, and statistical trends can be discerned. For any
tomographic subset, e.g. 2-D pillar or level-to-level
survey, the following five steps are implemented:
( 1) pick traveltimes,
(2) combine traveltime and source-receiver coor-
dinates,
(3) compute apparent velocities,
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal
40
r- -I
0 25 !jO 75 100 125 150
APPARENT DISTANCE, m
Fig. 6. Global time-distance plot; apparent velocities of 1.0 and 3.8
km/s are attributed to fracturing around drifts and intact rock of the
interburden, respectively.
(4) generate time-distance scatterplots and velocity
histograms, and
(5) compute statistics.
Problems associated with assembling tomographic
data sets of this magnitude typically include importing
wrong coordinate and /or traveltime groups, i.e. from a
common source gather, and traveltime mispicks. While
automatic traveltime pickers are commercially availa-
ble, manual. selection has provided maximum conti-
nuity and fidelity. The tradeoff, however, is that it may
take up to one full day for the identification of 2400
traveltimes. Following the removal of outliers identi-
fied in the scattetplclts and velocity histograms, the
complete 3-D data file is assembled by collating each
of the smaller tomographic subsets.
4.1. Time-distance scatterplot
After the tomographic data are compiled, a scatter-
plot is generated. The scatterplot shows the traveltime
(dependent variable) as a function of distance (inde-
pendent variable). Since the actual propagation path is
not known in advance, the distance between any given
source-receiver pair is assumed again to be a straight
path. Obvious outliers are detected by visual inspec-
tion, and time picks a.nd coordinates are re-examined
for possible errors. Best straight lines are fit to the
data, in the least-squares sense, to identify apparent
velocity patterns. For tthe Lucky Friday traveltime data
set (Fig. 6), two linear segments may be discerned: a
steeply sloping trend for path lengths less than about 8
m, and a more gently sloping trend for longer paths. In
a manner analogous to 1-D surface refraction studies,
of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21 9
the segments may be associated with structural ele-
ments ( refractors) in the rock mass, although the
interpretation differs somewhat due to the 3-D nature
of the data. The apparent velocities (inverse slopes)
for the two refractors are 1.0 and 3.8 km/s, respec-
tively. Ray paths shorter than 8 m correspond to energy
traveling along or near the surfaces of the drifts, where
sources and receivers are closely spaced. Thus the
slower refractor represents an average global response
to travel through the stress relieved (fractured) zone
surrounding underground drifts. Using standard refrac-
tion equations and simplifying assumptions (Telford
et al., 1984)) with a best-fit zero-offset delay of 5.2 ms,
the average distance from a drift wall to competent rock
is determined to be about 2.5 m.
4.2. Summary statistics
Dividing each source-receiver distance by its cor-
responding traveltime yielded an apparent velocity for
each ray path. Basic statistics for the global data set
indicated the following: traveltimes ranged from 1.3 to
31.9 ms, averaging 15.8 ms; survey distances ranged
between 2.5 and 140 m, averaging 63.3 m; and veloc-
ities ranged from about 1.2 to 6.19 km/s, averaging
3.82 km/s. By dividing the average velocity by the
square root of the number of ray paths, we obtain the
standard error of 0.08 km/s (this assumes a normal
distribution). Significant deviations from the mean
velocity (e.g. greater than two standard errors) can be
interpreted as mine-induced phenomena, e.g. concen-
trated stress, or induced fracturing (stress relief).
While the mean value is in general agreement with the
compressional velocity determined in regional seismic-
ity studies (Stickney and Sprenke, 1992) the average
velocity for this study is slightly lower, due to the pres-
ence of openings and other low-velocity zones in the
mine.
Histograms of apparent velocities were used to iden-
tify outliers and trends. For example, Fig. 7 shows the
computed velocity histograms (0.25 km/s bins) for
the 4900 level, 5100 level, level-to-level, and global
surveys. In general, all of the velocity histograms are
skewed toward lower values. The asymmetry and large
standard deviation associated with the 4900 and 5 100
level surveys are attributed to both fracturing in the
vicinity of the drifts as well as the presence of backfilled
veins. The apparent lack of mining, i.e. no backfilled
IO M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
I Global
? 300
IL /
E tomography is the mathematical nonuniqueness.
4900 Idye
Fig. 7. Histograms of apparent velocities for 4900 level, 5 100 level,
interburden (4900-5 100 level), and global data sets.
stopes, between levels is indicated by an increase in the
average velocity and corresponding decrease in stan-
dard deviation. The bimodal distribution occurring at
the 5 100 level is associated with sampling two distinct
regions: the rockburst damaged region south of the
fault, and the remaining portion of the pillar.
4.3. Seismic resolution
The seismic resolution is related to the wavelength
of the propagating energy. While seismic energy with
shorter wavelengths (higher frequency) can provide
greater resolution, it is more strongly attenuated in rock
and limits the overall range of propagation. For trans-
mission tomography, the resolution scale is propor-
tional to the wavelength, which is theoretically related
to the radius of the first Fresnel zone. Current theory
suggests that the resolution of traveltime transmission
tomography is about one wavelength (Williamson,
1991) . For a frequency of 5 12 Hz (the high-pass filter
cutoff) and a mean velocity of 3.81 km/s, the average
wavelength is about 7.44 m which provides an estimate
of the minimum resolvable feature size.
The use of first-arrival data leads to preferential
emphasis on high-velocity regions. As a result, low-
velocity regions are less well-resolved than fast regions
( Wielandt, 1987), This feature of over-sampling high-
velocity regions presumably enhances the confidence
in imaging regions of high concentrated stress. Con-
versely, those interior low-velocity backfilled regions
will likely be under sampled. The fact that source-
receivers are placed along the drifts, however, ensures
sampling of the stress relieved regions surrounding the
drifts.
5. Tomographic imaging
5.1. Constraints
Perhaps the most critical issue in transmission
The
limited range of viewing angles in a tomographic sur-
vey results mathematically in singular matrices,
because the traveltime equations are not linearly inde-
pendent. This can be true even when the number of
known values (traveltimes) exceeds the number of
unknown values (node velocities). Under these cir-
cumstances, many different velocity models can satisfy
the system of traveltime equations. To limit the range
of possible solutions, the set of equations can be sup-
plemented with available site information. For exam-
ple, global constraints in the form of minimum and/or
maximum velocity values are typically used. While a
maximum value can be readily obtained from labora-
tory stress-velocity tests, the use of a minimum veloc-
ity value is somewhat subjective. In lieu of a-priori
structural information, it becomes important to evaluate
the robustness of the reconstruction with regard to the
starting model.
In this study, a uniform grid comprising 9261 3-D
cells, or voxels (2 1 X 21 X 21 voxels, with dimensions
of 6.4 mX5.2 m X4.3 m), was used for the tomo-
graphic analysis (Fig. 8). The fact that the total number
of computational nodes (10,648) was four times
greater than the number of traveltimes (2365) resulted
in a grossly underdetermined system of equations. To
supplement these incomplete traveltime data, a maxi-
mum velocity constraint was imposed. Since the host
rock is primarily quartzite, the upper bound is assigned
as the velocity through a single quartz crystal (6.0 km/
s) . Robustness was evaluated by performing the inver-
sion numerous times, with various alternate starting
velocity models. Initial models all had uniform veloc-
ities, ranging from 4.76 to 6.0 km/s. Twelve starting
velocities were selected between these bounds, with a
regular interval pattern. The implementation of alter-
nate starting models is thus equivalent to random selec-
tion from uniform probability distribution (each
equally likely).
5.2. Ray tracing
The following tomographic reconstructions were
obtained by simultaneous iterative adjustment of alter-
 M. J. Friedel et al. /Journal
0 2?
Scale, m
Fig. 8. Grid used for tomographic inversion; 2 1 X 21 X 2 1 voxels (total of 926 1 voxels and 10,648 nodes).
nate starting models subject to various constraints
(described above) and ray tracing. The velocity recon-
struction resulting from five straight-ray iterations was
used as the starting point for the remaining 10 curved-
ray iterations. The curved ray tracing used here is based
on the method described by Urn and Thurber ( 1987).
This approach involves perturbing a trial ray path until
the traveltime is minimized. To facilitate the bending
of rays outside the minimum survey volume, the com-
putational domain is enlarged by 20%. In general, a
satisfactory minimum global traveltime root-mean-
square (RMS) residual (about 1.45 ms for all recon-
structions) was reached following 15 iterations. RMS
residuals were approximately 8.6% of the RMS trav-
eltime, and residuals for the final models were approx-
imately 30% of those for the starting models. Using a
486-66 MHz personal computer, this process required
about five hours per reconstruction. Due to the com-
putational time required, the total number of starting
models was limited to twelve.
6. 3-D tomographic results
6.1. Global velocity b!istribution
From the suite of tolmographic reconstructions, basic
statistical properties, e.g. average, median, standard
deviation, were comlputed for each node. Fig. 9a,b
shows selected 2-D lslices through the 3-D average
of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21 11
50
velocity distribution. By taking the average nodal val-
ues, poorly-resolved local variations (those that are
sensitive to the choice of initial model) are effectively
filtered, resulting in a smoothed velocity field that is
model-independent and on the average best. In gen-
eral, conditions appear heterogeneous and anisotropic;
the velocity ranges between 1.5 and 6.0 km/s display-
ing global structure that dips roughly 60 to the south
(coincident with the local geology). Fig. 9c combines
the velocity and traced ray paths (for clarity, only 25%
of the total number are shown). This figure illustrates
the relative degree of spatial sampling, as well as the
tendency of first-arriving energy to preferentially sam-
ple high-velocity regions.
It is interesting to note the relationship of microse-
ismicity to local velocity. For example, the histogram,
shown in Fig. 10, indicates a tendency for seismic
events to occur in regions of intermediate velocity
(stress). Of the 1184 seismic events, the majority occur
in velocity regions of 4.78 km/s (standard deviation
of 0.67 km/s). While this is roughly 25% greater than
the average site velocity (3.81 km/s), it is about 22%
less than the maximum site velocity. One possible
explanation is that the high velocity-stress regions may
be acting to preferentially close fractures, thereby pre-
venting a release of local strain energy.
6.2. Vertical velocity distribution: 20,000 E
Fig. 1 Ia shows the 20,000 E tomogram, a N-S ver-
tical slice through the center of the 3-D average velocity
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) I-21

1.49 km

.
1.55 km

1 .491km

1,55 km

B

1.49
C 0 Source/receiver location
Fig. 9. Global average 13-Dvelocity distribution. (a) Vertical slices. (b) Horizontal
model, together with microseismic activity. Velocities
are low around the drifts, indicating stress relief, and
they are high above the mined-out parts of the veins,
indicating stress concentration. Thus there is good
agreement between the reconstructed velocity distri-
bution and the modeled stress distribution (despite the
plane strain assumption). Other anomalously high-
velocityregions (4.S6.Okm/s) occurabout 5 mabove
and between the 5100 lateral and adjacent sandfilled
stopes, at the end of the 93 crosscut, a few meters above
but between the 4900 lateral and 93 crosscuts, as well
as an increase in gradient below and away from the
4900 lateral and 93 crosscut. These high-velocity fea-
tures, interpreted as h:igh stress, are also in agreement
with the mechanical model described earlier. Note that
the microseismic activity does not occur in these high
250
"0 1.5 3 4.5 6.5
VELOCITY, km/s
Fig. 10. Relationship of Ceismicity ( 1184 events) to local velocity;
average and standard deviation are 4.78 and 0.67 km/s, respectively.
1
Depth
V,,, km/s
slices. (c) Traced raypaths (only 25% are shown).
velocity regions, but in those that reflect intermediate
velocity (stress) levels. It is possible, however, that
these high-velocity-high-stress regions may also
release strain energy following the rotation of the stress
field in response to nearby mining activities.
Four anomalously low-velocity regions ( 1.5-2.0
km/s) appear in the 20,000 E tomogram; two at the
intersection of crosscuts with the 4900 and 5 100 lateral,
and at two sites of prior rockburst activity in the 93
crosscut and ramp (Blake and Cuvelier, 1990). The
first two low-velocity regions are interpreted in terms
of fracturing due to the crosscut curvature at the inter-
section with the lateral haulage drift (see Fig. 3). The
latter two sites are attributed to partial failure of the
rockmass, which will be discussed later.
While mine-related stress conditions appear to be
identifiable through inspection of velocity distribu-
tions, there are practical limitations on resolution that
must be kept in mind when interpreting the velocity
images. For example, by observing that the low-veloc-
ity, stress-relieved envelope is not symmetric about the
4900 and 5 100 lateral drifts, it might be concluded that
they are incorrectly located. In reality, however, it is
not possible to completely resolve the stress-relieved
zone due to asymmetric sampling, i.e. sampling only
along one side. Further, it is not possible to directly
resolve the sandfilled stopes, veins or fault. In some of
the tomograms, however, these features can be located
based on their apparent mechanical influence exerted
within the remnant structure. The lack of direct reso-
14 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21

North
4

1 Depth

VP, km/s Stress

s High
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0 Low

Sandfill
0 Microseismic
Event
0, 25 5p
Scale, m
North

Depth
1

V,, km/s Stress

5.5 High
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5

2.0 Low

Sandfill
- Microseismic
Event

Scale, m
Fig. 11 Selected vertical velocity slices from the average 3-D tomographic reconstruction. (a) 20 ~,OOO
E. (b) 20,050 E. Note correspondence
betv vee n velocity and stress (see Fig. 3).
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21 1.5

lution of internal low-velocity structures is a conse- 4900 level at a depth of 1.49 km. A low-velocity region
quence of preferential sampling of fast rock, as follows the general drift configuration, with high veloc-
explained earlier. Finally, note that the velocity distri- ities toward the center of the two pillars; west: 87-4900-
bution becomes uniform toward the edges of the tomo- 93, and east: 93-4900-95. This fits with the
gram. This reflects a region through which seismic conventional engineering paradigm, where under-
energy did not pass; consequently, the uniform velocity ground development results in maximum stress relief
reflects an average of the starting models used. (through intense fracturing) nearest to the drift. The
increased confinement toward the pillar center contrib-
6.3. Vertical veloci9 distribution: 20,050 E utes to the higher stresses and thus higher velocities.
The observation that these high-velocity anomalies
The general agreement between velocity (tomo-
occur north of the geologic structure suggests that it
gram, Fig. 1 lb) and stress (mechanical model, Fig. 3)
may play a role in perturbing stress distribution and
is indicative of the apparent influence of mining on
confinement. One plausible interpretation is that the
local stress conditions. While regions of anomalously
west pillar is carrying higher stress than its counterpart,
high velocity ( > 4.5 km/s) also occur above the lower
due in part to its inability to dissipate stresses over the
sandfilled stopes in this tomogram, the interburden dif-
structure because of the SC fault proximity. While this
fers substantially from that in the previous tomogram
may be true, the total high-velocity volume is small
(20,000 E) , particularly in and around the 4900 level.
compared to that immediately below the smaller east
For example, the high-velocity anomaly in this region
pillar. A comparison of the anomalous high- and low-
spans the largest lateral and vertical extent, ultimately
velocity volumes is presented later using the combined
transecting the 4900 level (between the 4900 lateral
concepts of threshold probability and isosurface.
and sandfilled stopes ) . While moderately high veloci-
Based on the distribution of low velocities ( 1.5-3.0
ties may be expected along this section of the pillar
km/s), the south side of the 4900 lateral drift appears
defined by the 93-4900-95 drifts, it is the extremely
to be the most intensely fractured of any drift, partic-
high vetocities ( >5.5 km/s) existing immediately
ularly along the east pillar. At this location, the degree
below it that are of potential concern.
of fracturing extends to roughly three drift diameters.
Another difference between the two vertical velocity
Of the three crosscuts, the 93 appears most fractured
distributions is that the structural features in this tomo-
with an associated asymmetry; e.g. the east wall is
gram, such as the veins and fault, appear to exert some
fractured to a distance two times that of the west. More
form of mechanical control on the concentration of
interesting, however, is the presence of a localized
stress. Evidence of this structural control is given by
anomaly ( < 10 m radius) in each crosscut that tends
the appearance of these features at locations where high
to follow the strike of the vein and SC fault. These
velocity regions ( > 5 km/s) become laterally discon-
damage zones coincide with the location of prior rock-
nected. Also, the microseismicity tends to be concen-
burst activity, where intensely rubblized rock was
trated within intermediate- to high-velocity zones in
observed following a Richter 3.0 magnitude seismic
the region north of the SC fault and between the veins.
event, and they are aligned with the inferred strike of
The two other identifiable features appear as low-veloc-
the fault-slip seismic event. Based on visual inspection,
ity anomalies ( <2 km/s): the fractured rockmass
there does not appear to be any particular correlation
related to the 4900 lateral and crosscut junction, and
between current velocity and microseismicity.
the zone of induced rockburst damage (below the upper
right sandfilled stope). This latter observation suggests
6.5. Horizontal velocity distribution: 5100 Level
that seismic tomography may be used to assess the
relative volume of damaged rock associated with rock-
Fig. 12b shows the tomographic plane, passing
burst events.
through the 5 100 level at a depth of 1.55 km., and
6.4. Horizontal velocity distribution: 4900 Level microseismic activity. At this level, only the east pillar
(5 l OO-92-ramp) was tomographically surveyed
Fig. 12a shows a plan view of both velocity and between drifts. The fact that this pillar had the lowest
location of microseismic activity corresponding to the average velocity is reflected in part by the lack of veloc-
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal ofApplied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21

North

V,, km/s Stress

0 Microseismic
Event

North

V,, km/s Stress

0 Microseismic
Event

Fig. 12. Selected horizontal velocity slices from the average 3-D tomographic reconstruction. (a) 4900 level. (b) 5100 level. High-velocity
core illustrates effect of confinement on maintaining elevated stress. Intense fracturing as indicated by low velocities to roughly 3 drift diameters,
e.g. along 49 lateral, ramp, and regions that experienced rockbursting (localized areas in each crosscut, just north of geologic structure).
 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) l-21
ities above 5 km/s, as well as the largest region of
velocities less than 2 km/s. In this pillar, the two small
regions (diameter < .5m) of maximum velocity appear
to be separated due to geologic structure. The higher
magnitude velocity anomalies appearing in the western
pillar are the result of seismic transmission from sta-
tions located in the bounding drifts (88-5100-92) to
receiver locations on the 4900 level. In this case, the
anomalies are likely to be poorly resolved in both mag-
nitude and spatial extent due to limited ray-path cov-
erage. In general, the low velocity response is similar
to that of the 4900 level. The only exception is that the
rock mass surrounding the ramp exhibits the greatest
intensity and overall extent of fracturing in the remnant
structure. It is interesting to note that the majority of
seismic events in the east pillar have occurred in the
region bounded by the ramp and SC fault. The remain-
ing seismicity appears to be associated with secondary
faulting outside the tomographic image plane.
7. Tomographic rislk
assessment
In displaying a tornogram that has the best (on
the average) global velocity structure, the tomographic
analysis becomes deterministic in the sense that it loses
the ability to address uncertainty. In any risk assess-
ment, deterministic measures typically result in over-
estimating a particular outcome. For this reason, a
probabilistic approach is implemented to better quan-
tify the pending risk associated with anomalous regions
determined using an iterative tomographic approach.
The basic approach requires the investigating engineer
to assign an appropriate velocity threshold. This value
can be associated with either stressed or fractured rock.
Next, the probability (or likelihood) that a node will
exceed the threshold value is computed based on the
previously derived nodal statistics. The final display is
then contoured as a surface of constant probability, i.e.
a probability isosurface.
Note that these probability values assume a normal
distribution exists, i.e. each nodal velocity distribution
is well resolved and has infinite tails. Clearly, the dis-
tribution is likely to be under-sampled and cannot have
negative velocity values. While the nodal distributions
could probably be inrproved by computing additional
tomographic reconstructions (using additional and dif-
ferent starting velocity models), the increased time
11
involved renders it impractical. Also, the true distri-
bution is better represented as truncated, i.e. having a
local minimum and maximum; however, the small rel-
ative error introduced does not outweigh the compu-
tational convenience associated with the assumed
normal distribution.
Fig. 13a and b show two 3-D perspectives of anom-
alous regions (defined by a 95% isoprobability sur-
face) and mine related features. The anomalous
regions, indicative of concentrated high (red) and low
(blue) compressional stress, were identified by assign-
ing threshold velocity values. Again, the low stresses
follow drifts while the high-stress regions appear to be
associated with (typically immediately above) mined
features. For the case shown, the maximum (5.25 km/
s) and minimum (3.25 km/s) threshold limits were
chosen to be 15% less than the theoretical value for
intact quartzite and equal to the lower 25% (quartile)
of the observed velocity measurements, respectively. It
should be noted that these regions will either increase
or decrease in volume depending on the assigned
threshold values and/or magnitude of mapped surface
probability. For example, when the threshold probabil-
ity was decreased from 95 to 67%, the anomalous high-
velocity volume regions increased by a factor of
roughly four. This volume increase corresponding to
probability decrease reflects the lack of starting model
independence. To minimize uncertainty and thus max-
imize robustness with regards to identification of anom-
alous regions, only the 95% isoprobability surface
should be mapped. Conversely, the ability to modify
high and/or low threshold velocity values affords the
latitude required to meet site specific objectives.
8. Conclusions
Underground mining provides a unique environment
that is amenable to active 3-D seismic tomography. In
this case, the use of haulage drifts and crosscuts on
multiple levels offers distinct advantages over conven-
tional crosshole surveys. For example, the rock bolts
installed along drifts provide a solid location to mount
geophones and as strike points for introducing seismic
energy using a sledge hammer. Further, the drilling and
tapping of rock bolts minimize time, cost and logistics,
as compared to hard rock drilling for conventional cros-
shole studies. Finally, the practice of bolting through-
18 M.J. Friedel et al. /Journal @Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) 1-21
Fig. 13.3-D renderings of high (5.25 km/s threshold) and low (3.25 km/s threshold) velocity regions and related mine features. The high- and low-velocity regions indicate regions
of anomalously high and low stress (95% probability), respectively. The silver vein appears as a translucent veil that connects the upper and lower backfilled portions (brown) ;
drifts are shown in grey.
20 M.J. Fried& et al. /Journal
out the mine permits flexibility in expanding or
contracting future surveys.
During this 3-D active tomographic survey, more
than 2,400 seismic waveforms were recorded using
multiple source-receiver geometries (24-channel com-
mon shot gathers) between drifts on common levels,
as well as between levels, using a 3-person team for
three lo-hour shifts. The actual amount of time required
for a tomographic study depends on a number of factors
including the number of seismic records, manpower,
number of recording channels, takeout spacing, ambi-
ent noise, and other mine related concerns, e.g. drilling,
blasting, mucking and hauling of the ore, and rockburst
activity. Optimum tomographic survey conditions were
achieved while recording during off production
time, e.g. during a maintenance shift.
From the suite of eleven tomographic reconstruc-
tions, basic statistical properties, e.g. average, median,
standard deviation, were computed for each node. By
averaging the reconstructed velocities, model-depend-
ent local variations were effectively filtered, resulting
in a smoothed and model-independent velocity field.
Globally, these tomograms appeared heterogeneous
(velocity range: 1 S-6.0 km/s) and anisotropic (struc-
ture was coincident with the dip of bedding). Locally,
the velocity structure appears well correlated with
mechanical models indicating the transfer of stress in
direct response to mining. For example, anomalously
high-stress regions indicated above and below sandfil-
led stopes using plane strain models were also
identifiable as high velocity regions in the tomographic
reconstruction. Other localized concentrations of stress
were also discemable, as was the extent of stress relief
surrounding drifts and at locations of prior rockburst-
ing. In general, low-velocity regions followed drift con-
figurations extending roughly l/2 to three drift
diameters into the remnant structure. Regions of anom-
alous ground, i.e. intensely fractured and highly
stressed, were identifiable using the concept of thresh-
old probabilities and isosurfaces. The identification of
anomalous regions using this approach provides a
rational means whereby appropriate mitigation strate-
gies can be devised and implemented based on the
assessment of tomographic uncertainty.
While mine-related stress conditions appear to be
identifiable through inspection of velocity reconstruc-
tions, several limitations on resolution are also evident.
For example, it is not possible to completely resolve
of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) l-21
the stress-relieved zone surrounding outer drifts at this
site due to asymmetric sampling, i.e. sampling only
along one side. Similarly, it is not possible to directly
resolve the sandfilled stopes because of the tendency
for seismic energy to seek faster paths. While the seis-
mic resolution (about 9 m) may be increased by
increasing the low-cut filter threshold, the voxel dimen-
sions must be made smaller. A reduction in voxel size,
however, requires a corresponding increase in their
total number and additional traveltime information to
augment the system of equations.
In contrast to the modeled stress distribution, the
microseismicity did not demonstrate any consistent and
observable correlation with the tomographic velocity
distribution. One plausible reason may be that some
small-scale events occur in response to tensile and not
compressional failure. Other contributing reasons may
be errors in source location and/or spatial velocity. To
avoid these potential problems, a program is now under
development that can simultaneously invert both active
and passive seismic data as well as introduce curved
ray tracing. Other efforts are directed at monitoring
temporal variations of the Lucky Friday remnant struc-
ture, as well as a larger structure at a depth of 2.2 km
at the Homestake gold mine, Lead, SD. An investiga-
tion of the statistical relationship between seismic
velocity and in-situ stress measurements is also under-
way. By combining these two types of information, it
may be possible to map stress in three dimensions using
a limited number of discrete measurements. Recogniz-
ing that refracted shear waves are identifiable in the
majority of seismic records, it is also reasonable to
conduct the simultaneous inversion of both P- and S-
wave travel for a more accurate 3-D distribution of
elastic moduli. The use of dynamic moduli derived in
this way could provide for more realistic mechanical
models.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the management of Hecla Mining
Company for providing access to both the Lucky Friday
mine and to the microseismic database. We also wish
to express our gratitude to Terry McMahon and Jerry
Hollis for drilling and tapping rock bolts and to Sean
Killen for providing the 3-D LF rendering.
 M.J. Friedel el al. /Journal of Applied Geophysics 34 (1995) l-21 21

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