IEE CIRCUITS, DEVICES AND SYSTEMS SERIES 13

Series Editors: Dr D. G. Haigh

Dr R.
Dr J. Wood

S
Other volumes in the Circuits, Devices and Systems series:

Volume technology and its impact on circuits and systems

D. G. Haigh and J. Everard (Editors)
Volume 2 Analogue design: the current-mode approach
C. Toumazou, J. Lidgey and D. G. Haigh (Editors)
Volume 3 Analogue-digital
R. S. F. and J. (Editors)
Volume 4 Algorithmic and knowledge-based CAD for VLSl
G. E. Taylor and G. Russell (Editors)
Switched-currents: an analogue technique for digital technology
C. Toumazou, J. B. Hughes and N. C. Battersby (Editors)
Volume 6 High frequency circuits
F. Nibier and co-authors
Volume 7 decisn
I. D. Robertson (Editor)
Volume 8 Low-power HF microelectronics
G. A. S. Machado (Editor)
Volume 9 VLSl testing: digital and mixed techniques
S. L. Hurst
Volume Distributed feedback semiconductor lasers
J. Carroll, J. Whiteaway and R. Plumb
Volume 11 Selected topics in advanced solid state and fibre optic sensors
S. M. Vaezi-Nejad (Editor)
Volume 12 Strained silicon heterostructures: materials and devices
C. K. Maiti, N. B. Chakrabarti and S. K. Ray (Editors)
Published by: The Institution of Electrical Engineers, London,
United Kingdom

2001 : The Institution of Electrical Engineers

Cover pictures: Marconi Optical Components Ltd (Reprinted with permission)
Imperial College London (Reprinted with permission)

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Robertson, I. D. D.)
and design and technology.
circuits, devices and systems series; no. 13)
Microwave integrated circuits-Design and construction
I. Title. Lucyszyn, S. Institution of Electrical Engineers
621.3' 8132

ISBN 0 85296 786 1

Printed in England by Rowe Ltd, Chippenham, Wiltshire

 Contents

Preface xiii

Foreword xv

Contributors xvii
I
Acknowledgements xix

1 Introduction I. D. Robertson 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 A brief history of MMIC technology 3
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of MMICs 7
1.3.1 Cost 7
1.3.2 Performance 8
1.3.3 Investment required 9
1.3.4 Reproducibility 10
1.3.5 Reliability 10
1.3.6 Size and mass
I
1.4 Applications 11
1.5 Active device technologies
1.6 Design approaches
1.7 Multi-chip module technology 22
1.8 References 25

2 Devices and fabrication technology I. Thayne, Elgaid

G. Ternent 31
2.1 Introduction 31
2.2 Substrates and technologies 31
2.2.1 HEMT coplanar waveguide MMICs 32
2.2.2 HBT microstrip MMICs 34
2.2.3 Silicon bipolar transistor MMICs 35
2.3 Passive lumped-elements 31
2.3.1 Resistors 38
vi Contents

2.3.2 Capacitors 39
2.3.3 Spiral inductors 41
2.4 Bipolar transistors 45
2.4.1 Overview of bipolar transistor operation 45
2.4.2 Heterojunction bipolar transistors 54
2.4.3 Summary of contemporary bipolar technologies 56
2.5 Field effect transistors 59
2.5.1 Overview of MEFET operation 59
2.5.2 The high electron mobility transistor (HEMT) 68
2.5.3 Summary of contemporary HEMT technologies 72
2.6 Comparison of bipolar and field effect devices 76
2.6.1 and of bipolar and field effect devices 76
2.6.2 Noise of and field effect devices77
2.6.3 Power and linearity of bipolar
and field effect devices 79
2.7 Summary 81
2.8 References 81

3 Passive components Robertson and 83

3.1 Introduction 83
3.2 Inductors 84
3.2.1 Loop inductors 85
3.2.2 Spiral inductors 85
3.2.3 Stacked spirals 86
3.2.4 Spiral inductor models 87
3.2.5 Planar spiral transformers 88
3.3 Capacitors 89
3.3.1 Overlay capacitors 90
3.3.2 Interdigital capacitors 91
3.4 Resistors 92
3.4.1 resistors 92
3.4.2 Thin-film resistors 93
3.4.3 Resistor models 93
3.5 Via-holes and grounding 94
3.6 Microstrip components 97
3.6.1 Transmission losses 97
3.6.2 Microstrip couplers and power splitters 98
3.6.3 Special MMIC realisations 100
3.7 Coplanar circuits 103
3.7.1
3.7.2 Coplanar strips 105
3.7.3 CPW circuits 105
3.8 Multilayer techniques 107
Thin-film microstrip 107
Multilayer directional couplers and 108
3.9 Micromachined passive components 109
3.9.1 Micromachined inductors 109
3.9.2 Micromachined transmission lines 112
3.10 References 116
 Contents vii

4 CAD techniques D. and C. E. Chrisostornidis 125

4.1 Introduction 125
4.2 Integrated CAD design environment 127
4.3 CAD package features 128
4.3.1 Schematic capture 129
4.3.2 Support tools 130
4.3.3 Hierarchical design 130
4.3.4 Circuit component libraries 131
4.3.5 Simulation controls 132
4.3.6 Optimisation 133
4.3.7 Layout 134
4.4 Circuit simulation engines
4.4.1 DC simulator 136
4.4.2 Linear circuit simulator 137
4.4.3 Harmonic balance simulator 138
4.4.4 Volterra series 139
4.4.5 Transient analysis 140
4.4.6 Convolution analysis
4.4.7 Noise analysis 142
4.4.8 Envelope simulation 143
4.4.9 Mixed mode analysis 143
4.4.10 Yield analysis 145
4.5 Commercial CAD packages 145
4.5.1 Agilent EEsof EDA Series 146
4.5.2 Agilent EEsof EDA ADSTM 147
4.5.3 Serenade DesktopTM 149
4.5.4 AWR Microwave Office
4.5.5 Cadence Analog ArtistTM 151
4.5.6 Optotek 151
4.5.7 Eagleware 151
4.6 Commercial modelling software 152
4.6.1 Agilent EEsof EDA IC-CAPTM
4.6.2 Optotek Ltd 153
4.6.3 IMST GmbH 153
4.6.4 IMST GmbH 154
4.7 Electromagnetic simulation tools 154
4.7.1 Need for EM solvers
4.7.2 EM software requirements 158
4.7.3 Use and limitations of EM simulators 159
4.7.4 Types of EM simulator 160
4.7.5 Numerical methods 161
4.7.6 Features of EM simulators
4.7.7 Optimising the EM simulator performance 170
4.7.8 Commercial EM software packages
4.8 References 178

5 Amplifiers I. D. Robertson and W. Geen 183

5.1 Introduction 183
5.2 Classical stability and gain analysis 184
5.2.1 Constant gain circles
viii Contents

5.2.2 The practical implications of the theory 190

5.2.3 Amplifier design under conditional
stability conditions 191
5.3 Matching techniques 193
5.3.1 Lumped-element matching 193
5.3.2 Distributed matching networks 195
5.4 DC bias injection 199
5.4.1 Stacked bias 203
5.4.2 Off-chip components 204
5.4.3 RFOW testing considerations 206
5.5 Reactively matched amplifier design 206
5.5.1 Multi-stage design 207
5.6 Lossy matching 209
5.7 FET feedback amplifier 210
5.8 Distributed amplifier 213
5.8.1 Gate and drain-line losses 215
5.8.2 Equalisation of gate- and drain-line phase velocities 218
5.8.3 Distributed amplifier with constant-R networks 219
5.8.4 distributed amplifier 22 1
5.8.5 Single-section distributed amplifier 222
5.8.6 Matrix distributed amplifier 222
5.8.7 Practical design guidelines 223
5.8.8 Other circuit functions employing distributed
amplifier techniques 224
5.9 Active matching 225
5.9.1 Common-gatelcommon-sourceicommon-drain
amplifier 225
5.9.2 Darlington pair 226
5.9.3 DC-coupled amplifiers 227
5.10 Power amplifiers 227
5.10.1 Device characterisation 229
5.10.2 Power combining and cluster matching 230
5.10.3 Class B operation 234
5.10.4 High power distributed amplifiers 234
5.1 1 Low noise amplifiers 237
5.11.1 Noise matching 238
5.1 1.2 Simultaneous match LNA 239
5.12 Summary 240
5.13 References 243

6 Oscillators 251
6.1 Introduction 25
6.2 Design principles 253
6.2.1 Feedback approach 253
6.2.2 Negative resistance approach 254
6.3 Active device 257
6.3.1 MESFET versus silicon bipolar transistors 257
6.3.2 bipolar transistors 257
6.3.3 technology 258
6.3.4 RF CMOS technology 259
 Contents ix

6.3.5 Biasing and spurious response suppression 259

6.4 CAD techniques for large-signal oscillator design 260
6.4.1 Time-domain method 260
6.4.2 Harmonic balance algorithm 26 I
6.4.3 Volterra series analysis 26 1
6.5 Phase noise in oscillators 262
6.5.1 Spectral characteristics of phase noise 262
6.5.2 Noise analysis of negative resistance oscillators 263
6.6 MMIC voltage-controlled oscillator design 264
6.6.1 Varactor diode modelling 265
6.6.2 VCO design example 266
6.7 MMIC injection-locked oscillator design 269
6.7.1 Unified formulation of injection locking 270
6.7.2 Analogue frequency divider design example 271
6.8 References 276

Mixers Ang and Nightingale 281

7.1 Introduction 28 1
7.2 Mixer analysis 283
7.2.1 General analysis 283
7.2.2 Restricted analysis 283
7.3 Background reading 284
7.4 Analysis of mixer circuits 284
7.4 1 Analysis of a simple single-loop circuit 284
7.4.2 General non-linear analysis 284
7.4.3 Conversion loss matrix method 287
7.5 Diode mixers 288
7.5.1 Diode mixer design considerations 289
7.5.2 Single-ended diode mixer 294
7.5.3 Single-balanced diode mixers 295
7.5.4 Double-balanced diode mixers 297
7.5.5 A 94 diode mixer design example 299
7.6 Coupling structures 306
7.6.1 and hybrids 307
7.6.2 Passive baluns 307
7.6.3 Active power combiners and splitters 312
7.6.4 Active baluns 312
7.6.5 Balanced oscillators 314
7.7 Active FET mixers 315
7.7.1 Gate mixer 3 16
7.7.2 Drain mixer 316
7.7.3 Source mixer 316
7.7.4 Active FET mixer design considerations 316
7.7.5 Single-ended FET mixers 317
7.7.6 Single-balanced FET mixers 319
7.7.7 Double-balanced FET mixers 320
7.8 Resistive FET mixers 32 1
7.8.1 Single-ended resistive FET mixer 322
7.8.2 Single-balanced resistive FET mixer 322
7.8.3 A 60 resistive FET mixer design example 323
x Contents

7.8.4 Double-balanced resistive FET mixer 326

7.9 Other mixer structures 327
7.9.1 Image-rejection and single-sideband mixers 327
7.9.2 Sub-harmonically pumped mixers 329
7.9.3 Distributed FET mixers and coupling structures 330
7.10 Some final comments and observations 332
7.1 References 337
7.1 General 337
7.1 1.2 Diode mixers 337
7.1 1.3 Coupling structures 340
7.1 1.4 Active FET mixers 342
7.1 1.5 Resistive FET mixers 343
7.1 1.6 Image-rejection and single-sideband mixers 345
7.1 1.7 Sub-harmonic mixers 345
7.1 1.8 Distributed mixers and coupling structures 345

8 Switches and attenuators Joshi 347

8.1 Introduction 347
8.2 GaAs FET MMIC switches 348
8.2.1 GaAs FET switching mechanism 348
8.2.2 Switched FET equivalent circuit 35 I
8.2.3 Implementation of MMIC switches 354
8.2.4 High isolation switches 355
8.3 Digital attenuators 358
8.3.1 Design approaches 359
8.3.2 Segmented dual-gate FET technique 359
8.3.3 Switched attenuators 360
8.3.4 Switched scaled 362
8.3.5 Switched bridged-T attenuator 364
8.3.6 Switched T- and 365
8.3.7 Linearity considerations 366
8.4 Digital attenuator design example 367
8.4.1 Higher attenuation bits 367
8.4.2 Lower attenuation bits 368
8.4.3 Overall chip design and layout 371
8.4.4 Measured results 372
8.5 Analogue attenuators 375
8.5.1 Analogue reflection-type attenuator 375
8.5.2 Other analogue attenuators 377
8.6 Conclusions 378
8.7 References 378

9 Phase shifters and Joshi 381

9.1 Introduction 38
9.2 Analogue implementations 383
9.2.1 Introduction to analogue phase shifters 383
9.2.2 Single-stage reflection-type phase shifters 384
9.2.3 Single-stage reflection-type delay lines 387
9.2.4 Cascaded-match reflection-type phase shifters 388
9.2.5 Ultra-wide bandwidth analogue phase shifters 396
 Contents xi

9.2.6 Ultra-wide bandwidth distributed analogue

delay lines 40 1
9.2.7 Millimetre-wave implementations 402
9.2.8 Dual-gate MESFET 404
9.2.9 Phase splitter-power combiner 405
9.3 Digital implementations 406
9.3.1 Switched-line 407
9.3.2 Reflection-type 408
9.3.3 Loaded-line 41
9.3.4 Switched-filter 413
9.3.5 Intrinsic phase shifters 415
9.3.6 MEMS digital delay lines 420
9.4 Summary 422
9.5 References 422

10 Integrated antennas V. F. Fusco 429

10.1 Introduction 429
10.2 Basic integrated antenna requirements 430
10.2.1 Additional requirements 43 1
10.3 Reported applications of integrated antennas 432
10.4 Integrated antenna retrodirective array example 432
10.5 Integrated antenna selection 436
10.5.1 Substrate choice 438
10.5.2 Measurement issues 442
10.5.3 Packaging 443
10.6 Integrated antenna examples 444
10.7 Photonic antennas 450
10.8 Micromachined antennas 452
10.8.1 Trench etching 452
10.8.2 Cavity etching 457
10.9 Microelectromechanical systems antennas 46 1
10.10 Conclusions 463
10.1 1 References 463

11 Transceivers I. D. Robertson and S. Lucyszyn 471

1 1.1 Introduction 47 1
1 1.2 Conventional upidown-conversion architectures 473
1.2.1 Filtering solutions 473
1 1.2.2 Frequency synthesisers 474
1 1.2.3 Mixers 476
1 1.2.4 Active antenna transceivers 477
11.3 Direct conversion architectures 478
11.3.1 Direct modulation transmitters 479
11.3.2 Direct conversion receivers 479
11.3.3 Direct IF sampling receivers 480
1 1.4 Modulators, demodulators and frequency 48 1
1 1.4.1 Vector modulators 48 1
1 1.4.2 Frequency translators 484
11.4.3 Serrodyne modulators 486
11.5 Active filters 487
xii Contents

1.5.1 Active inductor based filters 488

1.5.2 Actively-coupled passive resonators 489
11.5.3 Techniques using negative resistance
elements and active loops 489
11.5.4 Transversal and recursive filters 490
11.5.5 Practical applications 490
1.6 Power amplifier linearisation 49
11.6.1 Linearisation techniques 492
I 1.7 Active isolators and circulators 494
1.7.1 Active isolators 494
1 1.7.2 Active circulators 494
1.8 Optoelectronic integrated circuits 497
1 Applications 497
11.8.2 Optically-controlled circuits 498
1.8.3 Circuits for optoelectronic applications 500
1.9 References 50

12 Measurement techniques Lucyszyn 511

12.1 Introduction 51
12.2 Test fixture measurements 512
12.2.1 Two-tier calibration 514
12.2.2 One-tier calibration 524
12.2.3 Test fixture design considerations 525
12.3 Probe station measurements 525
12.3.1 Passive microwave probe design 526
12.3.2 Prober calibration 529
12.3.3 Measurement errors 532
12.3.4 DC biasing 532
12.3.5 MMIC layout considerations 533
12.3.6 Low-cost multiple DC biasing techniques 535
12.3.7 Upper-millimetre-wave measurements 536
12.4 Thermal and cryogenic measurements 538
12.4.1 Thermal measurements 538
12.4.2 Cryogenic measurements 539
12.5 Experimental field probing techniques 540
12.5.1 Electromagnetic-field probing 54
12.5.2 Magnetic-field probing 542
12.5.3 Electric-field probing 543
12.6 Summary 546
12.7 References 547

Index 555