A

TERM PAPER REPORT

ON

LIGHT FOLLOWER ROBOT

Submitted by:
Priya Hada
B.Tech (ECE)
5rd Semester

Amity School of Engineering &

Technology
AMITY UNIVERSITY RAJASTHAN
OCT, 2013

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Priya Hada, student of B.Tech. in Electronics and

Communication Engineering has carried out the work presented in the project of the
Training entitled LIGHT FOLLOWER ROBOT as a part of third Year programme
of Bachelor of Technology in of B.Tech. in Electronics and Communication
Engineering from Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity University
Rajasthan, under my supervision.

STUDENT Guide

(Priya Hada) (Achyut Sharma)

ASET (AUR)

Date:22/10/13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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It has come out to be a sort of great pleasure and experience for me to work on the
project LIGHT follower robot(LFR).I wish to express my indebtedness to those who
helped us i.e. the faculty of our Institute Mr. Achyut Sharma during the preparation of
the manual script of this text. This would not have been made successful without his
help and precious suggestions. Finally, I also warmly thanks to all our colleagues who
encouraged us to an extent, which made the project successful.

Priya Hada

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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1.INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO LFR....................................................................................9

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM. ............................................................................................11

1.3. INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEM..................................................12

2. HARDWARE DISCRIPTION.................................................................................13

2.1 BASIC HARDWARE............................................................................................13

2.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLER.......................................................................16

2.3 IR SENSORS.........................................................................................................17

2.4 LM324...................................................................................................................17

2.5 H BRIDGE...........................................................................................................183

3.WORKING PROCEDURE.....................................................................................21

4.SOFTWARE SKILS.................................................................................................23

5.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE.................................................................23

1. INTRODUCTION

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 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT FOLLING ROBOT

A LIGHT follower robot is basically a robot designed to follow a LIGHT or path

already predetermined by the user. This LIGHT or path may be as simple as a
physical white LIGHT on the floor or as complex path marking schemes e.g.
embedded LIGHTs, magnetic markers and laser guide markers. In order to detect
these specific markers or LIGHTs, various sensing schemes can be employed. These
schemes may vary from simple low cost LIGHT sensing circuit to expansive vision
systems. The choice of these schemes would be dependent upon the sensing accuracy
and flexibility required. From the industrial point of view, LIGHT following robot has
been implemented in semi to fully autonomous plants. In this environment, these
robots functions as materials carrier to deliver products from one manufacturing point
to another where rail, conveyor and gantry solutions are not possible. Apart from
LIGHT following capabilities, these robots should also have the capability to
navigate junctions and decide on which junction to turn and which junction ignore.
This would require the robot to have 90 degree turn and also junction counting
capabilities. To add on to the complexity of the problem, sensor positioning also plays
a role in optimizing the robots performance for the tasks mentioned earlier.

LIGHT-following robots with pick- and- placement capabilities are commonly used
in manufacturing plants. These move on a specified path to pick the components from
specified locations and place them on desired locations. Basically, a LIGHT-following
robot is a self-operating robot that detects and follows a LIGHT drawn on the floor.
The path to be taken is indicated by a white LIGHT on a black surface. The control
system used must sense the LIGHT and man oeuvre the robot to stay on course while
constantly correcting the wrong moves using feedback mechanism, thus forming a
simple yet effective closed- loop system.

1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

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 Power Supply Unit

LDR Sensor
Array
Crystal
AT89C51
Microcontroller

Reset circuit

H-Bridge

Left Motor Right Motor 12 V Lead Acid

Fig.1.1 Block diagram of LIGHT follower

1.3 INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

An embedded system is a system which is going to do a predefined specified task is

the embedded system and is even defined as combination of both software and

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hardware. A general-purpose definition of embedded systems is that they are devices
used to control, monitor or assist the operation of equipment, machinery or plant.
"Embedded" reflects the fact that they are an integral part of the system. At the other
extreme a general-purpose computer may be used to control the operation of a large
complex processing plant, and its presence will be obvious.

All embedded systems are including computers or microprocessors. Some of these

computers are however very simple systems as compared with a personal computer.
The simplest devices consist of a single microprocessor (often called a "chip), which
may itself be packaged with other chips in a hybrid system or Application Specific
Integrated Circuit (ASIC). Its input comes from a detector or sensor and its output
goes to a switch or activator which (for example) may start or stop the operation of a
machine.

Embedded
System

Software Hardware

ALP Processor
C Peripherals
VB memory
Etc.,

Figure: 1.2 Block diagram of Embedded System

Embedded consist of both software and hardware :

Memory: It is used to store data or address.

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Peripherals: These are the external devices connected

Processor: It is an IC which is used to perform some task

Applications of embedded systems

Manufacturing and process control

Construction industry

Transport

Buildings and premises

Domestic service

Communications

Office systems and mobile equipment

Banking, finance and commercial

Medical diagnostics, monitoring and life support

Testing, monitoring and diagnostic systems

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2. HARDWARE EXPLANATION

2.1 BASIC HARDWARE

2.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR REGULATED POWER SUPPLY :

Fig: 2.1 Power Supply

2.1.2 DESCRIPTION OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in
the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core,
and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying
magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

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A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so
that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead
they are linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Fig: 2.2 Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal
loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a
changing magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage
(step-up) as well as reduce voltage (step-down).

2.1.3 Rectifier

The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)

Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two
different rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both
use components called diodes to convert AC into DC.

2.1.3.1: The Half-wave Rectifier-

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 Fig: 2.3.1(a) Half Wave Rectifier

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be
suitable as a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies
between 0V and Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.

2.1.3.2 The Full-wave Rectifier

The circuit in figure addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the
output voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and
negative parts of the AC waveform are converted to DC.

Fig: 2.3.2(a) Full-Wave Rectifier

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C
and D are reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes
C and D are forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased.

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While the full-wave rectifier is an improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output
still isn't suitable as a power supply for most circuits since the output voltage still
varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put 12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out.

2.1.4 Voltage Regulator

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate
one or more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx: 78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating.
Suppose 7805 produces the maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx: 78 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating.
Suppose 7905 produces the maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator output is -5V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator

Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

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 Fig: 2.4 Regulator (photo courtesy: positron technologies)

2.2 AT89C51 MICROCONTROLLERS:

The AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with

4K bytes of programmable Flash memory and erasable read only memory
(PEROM). The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density nonvolatile
memory technology and is compatible with the industry- standard MCS-51
instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89C51 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-
effective solution to many embedded control applications.

2.2.1 PIN CONFIGURATIONS

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2.2.2 Standard Features

4K bytes of Flash,
128* 8 bits of internal RAM,
32 programmable I/O LIGHTs,
Full static operation: 0Hz to 24 Mhz
Three level program memory Lock
two 16-bit timer/counters,
a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture,

2.2.3 PIN DESCRIPTION

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VCC

Supply voltage.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as
high impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low
order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this
mode, P0 has internal pull ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash
programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull
ups are required during program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 1 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull ups. Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming.

Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull ups. The Port 2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pull ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal
pull ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit

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addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-ups
when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses
(MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2
also receives the high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash
programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are
pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins
that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.
Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51, as shown
in the following table. Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash
programming and verification.

Table: 2.2.1 port 3 alternate functions

RST

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Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running
resets the device.

ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the
address during accesses to external memory. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at
a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or
clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access
to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of
SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC
instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high.

PSEN

Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When
the AT89C51 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated
twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each
access to external data memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device
to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to
FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched
on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating
circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

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2.3 IR Sensors
An Infra-Red sensor detects Infra-Red light/white light from a particular
object/LIGHT and then converts light energy to electrical energy. An IR sensor pair
consists of an emitter and a detector. The emitter is blue in color and the detector can
be grey, black or white in color.

Fig.2.3.1 TX- Emitter & RX- Detector (Photo courtesy: positron technologies)
2.3.1 IR Emitter:

An infra-red emitter is a Light Emitting Diode (LED) made from Gallium Arsenide. It
detects IR energy at a wavelength of 880nm and emits the same. The infrared
phototransistor acts as a transistor with the base voltage determined by the amount of
light hitting the transistor. Hence it acts as a variable current source. Greater amount
of IR light cause greater currents to flow through the collector-emitter leads.
The variable current traveling through the resistor causes a voltage drop in the pull-up
resistor. This voltage is measured as the output of the device.

2.3.2 IR Detector:

An infra-red detector is a photo detector. It detects IR energy emitted by the emitter

and converts it into electrical energy.
The main principle involved in the conversion of light energy to electrical energy is
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT.

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IR sensor circuit to detect a black LIGHT on white background:

Fig: 2.3.2. IR sensor circuit

The output is taken at negative terminal of IR detector.

The output can be taken to a microcontroller either to its ADC (Analog to Digital
Converter) or LM 339 can be used as a comparator.

2.4 LM 324

2.4.1 FEATURES:

Wide gain bandwidth : 1.3MHZ input common-mode voltage range

Includes ground .large voltage gain: 100DB .very low supply current/ampli :
375ma low input bias current : 20NA low input offset voltage : 5mv max.
Low input offset current : 2NA wide power supply range :
Single supply : +3v to +30v
Dual supplies : 1.5v to 15v

2.4.2 DESCRIPTION

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These circuits consist of four independent, high gain, internally frequency
compensated operational amplifiers .They operate from a single power supply over a
wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the
low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply
voltage.

Fig:2.4.1. pin configuration (top view)

2.5 H-BRIDGE:

An H-bridge is an electronic circuit which enables DC electric motors to be run

forwards or backwards. These circuits are often used in robotics. H-bridges are
available as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete components.

Fig: 2.5.1.H-bridge switch diagram

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The two basic states of a H-bridge. The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical
graphical representation of such a circuit. An H-bridge is built with four switches
(solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first
figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across
the motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this
voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.

Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at
the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The
same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as shoot-through.

2.5.1 Operation

The H-Bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity of the motor, but
can also be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the
motors terminals are shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is
effectively disconnected from the circuit. The following table summarizes operation.

S S S S
Result
1 2 3 4

Motor moves
1 0 0 1
right

0 1 1 0 Motor moves left

0 0 0 0 Motor free runs

0 1 0 1 Motor brakes

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 Table: 2.5.1 H-bridge switch operation

2.5.2 H-Bridge Driver:

The switching property of this H-Bridge can be replaced by a Transistor or a Relay or

a Mosfet or even by an IC. Here we are replacing this with an IC named L293D as the
driver whose description is as given below. The Device is a monolithic integrated
high voltage, high current four channel driver designed to accept standard DTL or
TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads as and switching power transistors. To
simplify use as two bridges each pair of channels is equipped with an enable input. A
separate supply input is provided for the logic, allowing operation at a lower voltage
and internal clamp diodes are included. This device is suitable for use in switching
applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz. The L293D is assembled in a 16 lead plastic
package which has 4 center pins connected together and used for heat sinking The
L293D is assembled in a 20 lead surface mount which has 8 center pins connected
together and used for heat sinking.

2.5.3 Features:

600mA OUTPUT CURRENT CAPABILITY

PER CHANNEL
1.2A PEAK OUTPUT CURRENT (non repetitive)
ENABLE FACILITY
OVERTEMPERATURE PROTECTION
LOGICAL "0" INPUT VOLTAGE UP TO 1.5 V
(HIGH NOISE IMMUNITY)
INTERNAL CLAMP DIODES

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2.5.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig: 2.5.2. block diagram of H-bridge

2.5.5 PIN CONNECTIONS

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 Fig: 2.5.3 pin configuration of H-bridge

3. WORKING PROCEDURE

3.1 WORKING

Robotics is an interesting subject to discuss about and in this advanced world Robots
are becoming a part of our life. In this project we are going to discuss about a robot
which is capable of following a LIGHT without the help of any external source.

The Embedded LIGHT following robot uses two motors to control rear wheels and
the single front wheel is free. It has 3-infrared sensors on the bottom for detection of
black tracking tape. When the middle sensor detects the black color, this sensor
output is given to the comparator LM324. The output of comparator compares this
sensor output with a reference voltage and gives an output. The output of comparator
will be low when it receives an input from the sensor.

We follow a simple logic to implement this project. As we know that black colour is
capable of absorbing the radiation and white colour or a bright colour reflects the
radiation back. Here we use 3 pairs of IR TX and Rx .The robot uses these IR sensors
to sense the LIGHT and the arrangement is made such that sensors face the ground.
The output from the sensors is an analog signal which depends on the amount of light
reflected back and this analog signal is given to the comparator to produce 0s and 1s.

Internally we have an OTP (one time programmable) processor which is used to

control the rotation of the wheels. The rotation of these wheels depends up on the
response from the comparator. Let us assume that when a sensor is on the black
LIGHT it reads 0 and when it is on the bright surface it reads 1.

Here we can get three different cases, they are:

1. Straight direction
2. Right curve

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 3. Left curve

3.1.1 Straight direction:

We can expect our robot to move in straight direction when the middle sensors
response is low and the remaining two sensors response is high. i.e., according to our
arrangement the middle sensor will always be on the LIGHT and as the LIGHT is
black in colour it will not reflect the emitted radiation back and the response of the
sensor will be low and the response of the remaining two sensors will be high as they
will be on the bright surface.

3.1.2 Right curve:

When a right curve is found on the LIGHT the responses will change i.e. the response
of the first sensor which is to the right will become low as that sensor will be facing
the black LIGHT and the reaming sensors response will be high. We this data is
achieved the control of the wheels is changed i.e. the right wheel is held and the left
wheel is made to move freely until the response from the middle sensor becomes low.
Then the same process repeats again.

3.1.3 Left curve:

When a left curve is found on the LIGHT the response of the left most sensor will be
changed from high to low as the sensor will now face the black or the dark surface.
Then the control of the wheel changes i.e. by holding the left wheel and allowing the
right wheel to move freely until the middle sensor changes it is response from high to
low.The same process continues for all the turns and the robot moves continuously
until the supply is remove

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PCB Description
Very often we are required to fabricate our own PCB's for our robots or
other electronic circuits, and most of the time we do not have access to
any equipment required. So this guide gives a step by step guide to
making your own PCB's at home from material which is readily available
and also details the costs involved

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Warning: Please Remember that the chemicals (FeCl3) used in the process
are corrosive and poisness. Direct contact should be avoided and in case
of contact please wash the area with soap and water.

Step 1: Shopping list

We have tried to use components which are easily available and can be
easily procured from the market and the process detailed here tries to
avoid the usage of equipment which is not readily available (Bubble bath,
UV lamps) etc. So the basic things that are required are

A copper clad PCB

Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)

Salt / HCL

A container / tank to hold the enchant

A Permanent Marker (Rs 10 - Rs 20)

Paint thinner / permanent marker remover

A Carbon paper

Hand drill

Scrub (a general Kitchen washing scrub will do)

Step 2: Getting the circuit ready

There are many ways to get a circuit ready for the PCB. I will cover ones
which can be done at home. First is simply drawing the circuit over a sheet
of commonly available graph paper with pencil. The second one is draw
the PCB on a computer with any software you like and print the circuit
onto a sheet of paper. Care should be taken while making the PCB layout
for checking of things like spacing between pings of components,

27
capacitors etc also the width of the copper tacks is important (for example
the main power tracks are much thicker as compared to other tracks).

Step 3: Transferring the circuit

Now take your copper clad PCB and scrub the copper clad side so that the
clean copper is visible (this helps in proper etching). Now take the carbon
paper and place it over the PCB and place the circuit which is on paper
over it. Now take a pencil and go over your circuit such that an impression
of the circuit is created by the carbon paper on the copper clad side. Now
take a permanent marker and trace over the marks left by the carbon
paper to draw the circuit. Let it dry and make two or three layers using the
permanent marker.

Step 4: Preparing the etchant and bath

Dissolve the 3 or 4 table spoons FeCl3 in water about 250 ml which is

about 45 Degree centigrade (Never do the opposite which is dissolve
water in FeCl3). Please remember FeCl3 leaves hard to remove stains and
is corrosive (Once me and my friend while etching accidentally dropped a
etchant full container on the Hostel floor, and believe me it was not a
pretty sight, had to spend a lot of time removing the stains which to tell
you the truth we could never fully remove)

anyway do take care of avoiding any contact with FeCl3 and if possible try
to wear gloves.

Step 5: Etching

Simply put the PCB you had prepared in the etchant with copper clad side
up (if its at about 45 degrees it will take about 25 minutes). And be
patient as it takes a while also please keep the container moving one in a

28
while so that the fresh layer is available for etching. If you see that the
etching process is slowing down add a little HCL (2 -3 drops) / salt (pinch)
this activates the FeCl3. People have come up with many ingenious ways
to do this at home like using speakers, aquarium pumps, multiple
containers etc. Please check the links provided at the end of this article.
After a while you will see that the copper is fully removed and the color is
same as the other side of the board. So now remove the board and wash it
with water now take paint thinner and remove the Permanent Marker
marks to revel the copper tracks.

Step 7: Drilling

Take a hand drill or any drill you can find and simply drill holes at places
where component legs have to go in.

Step 8: Finally

Finally if you have varnish simply paint the copper side to prevent it from
oxidation and you have a PCB ready which was built using commonly
available material.

PCB DESIGNING

The main purpose of printed circuit is in the routing of electric currents

and signal through a thin copper layer that is bounded firmly to an
insulating base material sometimes called the substrate. This base is
manufactured with an integrally bounded layers of thin copper foil which
has to be partly etched or removed to arrive at a pre-designed pattern to
suit the circuit connections or other applications as required.

29
 The term printed circuit board is derived from the
original method where a printed pattern is used as the mask over wanted
areas of copper. The PCB provides an ideal baseboard upon which to
assemble and hold firmly most of the small components.

From the constructors point of view, the main

attraction of using PCB is its role as the mechanical support for small
components. There is less need for complicated and time consuming
metal work of chassis contraception except perhaps in providing the final
enclosure. Most straight forward circuit designs can be easily converted in
to printed wiring layer the thought required to carry out the inversion cab
footed high light an possible error that would otherwise be missed in
conventional point to point wiring .The finished project is usually neater
and truly a work of art.

Actual size PCB layout for the circuit shown is drawn

on the copper board. The board is then immersed in FeCl3 solution for 12
hours. In this process only the exposed copper portion is etched out by the
solution Now the petrol washes out the paint and the copper layout on
PCB is rubbed with a smooth sand paper slowly and lightly such that only
the oxide layers over the Cu are removed. Now the holes are drilled at the
respective places according to component layout as shown in figure.

LAYOUT DESIGN

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 When designing the layout one should observe the minimum size
(component body length and weight). Before starting to design the layout
we need all the required components in hand so that an accurate
assessment of space can be made. Other space considerations might also
be included from case to case of mounted components over the printed
circuit board or to access path of present components.

It might be necessary to turn some components

around to a different angular position so that terminals are closer to the
connections of the components. The scale can be checked by positioning
the components on the squared paper. If any connection crosses, then one
can reroute to avoid such condition.

All common or earth lines should ideally be

connected to a common line routed around the perimeter of the layout.
This will act as the ground plane. If possible try to route the outer supply
line to the ground plane. If possible try to route the other supply lines
around the opposite edge of the layout through the center. The first set is
tearing the circuit to eliminate the crossover without altering the circuit
detail in any way.

Plan the layout looking at the topside to this board.

First this should be translated inversely, later for the etching pattern large
areas are recommended to maintain good copper adhesion. It is important
to bear in mind always that copper track width must be according to the
recommended minimum dimensions and allowance must be made for
increased width where termination holes are needed. From this aspect, it
can become little tricky to negotiate the route to connect small
transistors.

There are basically two ways of copper interconnection

patterns under side the board. The first is the removal of only the amount
of copper necessary to isolate the junctions of the components to one
another. The second is to make the interconnection pattern looking more

31
like conventional point wiring by routing uniform width of copper from
component to component.

ETCHING PROCESS

Etching process requires the use of chemicals. Acid resistant dishes and
running water supply. Ferric chloride is mostly used solution but other
etching materials such as ammonium per sulphate can be used. Nitric acid
can be used but in general it is not used due to poisonous fumes.

The pattern prepared is glued to the copper surface of the

board using a latex type of adhesive that can be cubed after use. The
pattern is laid firmly on the copper using a very sharp knife to cut round
the pattern carefully to remove the paper corresponding to the required
copper pattern areas. Then apply the resistant solution, which can be a
kind of ink solution for the purpose of maintaining smooth clean outlines
as far as possible. While the board is drying, test all the components.

Before going to next stage, check the whole pattern and

cross check with the circuit diagram. Check for any free metal on the
copper. The etching bath should be in a glass or enamel disc. If using
crystal of ferric- chloride these should be thoroughly dissolved in water to
the proportion suggested. There should be 0.5 lt. of water for 125 gm of
crystal.

To prevent particles of copper hindering further etching,

agitate the solutions carefully by gently twisting or rocking the tray.

32
 The board should not be left in the bath a moment longer
than is needed to remove just the right amount of copper. Inspite of there
being a resistive coating there is no protection against etching away
through exposed copper edges. This leads to over etching. Have running
water ready so that etched board can be removed properly and rinsed.
This will halt etching immediately.

Drilling is one of those operations that calls for great care.

For most purposes a 0.5mm drill is used. Drill all holes with this size first
those that need to be larger can be easily drilled again with the
appropriate larger size.

COMPONENT ASSEMBLY

From the greatest variety of electronic components available, which runs

into thousands of different types it is often a perplexing task to know
which is right for a given job

There could be damage such as hairline crack on PCB. If there are,

then they can be repaired by soldering a short link of bare copper wire
over the affected part.

33
 The most popular method of holding all the items is to bring the
wires far apart after they have been inserted in the appropriate holes. This
will hold the component in position ready for soldering.

Some components will be considerably larger .So it is best to start

mounting the smallest first and progressing through to the largest. Before
starting, be certain that no further drilling is likely to be necessary
because access may be impossible later.

Next will probably be the resistor, small signal diodes or

other similar size components. Some capacitors are also very small but it
would be best to fit these afterwards. When fitting each group of
components mark off each one on the circuit as it is fitted so that if we
have to leave the job we know where to recommence.

Although transistors and integrated circuits are small items

there are good reasons for leaving the soldering of these until the last
step. The main point is that these components are very sensitive to heat
and if subjected to prolonged application of the soldering iron, they could
be internally damaged.

All the components before mounting are rubbed with sand

paper so that oxide layer is removed from the tips. Now they are mounted
according to the component layout.

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 SOLDERING

This is the operation of joining the components with PCB after this
operation the circuit will be ready to use to avoid any damage or faiult
during this operation following care must be taken.

1. A longer duration contact between soldering iron bit & components lead
can exceed the temperature rating of device & cause partial or total
damage of the device. Hence before soldering we must carefully read the
maximum soldering temperature & soldering time for device.

2. The wattage of soldering iron should be selected as minimum as

permissible for that soldering place.

3. To protect the devices by leakage current of iron its bit should be

earthed properly.

4. We should select the soldering wire with proper ratio of Pb & Tn to

provide the suitable melting temperature

3.1.4 ADVANTAGES

Robot movement is automatic.

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 Fit and Forget system.
Used for long distance applications.
Defense applications.
Used in home, industrial automation.
Cost effective.
Simplicity of building

3.1.5 DISADVANTAGES

LFR follows a black LIGHT about 1 or 2 inches in width on a white surface.

LFR are simple robots with an additional sensors placed on them.
Needs a path to run either white or black since the IR rays should reflectfrom
the particular path.
Slow speed and instability on different LIGHT thickness or hard angles.

3.1.6 APPLICATIONS:

Guidance system for industrial robots moving on shop floor etc.

Industrial applications.
Home applications.

4. SOFTWARE TOOLS

4.1 KEIL SOFTWARE:

Keil compiler is a software used where the machine language code is written
and compiled. After compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code
which is to be dumped into the microcontroller for further processing. Keil compiler
also supports C language code.

36
4.2 LANGUAGE PROGRAM :

#include<regx51.h>

void main()

while(1)

if(P1_0==0&&P1_1==0)

P2=0x00;

if(P1_0==1&&P1_1==1)

P2=0xF5;

if(P1_0==0&&P1_1==1)

P2=0xF4;

if(P1_0==1&&P1_1==0)

P2=0xF1;

4.3 PROTEUS SIMULATION

37
 U1 +5V +12V
19 39
XTAL1 P0.0/AD0
38
P0.1/AD1
37
P0.2/AD2
18 36
XTAL2 P0.3/AD3
35
P0.4/AD4
34
P0.5/AD5
33
9
P0.6/AD6
32 16 8 U2
RST P0.7/AD7

+88.8
21 2 3
P2.0/A8 IN1 VSS VS OUT1
22 7 6
P2.1/A9 IN2 OUT2
23 1
P2.2/A10 EN1
29 24
PSEN P2.3/A11
30 25
ALE P2.4/A12
31 26 9
EA P2.5/A13 EN2
27 10 11
P2.6/A14 IN3 OUT3
28 15 14
P2.7/A15 IN4 GND GND OUT4

+88.8
1 10
P1.0 P3.0/RXD
2 11 L293D
P1.1 P3.1/TXD
3 12
P1.2 P3.2/INT0
4 13
P1.3 P3.3/INT1
5 14
P1.4 P3.4/T0
6 15
P1.5 P3.5/T1
7 16
P1.6 P3.6/WR
8 17
P1.7 P3.7/RD
AT89C51

4.4 RESULT

The objective of the LIGHT following robot is to follow a LIGHT on its given path
which is obtained for which it uses IR sensors which detects the LIGHT and sends the
information to LM324 comparator and then to H bridge which controls the working
of the wheels. Microcontroller controls the other operations.

5.CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

CONCLUSION:

In this project we have studied and implemented a LIGHT Following Robot using a
Microcontroller for blind people. The programming and interfacing of
microcontroller has been mastered during the implementation.

FUTURE SCOPE:

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 Smarter versions of LIGHT followers are used to deliver mails within office
building and deliver medications in a hospital.
This technology has been suggested for running buses and other mass transit
systems and may end up as a part of autonomous cars navigating the freeway.

REFERENCES :

[1].www.avrfreaks.com, Microntrollers, Atmel,10-

[2]. septiembre-2001. [11] www.atmel.com

[3]. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems Using Assembly and C By

Muhammad Ali Mazidi, Janice Gillispie Mazidi & Ro lin D. McKinlay

[5]. Atmel Corp. Makers of the AVR microcontroller

www.atmel.com

[6]. www.electronic projects.com

[7]. www.howstuffworks.com

[8]. Electrikindia.

[9]. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL

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