National Cheng Kung University

Institute of International Management

Research Method One

Asian Cosmopolitans: A Taiwan

Night Market Study

Student: Kezia Sarah Abednego

RA6047439

Instructor: Prof, Jeng-Chung Victor Chen.

January, 2017
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................... I

LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... IV

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... V

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 6

1.1 Research Background. .................................................................................... 6

1.2 Research Motivation. .................................................................................... 13

1.3 Research Objective. ...................................................................................... 14

1.4 Research Gap. ............................................................................................... 14

1.5 Research Contribution. ................................................................................. 15

1.6 Research Structures. ...................................................................................... 15

CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................... 17

2.1 Cosmopolitanism. .......................................................................................... 17

2.1.1 Cosmopolitanism as Geographic Orientation. ................................... 19

2.1.2 Cosmopolitanism as Mode of Managing Meaning. ............................ 19

2.1.3 Cosmopolitanism as Cultural Capital. ............................................... 22

2.1.4 Cosmopolitanism as Motivation. ........................................................ 24

2.1.5 Cosmopolitan as Consumer Orientation. ........................................... 24

2.2 Asian Cosmopolitanism. ................................................................................ 27

2.2.1 The Asian Cosmopolitan Identity Roots on the Confucianism (

and ). ............................................................................. 28

I
 2.2.2 Liquid Cosmopolitan Identity based on Popular Culture, Mass Media,

and Tourism or International Travel. .................................................. 29

2.2.3 An Imagine Cosmopolitan Identity. ..................................................... 30

2.2.4 Marginal Cosmopolitan. ..................................................................... 30

2.2.5 A Sense of One Fate. ........................................................................... 31

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...................... 32

3.1 Night Market. ................................................................................................ 32

3.1.1 History of Night Market. ..................................................................... 33

3.1.2 Taiwanese Night Market. .................................................................... 33

3.1.3 Night Market Dimension in Asian Perspective. .................................. 35

3.1.4 Night Market on Taiwanese Point of View. ......................................... 35

3.1.5 The Proliferation of Night Market and Other Form of Night Market. 37

3.2 Methodology. ................................................................................................. 38

3.2.1 The Environments................................................................................ 39

3.2.2 The Subjects. ....................................................................................... 39

3.2.3 Observation Result. ............................................................................. 40

3.2.4 Self....................................................................................................... 40

3.2.5 Self-Environment. ................................................................................ 42

3.2.6 Environment. ....................................................................................... 44

3.2.7 Others. ................................................................................................. 45

3.2.8 Environment-Others. ........................................................................... 45

3.2.9 Self-Others. ......................................................................................... 45

3.2.10 Self-Environment-Others................................................................... 47

3.3 Data Sampling. .............................................................................................. 47

3.3.1 Sampling Technique. ........................................................................... 47

II
 3.4 Data Analysis. ................................................................................................ 48

3.4.1 Analysis Process.................................................................................. 48

3.5 Preparation. .................................................................................................... 49

3.5.1 Language............................................................................................. 49

3.5.2 Etiquette. ............................................................................................. 49

3.5.3 Time and Location............................................................................... 49

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 50

III
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 2-1 Cosmopolitanism as Cultural Capital by Holt ............................................ 22

Table 2-2 The Masculine and Feminine Traits of a Cosmopolitan Identity................ 25

Table 3-2 The Classification of Indonesian Group. .................................................... 39

Table 3-3 The Salience of Common Cosmopolitan Characteristics. .......................... 41

IV
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1-1. Comparison GDP of United States, European Union, and Asia ................ 8

Figure 1-2. Population pyramid of the Asian and Pacific region in 1950, 2012, and

2050 ......................................................................................................... 11

Figure 1-3. The forecast of Asia as the biggest immigrant ......................................... 13

Figure 1-4. Flowchart of the study .............................................................................. 16

Figure 2-2. Cannons and Yapraks classification of consumers based on their

cosmopolitan and global orientation ....................................................... 26

Figure 3-1. Triangular of Asian cosmopolitan ............................................................ 40

V
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background.

For a long time, the world economic always connected with European contingent or

United States. Little connected the world economic with Asian contingent. In the early

1980, the world economy centered in Europe and United States. From 1997 until 1998

the world economy still dominated by the United States and Europe. In the beginning

summer 1997, the Asian Financial crisis happened 1 . The Asian financial was a

devaluation of currencies and some other events in the East Asia. The crisis first

attacked Thailand, which later spread, impacted other South East Asia like Indonesia

Japan, and South Korea. The other part of Asia such as Hong Kong, Philippine,

Malaysia, and Laos only affected by the slump. While Singapore, Brunei, Vietnam,

Taiwan, and China were less affected. Only slight loss demand and confidence in the

region.

The sign of Asia economy recovery has already started in 1980. The word of Asian

Century arouses in the mid until the end of 1980s, when the leader of People Republic

of China, Deng Xiaoping met Indian Prime minister, Rajiv Gandhi. Japans economy at

that time also started to grow, but unfortunately it shrunk suddenly because of the

1
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/asian-financial-crisis.asp, retrieved on November 25th, 2016

6
 explode of an asset bubble 2. The price of real estate and stock market were attacked by

inflation. Another sign was until 1996, Asia actually lured almost half of the capital

inflow to the developing countries. South East Asia keep maintained the high rate of

return so that the foreign investors keep invest. In a result, the asset price also run up.

The regional economies such as Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, and South

Korea suffered the high rate from 1983 to the early of 1993.

Not lingering in the anguish, Asia try to recover from the in-depth crisis. The main

reason why Asia can revive from their long sleep, was the return toward regularity

followed by the sudden collapse in global trade by the end of 2008. The recession of

United State generated an enormous fall in Asias GDP because the international

business and finance was stopped, but by Asia regulation and control, they generated

the enormous Asia growth. The second reason was Asia employed the comprehensive,

rapid, and forceful policy response in the Asia region, so that Asia can arise from its

adversity.

As in the figure 1.1 show, if in the 1980, the economies dominated by European and

United States, now the condition was reversed. In 2008, the Asia GDP led behind

European GDP and excel from United States GDP. At that time, the world great

recession attacked all over the world. But, Asia can bear it since they have already

prepared based on the Asia Financial Crisis.

2
https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/10/05/why-asia-is-the-new-europe/#comments,

retrieved on November 25th, 2016

7
Figure 1-1. Comparison GDP of United States, European Union, and Asia 3

The forecast from economies analysist become true. The Asian Century was

happened. The power of Asia cant be underestimated. Some economist believed in

2050, Asias GDP will dominate half of the world GDP (Kohli, Sharma, & Sood, 2011).

Since 2010, the proliferation of Asian politics and culture grow significantly. It must be

remembered the South East Asia (driven by India) also give a part for Asian Economies.

Started in 2010, India was included in 10 countries with high GDP excel from Canada 4.

While in the East Asia and Pacific, some country such as South Korea, China, and Japan

showed their emergent in economic sector.

3
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=Z4-US-EU-8S&start=1980,

retrieved on November 25th, 2016

4
http://money.cnn.com/news/economy/world_economies_gdp/?iid=EL, retrieved on November

25th, 2016

8
 Along with the emergence of Asian economy, the culture of Asia also awakes from

their long sleep. The awakening of Asian culture was marked by media such as Japanese

animation, Korean wave, Hong Kong film (the martial arts and action cinema), and also

Bollywood (Indian genre film). Besides from media itself, the enhancement passion to

study Chinese language also emerge. Chinese was the second most used language on

the internet follow by Japanese in fourth, and Korean in tenth on 2010 5. United States

people put some attention to learn in Chinese. They believe that with the growing of

Chinese economy, it will be beneficial for them to learn it.

Asia with the biggest contingent in the world, has a lot of diversities. With some

remarkable evidence of awakening Asia, the millennials are also emerging and become

one of highlights in the recent year. Marketers, manufacturers, and retailers are see those

Asian millennials will carry the economic in the coming decades. While, in the politic

area, these Asian millennials also capable to continue the previous era that were the

baby boomers. These Asian millennials will control the democratic purpose of

tomorrow.

Asian millennials are those who were born in the early 1980s until 2000s. The

Asian millennials only have little memory about some historical and influential events

such as People Power Revolution in the Philippines in 1986, protest in Tiananmen

Square in 1986, the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989, or the Asian financial crisis which

happened in 1997. They remember vaguely about those event (Chu & Welsh, 2015).

5
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm, retrieved on November 25th, 2016

9
 Asian millennials were shaped by the trends and the event at the last fifteen years.

Some historical note of recent events were the rising of China and the declining of

United State, the mass commercialization of Asian pop culture such as Korean Pop (K-

pop), and the experience of the speedy social change and economic growth (Chu &

Welsh, 2015).

United Nations World Population Prospects, estimated 1.4 billion of Asian

millennials, composed about 32.5 per cent of the total regions population 6. It comprised

nearly a quarter of Asias total population. Millennials generation is one of the biggest

generation in the Asia 7. As in year 2013, those who age 12 32 years old dominated

the pyramid population (figure 1.2). It is estimated that nearly 60 per cent of the worlds

millennials population will reside in Asia, which was appointed as the biggest

population came from either China or India 8. The Asian Millennials has already spent

about 35 per cent from US$600 billion, or about US$210 on the international travel 9

that other generation of Asians devote on international travel. The Asian millennials is

expected to grow 1.6 times to US$340 billion in 2020.

6
http://asia.nikkei.com/print/article/190672, retrieved on November 25th, 2016

7
http://www.yoursingapore.com/content/dam/MICE/Global/bulletin-board/travel-rave-

reports/Capturing-the-Asian-Millennial-Traveller.pdf. retrieved on November 25th, 2016

8
United Nations ESCAP, www.unescap.org (2013)
9
http://www.travelweekly-asia.com/Cover-Story/The-Age-of-the-Asian-Millennial-

Traveller/49584, retrieved on November 25th, 2016

10
Figure 1-2. Population pyramid of the Asian and Pacific region in 1950, 2012, and 2050 10

Chu and Welsh (2015) mentioned the characteristic of the Asian millennials. They

are expert using in technologies since the digital technology has already rooted in their

daily lives, attend universities in bigger number since the globalization era insisted

them to develop their cultural capital, live in the city, and more connected with the world

by using social media. Others characteristic of Asian millennials are self-confident,

broad-minded, positive, open-minded to change and know how to express themselves.

Because of their open-minded, they simply receive, accept, and adapt to the new things.

Chu and Welsh concluded these Asian Millennials mature in the blessings of

connectivity and globalization. Some also argues that the characteristic of Asian

Millennials are developed by the international integration and globalization. They

insisted to push people close with each other, making the spiritual life richer and more

various. The traditional values are no longer stuck in the national borders, but it can

10
http://www.unescap.org/stat/data/syb2013/A.1-Population.asp retrieved on November 25th,

2016

11
travel beyond the border. The inevitability globalization also leads to the novel value,

recognizing the ethnicities, especially by the millennials 11.

A research done by Pew Research Center mentioned that Asia will replace Latin

America as the biggest source of the new immigrants to the United States 12. In the figure

1-3 it shows that Asian will be the biggest immigrant in the United States for the next

50 years. In the inner of the generation itself, the Asian ethnic will more diverse. It

because the globalization insisted them to keep open their mind. The Asian Millennials

structure will various of race and ethnic 13. Immigration was the key of Asian Millennials.

11
http://asia.nikkei.com/magazine/20160728-GENERATION-CHANGE/On-the-Cover/Peering-

inside-the-mind-of-Generation-Y
12
http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/31/10-demographic-trends-that-are-shaping-

the-u-s-and-the-world/
13
http://www.nielsen.com/tw/en/insights/news/2014/millennials-much-deeper-than-their-

facebook-pages.html

12
Figure 1-3. The forecast of Asia as the biggest immigrant
Source: Pew Research Center

With the increase of globalization, mobility, and usage of technology, therefore the

cosmopolitan attitude or orientation emerges. Mau, Mewes, and Zimmermann (2008)

said that people with cosmopolitan attitude and values have 3 main attitude. First, they

will recognize the others because their values and human being is free from their

national affiliation. Second, they will share an open and tolerant world views which is

not limit by the national categories, but based on the interconnectedness, economic, and

political. Third, they are willing to support the transformation forms of the global

governance or supranational political regulation.

1.2 Research Motivation.

First, it because Asia has already emerged and recognized by the entire world.

Some scholars not only focus on the western area such as United States and Europe,

now they also pay attention towards Asian. In the cosmopolitanism area, mostly the

conception also come American or European-centric. Cosmopolitanism occurs in the

variety of societal form, so it is not only European or American centric, but also Asian

(Brown & Baogang, 2012). It is interesting to study the Asia cosmopolitanism since the

cosmopolitan attitude and orientation is align with the characteristic of the Asian

Millennials. Another reason why it is interesting to study Asian cosmopolitanism is

because cosmopolitanism accounted as one of the significant aspect in Asia mirrored in

the culture and politics, illustrated by the increasing of transnational cooperation in the

Asia and the dilution of the national interest (Delanty & He, 2008).

There is no previous research observe about Asian cosmopolitanism in

consumption therefore, it will be a novel topic in the marketing research. First this study

will try to elaborate the Asian identity and later will try to merge with the

13
cosmopolitanism concept to become the Asian cosmopolitanism. Furthermore, this

study will try use Taiwan night market as the media. Taiwan night market is one of the

unique culture that Taiwanese have. It represents the local community lifestyle and

cultural heritage (Hsieh & Chang, 2006). Night market itself has already migrated from

China, adapted from time to time and exist in almost Asia countries. Using night market

as the media, absolutely this study will be interesting

1.3 Research Objective.

The objective of this study is to explore in-depth, the characteristic of Asian

Cosmopolitanism in the consumption.

1.4 Research Gap.

There is few research study about Asian Cosmopolitanism and the characteristic

of Asian cosmopolitanism is not clear enough. The existence study from He and Brown

in 2012 regarding the Asian cosmopolitanism found the level of Asian cosmopolitanism

can be measured by the English language level proficiency, years of schooling,

household living standard, and the economic internalization. In the study, they

mentioned that the multilateral cosmopolitanism achieve support from the lifestyle

cosmopolitanism (international connection). Religion is not the aspect that related with

cosmopolitanism while tourism and international tourism are related with

cosmopolitanism. This study didnt give clear enough characteristic of Asian

cosmopolitanism. They only emphasized the multilateral cosmopolitanism, a view that

crucial common regional and global issues need to be addressed by the multilateral

institution beyond the national borders.

Research done by Delanty and He in 2008 about Asian and Western

cosmopolitanism perspective, aims to measure the shared interest of Asia and European

relationship and take a huge implication to the growth of novel centers of economics

14
and political power in Asia for Europeanization. They discuss further that the critical

cosmopolitanism approach proposes an alternative to the globalization and

internationalism oriented approach. Furthermore, they talk the Asian cosmopolitanism

in the politic area. They use organization like ASEAN (Association of South East Asian

Nation) and European Union as their media. They only spark the idea of cosmopolitan

engagement (showed by the relationship between Asia and Europe) characterized by

major concern with normative and moral issue, recognize the criticism of other culture,

see other as equal partners in cultural dialogue, positive culture encounter, and the

formation of overlapping identities and transnational identities. By the end, they also

did not give clear enough explanation about the Asian cosmopolitanism.

1.5 Research Contribution.

This study will explore cosmopolitanism as consumption behavior in the Asian

Cosmopolitan in-depth. The deep narration from the research findings can give new

contribution of cosmopolitanism literature especially in the consumption based on

Asian point of view.

1.6 Research Structures.

This study comprised of three chapters. The brief summary of this thesis

demonstrated as: chapter one will comprised of the study background, motivation,

research objectives, research contribution, and research structure. Chapter two will first

explore the concept of the cosmopolitanism, cosmopolitanism in the consumer behavior

area, the cosmopolitans, the idea of Asian identity, and the prior research of Asian

cosmopolitanism. Chapter three will defined the characteristic, history, dimension of

Taiwan night market, and preliminary data of to construct the Asian cosmopolitanism.

The steps of research structure are depicted in a figure below:

15
Figure 1-4. Flowchart of the study

16
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this part, this thesis will elaborate first about the concept of the cosmopolitanism,

starting from the history of the cosmopolitanism, several existing researches in the

cosmopolitan in the consumer behavior area, and the Asian cosmopolitanism from the

existing literature.

2.1 Cosmopolitanism.

In the beginning of the development, cosmopolitanism only mature in the moral

and political philosophy relating the universalistic orientation toward the world

principles. As the time goes by, cosmopolitanism become relevant with the social

science in the context of globalization and transnational movement. But, it cant be said

that cosmopolitanism have the same concept with transnationalism (Mau et al., 2008;

Roudometof, 2005). Cosmopolitanism seen as the 21st century phenomenon as the

global interconnectedness (Roudometof, 2005)

Mentioned by Roudometof (2005) and Cleveland, Erdoan, Arkan, and Poyraz

(2011) there is no identical or uniform interpretation of the cosmopolitanism. Merton

defined the cosmopolitanism as tendency of someone to orient themselves beyond the

boundaries of the local community. The concept of cosmopolitanism also emerged from

two perspectives. Western history (Appiah, 2010) and Chinese history (Chun, 2012).

In Western history, Appiah recalled the original signal cosmopolitanism, was little

hard. He elaborated more that Stoics, also begin the concept of the cosmopolitanism in

the early beginning of third century BC. Later, the first of cosmopolitanism dated at

17
least in the Cynic era (approximately fourth century BC). Cynic created the expression

of cosmopolitan as the citizen of cosmos. The cosmopolitanism showed the loyalty

toward the world community and against the world where someone has born. The

formulation was implied to contradict and reflect the general Cycnic doubt toward the

custom and the tradition. The citizens (or polites) belonged to a particular city (polis)

which they obliged to loyal. The word cosmos means to the world, not limited to the

earth, but to the universe. The idea of cosmopolitanism was exposed when Hellenism

(the national character or culture of Greece) expand to Asia (Delanty & He, 2008).

In contrast, the notion of cosmopolitanism in Chinese history appeared as Tianxia

(). This Chinese cosmopolitanism linked with the legendary of Five Emperors

( or wudi) and the historical experience of Three Dynasties ( or sandai).

The Chinese cosmopolitan space defined as the common area of the central China and

the remote areas in four directions and the concept of Chinese cosmopolitan space had

evolved in three aspects, that are the concept of natural geography, the concept of

political control from the central power to all the known remote area and concept of

religious and ethical authority in the early time.

Later, Kant was the initiators of cosmopolitanism in modern time (Delanty & He,

2008). He associated the cosmopolitanism with the universalistic orientation toward

world community. Kant write his idea in 1789. For Kant, it was principally a demand

for the identification of the universal rights. Kant argued that cosmopolitanism had the

significant impact in the human and social science as a technique to respond of the

globalization.

In the consumer behavior, there are some existing researches about the

cosmopolitanism in the framework. Kao (2007) classified them into the following lines

of paradigms: geographic orientation (Merton, 1957), mode of managing meaning

18
(Hannerz, 1990), cultural capital (Holt, 1998), motivation (Thompson & Tambyah,

1999), and as consumer orientation (Thompson & Tambyah, 1999). The research

reviewed the organized the cosmopolitan literatures in a consumption context base on

these categories.

2.1.1 Cosmopolitanism as Geographic Orientation.

The notion idea of cosmopolitan identity has already salient in the ancient

civilization since Tang Dynasty (Abramson, 2001). Merton (1957) described the

cosmopolitans are those who lived in the several different place. Because the

cosmopolitans live in several places, therefore, the experience that they have will

improved their attitudes toward the local identity. The cosmopolitans will exceed their

original culture identity. Their mind is oriented toward a broader identity like the nation

or the world. Merton also mentioned that the cosmopolitans are rootless which are not

belong to any one community. Merton (1957) mentioned the characteristics of

cosmopolitan. Regarding the interpersonal relationship, the cosmopolitans respect

friends that can talk and exchange information or idea with them. Second, regarding the

participation in voluntary organization. The cosmopolitans tend to participate in the

organization which they can apply their special skills or knowledge. Third regarding the

ways of influences, the cosmopolitans influence will rely on the prestige and skill in a

given domain or what they know. And fourth regarding the consumption of mass media.

The cosmopolitan more interest in national and international news, art and culture.

Merton emphasize that the cosmopolitans desire to have an identity but root in the town.

The identity of the cosmopolitans is defined by the geographic boundary.

2.1.2 Cosmopolitanism as Mode of Managing Meaning.

Contrast with Merton, Hannerz (1990) mentioned that individuals can have the

cosmopolitan orientation without traveling. Hannerz perceived cosmopolitanism as the

19
managing of the original culture and the other culture (the culture where the individuals

stay at that time). Culture is the distinctive construction of meaning and usually connect

to territories and individuals as self-evidently connect to particular such culture.

Hennerz emphasized that culture connects the interactions between social

relationship. In term of physical space, culture also connects but indirect and without

logical necessity. It is assumed that the less social relationship is limited within

territorial boundaries, the culture will be less too. Culture is brought as the collective

structure meaning by network which can expand to space, transnational or even global.

Culture is one aspect that overlap and blend.

Furthermore, Hannerz mentioned there are several types of cosmopolitan in his work.

The first type of cosmopolitan is pick other cultures (the culture where the

cosmopolitans stay) which suitable with themselves. The cosmopolitans negotiate with

the new meaning of their in-group identity by carefully blend the outgroup identities

with their original identity. In the long-term, the cosmopolitan will construct their

unique personal perspective based on an idiosyncratic collection of the experiences. In

the short-term, the selectivity also can operate situationally as well. The cosmopolitans

accept the other culture.

Second, the cosmopolitans will follow the out-group identity. However, the

cosmopolitans surrender to the out-group identity only imply the personal autonomy

vis--vis with the cosmopolitans in-group culture (their origin culture place), but cant

be equated with the cosmopolitans commitment to their out-group identity. It means

that the cosmopolitan may temporarily surrender to the out-group identity. The

cosmopolitans are free to switch back to their own in-group identity. The cosmopolitans

can swap or change between their in-group identity (their original culture) with out-

group identity (the culture where they live right now).

20
 The cosmopolitans are free to move in the world. Among the several culture which

they engaged, there will be one culture that probably the territorial kind, a culture covers

the sequence in the daily life in the community where the cosmopolitans live at that

time. The perspective of the cosmopolitans may built from the experience in the

different culture but may be built with one culture carried by the transnational network

rather than the territory (Hannerz, 1990).

Third, the cosmopolitans with local with the heart (Hannerz, 1990). For example,

there is an American and went travel around the world. He will choose Sweet n Low

in Tokyo, choose hotel in Madrid which has the king-size Beauty-rest mattresses, and

when in Mexico he will choose the Taco Bell. Those restaurants are American based

while the beauty rest mattresses is typical American hotel. This type of cosmopolitans

is a participant, even though he orients himself toward the worldwide identity.

The fourth type of cosmopolitan mentioned by the Hannerz was the purpose of the

home plus - Spain is home plus sunshine, India is home plus servants, Africa is home

plus elephants and lion. The plus This type of cosmopolitan is not open to the various

experience in other word the advantage of mobility is strictly regulated.

Hannerz mentioned that cosmopolitanism must requires the relationships until the

plurality of cultures. The genuine cosmopolitan is willingness to engage with the other.

To engage with the other, the individuals have to have a competence to see the other

culture. The cosmopolitanism need to have the readiness in the personal ability to make

a way into the other culture. Other than that, the cosmopolitans tend to immerse

themselves in other culture (the culture where h/she live right now), or free to do

something.

21
2.1.3 Cosmopolitanism as Cultural Capital.

In the consumption field, there is a difference between the cosmopolitans and

locals in term of the cultural capital. Cultural capital is defined as the individuals

artistic preferences or taste. This cultural capital can be gained from social interaction

with the cultural elite and formal education requiring the abstract thinking. Cultural

capital is polished and strengthen by occupations that involve symbolic production such

as fashion, advertising, and movie industries.

In 1998, Holt introduced the concept of cosmopolitanism as the cultural capital.

Holt classifies the six dimensions of taste recognizing the customer into the High

Cultural Capital group (HCC) and Low Cultural Capital group (LCC). Holt concluded

that cosmopolitans have the high cultural capital. Holts six dimensions of cultural

capital provide detail information about taste and consumption practices.

Table 2-1

Cosmopolitanism as Cultural Capital by Holt

Dimension High Cultural Capital Group Low Cultural Capital Group

Formal Aesthetic.
It refers that HCCs stress that
Material versus decorating is a highly
Formal Aesthetic personalized and personalizing
activity which showing the
sensibilities of the decorator.
Critical versus Critical.
Referential It refers that HCCs tend to
Reception of interpret the cultural texts in
cultural text critical and abstract term.
Idealism.
It refers that HCCs learn to stress It refers that LCCs will consume the
and value stage of aspect life.
Materialism They stress the subjective of
versus Idealism experience by creative,
contemplative, aestheticized, and used to live in the constrained
abstracted engagement with the
real world. HCCs consume the
Material.
It refers that LCCs tastes based on
the basic requirement. Most of LCC
elaborate taste in term of familiar
traditional style, which they have been
raised or follow the norms. They
choose based on comfortability and
reassurance
Reception of cultural text.
It refers that LCCs tend to interpret
based on the referential perspective
which is show directly the real
meaning.
Materialism,
product to show their economics
status. LCCs are alert what other
people see them it because they are
environment, they will see the good
life as having an abundance things or

22
Dimension High Cultural Capital Group Low Cultural Capital Group
product based on their ideal having luxurious good.
tastes. They dont like desire
associated with the products as a
motive to consume the product.
Cosmopolitan.
It refers that HCCs construct their
Local.
Cosmopolitan reference group based on the
It refers that LCCs will base their
versus Local national or global basis and they
preferences on acquaintance concept.
dont want local things or local
experience.
Individuality.
It refers that HCCs will create the
Consumer meaning based on their personal Local Identity.
subjectivity 14 as style. The way of reapproapriate It refers that LCCs create the meaning
individuality the meaning is less persuaded by based on their social norms. LCC will
versus Local the social norms. The favor to use the popular terms to describe the
identity remerge mars cultural object categories.
revealing their own subjectivity
(connoisseurship).
Self-Actualization.
It refers that HCCs will look for
the educational, diverse, and
Autotelic Sociality.
Self- informative experience allowing
It refers that , LCCs stress the
Actualization them to attain the competence,
enjoyment resulting from the
versus Autotelic acquire knowledge, and express
interaction with the others and
Sociality themselves artistically. The
environment.
intrinsic satisfaction of leisure
accumulated from learning,
achieving, and creating.
Source: Holt (1998)

It can be concluded that cosmopolitans quest for variety and exotic stimulation.

They show their personal style far from the near aesthetic norm. In consumption aspect,

cosmopolitans like to remerge elements of popular cultures, and make novel categories

of consumption culture.

14
Consumer subjectivity refers to in which consumers reappropriate the meaning based on their

interpretation (Holt, 1998).

23
2.1.4 Cosmopolitanism as Motivation.

Cosmopolitanism always linked with the traveling motif (Thompson & Tambyah,

1999). Hall (1996) linked the traveling motif as the cosmopolitan ideology, which can

be found in the colonial and patriarchal ideology. Thompson and Tambyah stated in 17th

and 18th century, the European cultural elites considered travel (or more common as

expert guide) to the place of classical antiquities and the artistic and architectural

achievement of Renaissance era as vital to provision the young men to responsible for

the empire. One important notion in here that cosmopolitan evolved to motivate the

contemporary consumer to travel the world outside of their own culture.

Thompson and Tambyah (1999) mentioned that expatriates are look for their

personal improvement by living in the foreign countries. They want to do something

unusual, looked for job advancement, and contacted the outgroup culture which is

reflected by their passion for novel residence and novel tradition. Since they live outside

their original home, they found that world and its people were different. This finding

was agreed by Appiah (2010). Since people were different, and the cosmopolitans know,

there is much to be learn from the differences. Scales were developed to measure

consumer cosmopolitanism (Cleveland, Laroche, & Papadopoulos, 2009; Kao, 2007)

2.1.5 Cosmopolitan as Consumer Orientation.

Besides Thompson and Tambyah (1999) defined cosmopolitanism as the

motivation, Thompson and Tambyah intertwining the consumption issue in their study.

Thompson and Tambyah concluded that the cosmopolitan consumer orientation showed

as the consumer struggle to create cosmopolitan identities, the current process

encompassing resolving tensions between masculine (pro-cosmopolitan) and the

feminine (contra-cosmopolitan). By obtaining the cosmopolitan identities, consumer

will tend to quest either it is social status to the cultural capital.

24
Table 2-2

The Masculine and Feminine Traits of a Cosmopolitan Identity

Masculine Traits (received from Feminine Traits (received from narratives

Travelling Narratives) of Dwelling
Self-Development through the Consumption
of Cultural Diversity At home in the body
Refers to the consumers affection to travel It refers to consumers longing to familiar
and a passionate to move transcend their physical-sensory aspect of their original
original cultural surround in order to live and home country. The longing come from the
experience the new culture. The participants socialization process resulting the
quest for authentic rather than highly consumption taste.
commercialized tourist experience.
Example: Australian expatriates missing
Example : Australian expatriates using public listening to ABC news (Australia news radio
transportation for exploring Singapore rather station) and drinking Bushells tea
than guided tour.
Being included in the local
Questing for Community
Refers to value consumer employ on feeling
It refers to consumers wish for steady social
included in the activities of local people in
relationship providing the emotional support.
the foreign culture where they live. It makes
With consumption interests and activities will
the customer getting inside with the local
have imperative meaning to build the
culture and strengthen their identity.
friendship network.
Example: Australian expatriates being invited
Example: Australian expatriate follow bridge
to celebrate family event with Singapore
community in Singapore
local colleagues
Encountering Cultural Difference
Refers to the consumer comprehend
intellectually value the cultural differences.
Ties to Home and Feeling out of Place
It refers to customers emotion that not
Example : Australian expatriates figure out
suitable, push the customers to quest product
the bargaining tradition in everyday
and service that reminds them to their
marketplace transaction in Asian countries
original home country.
Being Adaptive and Flexible
It refers to consumer experience to their
Example: On Friday night, usually the
consumption practices and their perspective
Australian Expatriates go to Hotel to meet
to different culture.
with other Australian Expatriates and drink
Fosters beer.
Example: Australian expatriates who stay in
Singapore give up to eat cornflakes and milk
replacing with fresh tropical fruit
Source : Thompson and Tambyah (1999)

Align with Thompson and Tambyah, Cannon and Yaprak (2002) also see

cosmopolitanism as the consumer orientation. They considered cosmopolitan consumer

as dated as the commerce itself. Their point of view about cosmopolitan is a world

25
citizen, where the consumers orientation is beyond their current culture or setting.

Cannon and Yaprak proposed two types of cosmopolitans, that are root on the local

context and not root on the local context. For those who do (the local cosmopolitans)

are not limited to their orientation. It means that they are not prejudiced or restrict their

outlook. They respect their own local relationships, culture, and the sense of belonging.

This local roots known as the extended self. Even though they respect their original

culture, it doesnt mean that they are ethnocentric in their consumption behavior. They

can accept the differences between their local culture and their own cosmopolitan

values. They can beyond their local culture without leave it.

Figure 2-2. Cannons and Yapraks classification of consumers based on their cosmopolitan
and global orientation
Source: Cannon and Yaprak (2002) and Henry, Caldwell, Blackwell, and Tulloch (2006)

In their paper, Canon and Yaprak also mentioned about several factors that

motivate consumers to cosmopolitanism value that are (1) competition, (2)

26
technological change, (3) global communications, (4) consumer experience, and (5)

satisfactions of lower needs. Those are the environmental factors. Besides that, Cannon

and Yaprak also mentioned about the psychological factors that push the

cosmopolitanism. The first is consumers are looking for the best quality. Since their

goal is higher, they become more aware towards the quality of one products. They do

not easily accept the local standard falling shortly in the existed broader global market.

Second, consumers are tending to look for the authenticity. When they see the real

things they dont look with the imitations. Cannon and Yaprak (2002) gives example

when some customers have already gone to Chinese restaurant to feel what Chinese

people eat, they do not want to eat at American food created in the Chinese style. It

doesnt mean that cosmopolitans do not like American pizza or American Chinese, but

the cosmopolitan want to call it what it is. It because cosmopolitans values integrate a

fundamental desire to build ones life around understanding what is the real world.

Third, cosmopolitan consumers start to develop their self-concept in the

cosmopolitan values. Cannon and Yapraks assume cosmopolitanism is a value of

orientation which is a persons dedication to be a non-judgmental and an objective when

processing the cultural experiences. The cosmopolitans can eat the food that they

probably dont like or stay in the unpleasant accommodation. But they still enjoy it since

it for their experiences. The cosmopolitans value requires the person to know it

(experiences) for what it is.

2.2 Asian Cosmopolitanism.

Based on the existing literature and characteristic of Asian, the researcher

classified the Asian cosmopolitanism into five aspects, (1) the Asian cosmopolitan

identity roots on the Confucianism ( or tianxiaweigong), (2) liquid

cosmopolitan identity in modern time primarily based on popular culture from mass

27
media, global brands consumption, and international tourism, (3) an imagined and

transient cosmopolitan identity, (4) marginal cosmopolitan, and (5) sense of one

interdependent common community.

2.2.1 The Asian Cosmopolitan Identity Roots on the Confucianism ( and

).

Confucianism plays important role in most of Asia region. The Confucianism

constitutes the basic culture in daily life of Asian. The notion of Confucianism in Asia

can be found in several aspects such as economic, politic, education etc. (Huat, 2004).

The Confucianism sticks to the flesh and blood of Asian. Even some urban consumer

oriented culture suggest to displace the Confucianism tradition, but some of the Asian

drama industry still show the presence of the family and the collectivism culture (Huat,

2004).

The notion of tianxia has already emerged starting in Xia Dynasty (Chun, 2012).

The tianxia itself rooted from Confucius (551 B.C 479 B.C) from the traditional

literature of liyundatong (). Since then, the concept has been embedded with

the development of Chinese geographic experiences, and the introduction of alien

culture. It can be seen in the transformation from the geographic experience to the

universal ethical integrities, and from China to the world as well as from the ethical

liberalism to legal liberalism. The transformation expressed in all peoples within the

four seas (the world) are brothers (sihaizhinei jie xiongdi or ), he

who commands peoples consent commands a world under the heaven (de renxin zhe

de tianxia or ), regarding China as one person and a world under the

heaven of one family (), building a common world under the

heaven (), and seeking justice for a world under the heaven ().

28
 The notion of can be found in the night market. Night market is a place

that open for all. Based on the researcher observation, the visitors were diverse. Not

only from the local people (the Taiwanese) but also foreign people can enjoy the lively

atmosphere of the night market. Those who had money and status also can come to

enjoy the night market, not only limited for those in the low social class. Even though

night market perceived as the marginal place, but in the night market all people are the

same. Everyone can enjoy.

2.2.2 Liquid Cosmopolitan Identity based on Popular Culture, Mass Media, and

Tourism or International Travel.

Different from Europeans cosmopolitans, the Asian cosmopolitanism mostly

spawned from the popular culture disseminated from mass media, global brand

consumption, or tourist traveling. People relying on mass media and global brand

consumption as venues for cultural exchanged of identities, ideas, images, religion,

language, music, lifestyle, sport, etc (T. y. M. Huang, 2006). The usage English as the

second language, household living standard, years of schooling and economics of

internalization were the greatest aspect of high level of cosmopolitanism in Asia (Brown

& Baogang, 2012). In addition, because of the increasing tourists traveling around the

world, the cosmopolitan lifestyle characterizes the Asia millennium as moving out of

their locals temporarily. Tourism and international travel are related to lifestyle

cosmopolitanism and critical cosmopolitanism. Those characteristics differ from those

cosmopolitans of the traditional diasporas moving permanently. Similar to European

cosmopolitans with several identities simultaneously (Ong, 1999), the Asian

cosmopolitans identity is more transient and fluid. Night market provided a venue for

the locals to indulge in authentic local experience, and for the foreign visitors to sample

cosmopolitan local experience.

29
2.2.3 An Imagine Cosmopolitan Identity.

Because of the motivation to pursue cosmopolitan identity relies primarily on

consumption or popular culture from mass media, the identity is result of imagination.

The Asian cosmopolitans construct their cosmopolitan project based on secondary

experience from the popular culture, product consumption, or organized tourist

traveling, therefore, the identity is based on their imagination. Complicated by the

relatively lower disposable income, they choose to consume counterfeit products as long

as they can be seen as wealthy class, which often associated with a cosmopolitan

image (Huat, 2004). The Asian cosmopolitans insist to consume beyond their real

income can afford. Pirating cultural content such as movie or TV series is also a means

to participate in the imagined modern global world (Kuotsu, 2013). In the night market

depicted in the consumption of artificial arcade game, artificial fishing, artificial casino

and counterfeit products.

2.2.4 Double Marginality Cosmopolitan.

Merton (1957) argued the cosmopolitans orient their mind to a broader identity like

the nation or the world. The cosmopolitans are rootless who are not belong to any one

community. Moreover, the Asian cosmopolitan are perceived as marginal since they are

the none major-group, the global cosmopolitans. Not only single but double marginality

since, the Asian in-group does not admit the Asian cosmopolitans. Mostly the Asian

cosmopolitans are those who were born in the millennials era who are free and dynamic,

up-to-date, trendy, and moving. Because of this, not all member in the group can accept

the cosmopolitan. Only younger generation, in this case the Asia Millennials, which

easily familiarize and accept the new culture and changes (Cayla & Eckhardt, 2008).

30
2.2.5 A Sense of One Fate.

The other way to see the Asia cosmopolitanism is based in the civilizational cross-

fertilization. This civilizational is the result of cross-cultural fertilization as against to

separate and autonomous civilizations. European liberalism, nationalism and Marxism

have already been engrossed by the Asian Civilization and internalized as one of the

crucial aspects of Asian cultures. The hybrid cultural form of Asia provides fertile

ground to develop cosmopolitanism. Asia has a stronger external dimension than the

Europe or western. The external means the collectivism culture that Asia has,

emphasizing the interdependent of the group rather than independent individuals. While

Europe and western tend to be more independent. The Asian cosmopolitan emphasize

the together cosmopolitans as an opposed to individual cosmopolitans.

The civilizational heritage of Asia and its early religions are the foundation of the

Asian cosmopolitanism. Sanskrit can be viewed as the Asian cosmopolitan language

equal with the Latin. The co-existence of Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and

Islam provides the foundation condition for Asian cultures to make dynamic and hybrid

societies. In Asia, cosmopolitanism is popular among the elite. The overlapping ethnic

cultures and identities suggests noticeable popular cosmopolitanism in the society. The

Asian cosmopolitans are interconnected by the Confucianism. Since the Asian

cosmopolitans believe that Asia is not limited by the geographic area, therefore emerge

the imagine community. The Asian cosmopolitans believe that they are in the same state

or level of development state or in the same time zone other part of Asian, and later they

made the imagined community. They also believe there is a cultural relationship in the

various Asian countries (Funabashi, 1992).

31
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

In this chapter, the researcher will show the conceptual development of Asian

cosmopolitanism. Researcher will use qualitative approach. The detail of the qualitative

methods will include the data sampling, sample size, data collection, data analysis as

well as the preparation for the study. At first, researcher will elaborate more about the

night market and its dimension. Second, researcher will use the conceptual model from

Gustafson (2001) to explain the Asian cosmopolitanism. Third, researcher will

elaborate the preparation of the study.

3.1 Night Market.

Night market defined as night time street market held mainly in urban or suburban

area which the main activities of the visitors are leisurely strolling, eating, and shopping,

rather than the daily market activities (Chen, Lee, Chang, Hou, & Lin, 2008). Whilst,

S.-O. Huang, Liou, and Tzeng (2009) night market is defined as a trading place for small

business vendor selling low-priced product and cooked food.

The popularity of night market born from the convenience they offered. Zhang and

Kuo (2004) mentioned some characteristics of night market which are the attraction,

security, and comfortability become more popular. The operational location of night

market usually in the residential area or in the neighborhood. Besides that, night market

provided a various options of shopping alternatives. Therefore, Hsieh and Chang (2006)

stated that night market is a place for various sellers. Price in the night market also

relatively cheaper since the visitors can bargain at some stalls (Chen et al., 2008).

32
 Furthermore, Ishak, Aziz, and Ahmad (2012) stated that the atmosphere of night

market was friendly and relaxed so that the visitor or the customer can enjoy the diverse

environment. Vendors (sellers in small stalls) in the night market also warmly welcome

the visitors so that the visitors from various background and culture can mingling and

interacting with the sellers.

3.1.1 History of Night Market.

The first presence of night market in China was over 1,000 years ago. It started

when Tang Government strictly imposed the operation of night market. Thus this

obligatory indicates that such activities had reached a certain level of sophistication by

that time. At that time, the economics activity was expanding powered by a decline in

the states regulation of Chinas economy and led to a subsequent lifting of restriction

on commercial activities.

Throughout the Sung Dynasty (960 - 1279), the existence of night market became

an established part of night life in all major cities, and could be found easily in the far-

off and quite area of the resident area. The night market operated past midnight and into

the dawn time (3:00am 5:00am) and the core area of market still remained opened 24

hours. Sung Dynasty night markets reflecting the wealth and infrequent economic

depression at that time. During that time, night markets have restaurant and brothels

therefore, the location was in main business streets and near notorious red light district.

3.1.2 Taiwanese Night Market.

The pioneer of Taiwanese night market started by small gathering of food vendors

in Japanese occupation (Yu, 2004). Taiwanese night market arouse as small, local

markets operating in popular urban gathering sites such as in the street corner, in temple

plaza, next to the early morning vegetables, and local museum. It is intended Taiwanese

people can introduce the other part of Taiwan as the authentic experience of local

33
culture. The night market will operate in the open air area. As time goes by, other

vendors such as traditional medicines and handicrafts joined to gather with the food

vendors and they established themselves as a part of the street culture that had been so

popular in Chinese society (Jordan, Morris, & Moskowitz, 2004)

During 1950s and 1960s, the night markets represented the urban migrant labors,

it because the night market just slowly arouse. They sell xiaochi () or finger food,

which popular in Southern Taiwan. In 1960s the night markets tried to sell the mass-

produced, inexpensive garments or clothing, shoes, ornaments, and toys (which made

Taiwan famous for economic miracle). The night market started to settle in the citys

edge. In 1970, the global recession improved opportunities for vendors to sell goods

produced by Taiwans family-based, small-scale light industries. The night market has

already spread into novel suburb and manufacturing centers in server satellite cities.

At the late on 1980, shoes and garment stores tried to set up their booth in the night

market leaving the traditional business. In this era, the vendors tried to use neon signs,

bright displays, and loud music store. In this year too, cafeterias were changed with

restaurant, sundry stores changed with gift shop, and low quality garments by

sportswear outlet. Watch, clock, and optical shops were so popular in the night markets

at that time. Taiwans economic at that time was surge so that various chains tried to

open the franchise. In this era, the night market network has already more efficient. The

changeover continued into 1990s, and many individually owned garment, shoe, and

sportswear business were replaced by chains selling higher grade merchandise.

That changeover, made Taiwanese night market change from spaces that primarily

sells finger food, handcrafts and services into modern centers of popular culture but

without leave its origanility. It means that, even though the night market has dynamic

characteristic follow the needs of the times, but Taiwan night market keep maintained

34
its authenticity by continue to be noted for their finger food specialities and position as

gathering, tourism destination, and leisure place.

3.1.3 Night Market Dimension in Asian Perspective.

There are four cultural principles underlying the night market based on Yu

(2004). They are night time which some Chinese believe time was used to leisure and

public interaction (Zerubavel, 1985) , shi () or space the concentration of buyers

and sellers in a confined space, food or xiaochi a major attraction of night market

since Sung Dynasty filling with cultural meanings and represent the local folk culture,

and vending/vendor the small-scale traders using modest equipment to sell

merchandise or services in the street or markets and divided into two categories that are

food vendor and non-food vendors (games and service, garments or accessories, and

daily necessities). Based on Yus work, researcher differentiate and add 3 more

dimensions that are temporality the conception of time and space as the cultural

entities (Kellerman, 1991), (renao or lively condition) an important key role

and feature for successful Chinese celebration and Chinese night market (hot and noisy) ,

and renqingwei ( or human flavor) the interaction between the vendors and

the visitors, showed by promoting product and service, bargaining product and service,

and making social relationship between the vendors and the loyal customer.

3.1.4 Night Market on Taiwanese Point of View.

Taiwanese people believe that some of the contradiction perception has never

shown in the media. There are three discourses that doesnt appear so that conflict can

be avoided. Yu (1995) mentioned that Taiwanese believe night market as a symbol of

disappeared Taiwans folk culture. Second, night market as a marginal place in

Taiwans culture system. And the last, night market is a leisure place which the informal

economy prospers.

35
 First, as night market is a symbol of disappeared Taiwan folk culture. Taiwan night

market existed near the temples, old neighborhoods, and local museums showing

Taiwan local culture towards foreign visitor. The description of night market depicted

as the unique retailing network serving Taiwans huge light industrial businesses. Night

market is the personification of traditional folk culture change into commercialization

of traditional Taiwan resulting the nostalgic and romantic image. Media reports,

article in the magazine, and short story included the news of night market. They told

what the night market look like and include the picture. The night market visitor not

only visit and take a look of night market but also involved into social relationship. Yu

(1995) mentioned that night market were promoted by Taiwan government and tourism

industry promoters as space which keep the authenticity of folk culture.

Second, night market as the marginal place in Taiwans culture system. Taiwanese

see night market as a place that has already been abandoned by the existence of

modernization, and considered as the illegal and disreputable activities. Night market is

seen as the consumer oriented culture. The Taiwan culture elite look down for the night

market as a result, Taiwanese night market offer sell low quality product and some fake

items. This point of view also makes the image of night market as the greedy Taiwan.

Taiwanese people also see the strolling night market usually derived from the low social

standing. The unavoidable of striptease show, gambling, and pornography is contrast

with the elegance of Chinese culture.

Third night market as the leisure place which the informal sector of economics

developed. Night market is known as the place which the small and medium scale

vendor to distribute their product. Because of night market is good place to distribute,

therefore, it appeals to storefront business and night market to form the retail network.

The department and the chain store tried to capitalize the crowd of night market by

36
allowing the night market open in their neighborhood or extending their branch near the

successful night market. One example is the Shin Kong Mitsukoshi department store

(or known as ). They invited the night market vendor to operate nearby the

Mintsu Road (Yu, 1995).

3.1.5 The Proliferation of Night Market and Other Form of Night Market.

The proliferation of night market influence by the Chinese diaspora. Known as the

trade diaspora, the Chinese sellers characteristics are high spatial mobility making the

sellers move from one place to another place, rely much on business trust and personal

relationship rooted in the common culture, family bound and the place of origin,

emphasize the medium and small scale of production. Usually, the Chinese sellers

usually gather in one crowded place making arise their existence same like the night

market (Zakariya & Ware, 2010). The Chinese diaspora has already involved in the

international migration for centuries (Ma & Cartier, 2003).

Night market as one of the Chinese diaspora product (Pottie-Sherman & Hiebert,

2013), shows their distribution mostly in South East Asia such as Singapore (Henderson,

2000; Ibrahim & Leng, 2003), Indonesia, Philippines (Milgram, 2014), Thailand, Laos,

Vietnam, and Malaysia (Aziz & Yeng, 2011) and other East Asia countries such as

Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan. It is because night market disperse toward other

countries with high population of Chinese ethnic (Yu, 2004). Night market has the

function as a source of economy for the small-scale entrepreneurs (S.-O. Huang et al.,

2009; Zakariya & Ware, 2010)

37
3.2 Methodology.

Researcher will propose the model representing the Asian cosmopolitanism based

on preliminary field observation result and pre-interview. The preliminary field

observations purpose is to validate the framework from Gustafson feasible or not in

this research. The result is the framework is feasible and can be use in this research.

The pre-interviews purpose was to know the similarity and dissimilarity of

participants home country night market with Taiwan night market and experience

participant got from Taiwan night market and home country night market. Researcher

interviewed Philippine, Indonesian, Malaysian, Vietnamese, Thailand, and Taiwan

student and non-student. Total of 9 respondents can be gathered.

This study draws the interaction between self, environment, and other. Night

market has already transformed from public space to the public place. Visconti et. al.

(2010) mentioned that place will give a meaningful experience by the consumed space,

same like night market which give the experience for the visitor (Chen et al., 2008).

Therefore, the researcher will propose a three-poles model based on Gustafson (2001)s

meaning of place, in order to explore the Asian cosmopolitanism in consumption.

Because these Asian cosmopolitans consume the night market outside their original

home country night market. Researcher will be divided into two part the environment

and the subjects.

After doing the preliminary field observation, later the researcher will continue the

second field observation and the in-depth interview. In the second field observation

researcher will see the interaction more deeply by self, environment, and the other.

Besides the field observation, the researcher will conduct the in-depth interview. The

interview will dig deeper the psychological reaction of Asian cosmopolitan and Western

cosmopolitan.

38
3.2.1 The Environments.

Night market is a common consumption space with local cultural practices in Asia.

Night market has already transformed from public space to the public place (Visconti

et al., 2010) mentioned that place will give a meaningful experience by the consumed

space, same like night market which gives the local experience for global visitors (Chen

et al., 2008). Therefore, this study chooses night market as the consumption venue for

investigation. The researcher observed two informants in the night market in Huayuan

Night Market () in Tainan on November 3rd 2016, and 6 informants in Dadong

Night Market () on November 22nd 2016. The researcher wanted to know the

current situation and condition of night market and the cosmopolitan dimension of night

market consumption.

3.2.2 The Subjects.

The second observation focused the consumption and interaction of Asian

cosmopolitan in night market either in-group interaction or out-group interaction (with

the environment of night market). There were two field visits to Tainan night market.

In the first observation, the researcher collected 2 Indonesian MBA graduated. The

second observation, the researcher collected 6 Indonesian MBA students based on

duration of stay in Taiwan and Chinese language proficiency.

Table 3-2

The Classification of Indonesian Group.

Duration stay in Chinese language

Name Year of Born/ages
Tainan, Taiwan ability
Adam 3 months Basic 1988/28 years
Rick 3 months Basic 1987/29 years
Robin 9 months Advance 1992/24 years
Lily 1.5 years Intermediate 1993/23 years
Henry 1.5 years Basic 1993/23 years
Kay 8 years Advance 1988/28 years

39
Source: Researcher information

3.2.3 Observation Result.

Based on the observation of the researcher, the researcher draw the interaction

between self, environment, and other. The three-poles model that researcher propose

based on Gustafson (2001)s meaning of place. As in figure 3-1, researcher change the

three-poles model to represent the Asian cosmopolitanism in consumption area.

Figure 3-1. Triangular of Asian cosmopolitan

3.2.4 Self.

The Asian cosmopolitans showed the same characteristics as their western counter

parts that have been documented in literatures (Table 3-3). However, the informants in

this study expressed a cautious follower type of cosmopolitans. The Asian

cosmopolitans tended to follow whats going on before know exactly what it was. When

40
the Indonesian group decided what to eat, they just choose based on which vendor had

the longest queue. Their consumption was influenced by other group behavior. It might

be because risk avoidance attitude. Another evidence based on the observation, the

Asian cosmopolitans were a passive observer, a night market flneur. The night market

flneur are those who only observed rather than participating directly in the night market

drama. The night market flneur come from the idea of urban flneur sparked by

Thompson and Arsel (2004) defined as those who flourish on the perpetual motion of

the crowd and continual buzz of the conversations, but they do it only for voyeuristic

manner. Their psychological motivation is worthy of further investigation.

Table 3-3

The Salience of Common Cosmopolitan Characteristics.

Descriptions of cosmopolitanism/cosmopolitans Reference

The cosmopolitans will understand the intellectual
value where they live and later they are attempt to be
in the group where they live. The reason the
Involved in the
cosmopolitans want to attempt is they want to
place where Thompson and
experience by implemented the intellectual value in
the Tambyah (1999)
their consumption practices.
cosmopolitans
stay
Observation: The Indonesian group captured that most
of Taiwanese went by bicycle or motorcycle, therefore
they decided to go to night market by bicycle.
The cosmopolitans are quests for a wider range of
ideas and interaction. Therefore, the cosmopolitans
are open enough to receive unconditionally the
information, idea, or value because they are desire to
merge themselves with the other cultures; a desire to
The
engage with the Others. If the cosmopolitans have Merton (1957);
cosmopolitans
already engaged, they will maintain the broad network Hannerz (1990);
easy to
of links and personal contacts outside the near Cannon, Yoon,
absorb
community. McGowan, and
external
Yaprak (1994);
information,
Observation: Henry told that he has already gone to Featherstone (2002)
idea, and value
the night market with the Taiwanese local friends,
because the Taiwanese friend will introduce the story
of the night market. Since at that time he didnt know
anything what to eat but he want to try explore the
night market, he asked his Taiwanese friend to help

41
 Descriptions of cosmopolitanism/cosmopolitans Reference
him suggesting the best food to eat.
Because the cosmopolitans also quest for the
difference and explore the experience the panoply of
transcultural diversity therefore, the cosmopolitans. It
is because the cosmopolitans perspective toward
diversity, transcend the coexistence of culture in the
individual experience. The cosmopolitans virtue seen
as the appreciation of the cultural diversity of the
global community.
Hannerz (1990);
Observation: Thompson and
The Asian
1. Rick and Robin bought the foreign taste that Tambyah
Cosmopolitans
were American Style and Japanese style. (1999);Cannon et
appreciate the
While Rick and Robin reasoned that jipai al.
diversity
vendor combined Taiwanese original jipai (1994);Featherstone
with foreign style that appealed to them to (2002)
try. Previously, they have already tasted the
original but since it was different therefore
they want to buy and taste it.
2. Accepting others suggestion and trying new
things in the night market which the
cosmopolitans havent tried before. Henry
bought the oachian or or Oyster
omelet after being suggested by Kay.
The cosmopolitans are tending to consume not only
art, but also food, music, interior, popular culture,
hobbies, and sport. They will consume beyond their
tradition and consumer authentic (the original style of
Yoon, Cannon, and
the object). It is because their orientation beyond any
Consumption Yaprak (1996);
their original setting or culture.
beyond the Holt (1998);
border Cannon and Yaprak
Observation: Three participants bought jipai (fried
(2002)
chicken cutlet). Adam bought the original taste of jipai
because jipai is the authentic food of night market. He
would feel incomplete if he went to night market but
didnt consume this staple product..
Source: Researcher observation

3.2.5 Environment.

There are seven dimensions based on Yu (1995) that are times, temporality, space,

food (the xiaochi), renao, renqingwei, vendor (which divided into food vendor and non-

food vendor). Later based on the observation, the night market dimensions added four

more that is the dynamic, hybrid, authentic local, and imagined night world.

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Dynamic.

The changing vendors offerings at night market reflected the current popular

consumption culture with modification to suit the lower social class cosmopolitan

imagination. The dynamic dimension evidenced the demand of cosmopolitan identity

by the lower social classes. In Yus 1995 work, he mentioned about several vendors

such as Chinese herbal medicine, video or audio tape, furniture, antique, auction, etc.,

which belonged to traditional Taiwan cultural categories. Currently, those vendors

were not available anymore, and were replaced by mini salon manicure vendor, 3C

products, and warehouse products, etc., which were the popular categories of current

time. The game vendors also modified the rules to make the game more interesting,

and the prizes were a truly reflection of current global popular culture icons, e.g.

Pokmon.

Hybridity.

Related to dynamic is hybridity. In the night market, there were several local foods

remixed with other countrys cuisine style. For example, jipai, the local authentic food

of Taiwanese night market, was combined with American tartar sauce, Japanese teriyaki

sauce, and Korean kimchi. The black pepper bun, which originally filled with pork and

beef, was added with Italian pizza filling and Carbonara potato filling. Dynamic and

hybridity resulted in a unique fusion culture of contemporary cosmopolitan night market.

Authentic Local.

Despite the remix of local and foreign culture, night market still kept its authentic

local identity. Many of the night market vendors still offered traditional xiaochi, the

traditional Taiwanese snack food, and xiaochi was still the most sought for experience

for most local visitors. Although some of the presentation had been modified to reflect

a modern identity, the underlying cultural value remained. For example, gambling have

43
been one of the major cultural category in night market and was often accompanied by

pornographic performance. Those vendors providing gambling were still available,

however, the hostess of the vendors were properly dressed young girls.

An Imagined Night World.

The night market was a place not only selling local and global hybrid food, low

quality fake products, but also providing artificial experience, such as shooting or

archery game, arcade game, fishing game, and casino game. The night market provided

a venue for cosmopolitan imagination. It was suitable for those who could not afford to

buy and enjoy the original products or services, but still wanted to participate in global

cosmopolitanism.

3.2.6. Others

Researcher classified friends, other visitors (locals and international), vendor, and

mendicant as the Others. The informants went to the night market either with their

friends from the similar cultural background or with local Taiwanese friends. Another

aspect from Others are the visitors either it is local Taiwanese or the international visitor.

Night market with its diversity are open for everyone who wants to come enjoying the

night market experience. Last aspect is the mendicants. There were many mendicants

at night market. The mendicants were monks, disabled, or senior people. The disabled

usually asked for the donation in the remote area in the night market. While monks and

senior people usually asked for the donation in the discoverable place, for example at

the entrance or exit location. Some of the local and foreign visitors sometimes showed

their mercy toward those mendicants by cash donation. Mendicants could be seen as

one type of vendors that sought exchange for sympathy.

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3.2.7 Self-Environment.

Cosmopolitan Nostalgia.

The most obvious in the interaction between self and environment was the

cosmopolitan nostalgia. The informants had visited (product or experience) the night

market in their home country and felt connected with Tainan night market based on

the similar culture. They bought the food that reminded them the food in their home

country night market even though it was modified. The consumption in the past being

recalled again in the needs of the present which maybe have some impact on the next

realities (Boym, 2002).

3.2.8 Environment-Others.

The relationship between the environment and others depicted as the enhancement

of selfs authentic experience. Based on researchers observation, there were 3

evidences. First when there was a group of Mainland China took a photo of giant

barbeque vendor, Henry was spurred to take a photo of a giant barbeque vendor to

upload it. Henry argued that the other group can take a picture, therefore he could take

the picture too. Second when the researcher see a group of Korean enjoy the night

market environment, the researcher also felt the enjoyment of the night market. Another

relationship between the environment and the Others is the reciprocal relationship. The

environment and the Others will work together to awake the cosmopolitan nostalgia.

The environment will be incomplete without the presence of the Others and the vice-

versa.

3.2.9 Self-Others.

Besides interaction with the environment, the informants also interact with

others. As mentioned above, the Asian cosmopolitans will go as a group, reflecting

the interdependent self-construal of the Asian cosmopolitans. The informants not only

45
interacted with others in the group, but they had the sense of belonging to the group.

For example, when the Indonesian informant group went to Dadong night market, Adam

was going to buy xiaochi in the night market but could not read or speak in mandarin.

Robin, who could speak Chinese fluently, volunteered to helped his friends explaining

the menu and ordering the food from the vendor.

The second about using the foreign language. All of the Indonesian informants

tried to use foreign language (in this case Chinese) to interact with other customers

(local Taiwanese) or with the vendor. Even only basic conversation, but they are willing

to use the basic Chinese.

Third, because the Asian cosmopolitans are a follower type, they easily influenced

by the other and they will follow the suggestion and the action of the others. For example,

when the Indonesian group decided to went have a dinner. There was an ambiguity

where to eat. Then Robin said to eat based on the most queue vendor, and everyone

obey his suggestion. Another example was when Kay bought to buy the jianping, the

other five were following bought the jianbing. Kay was only a passive observer not

directly participate in the night market drama, but his action influencing Robin, Lily,

and Adams decision to buy the jianbing.

Fourth, about the cosmopolitan nostalgia. Based on the interaction of self and other

it can gain the cosmopolitan nostalgia. For example, when Lily bought the Taiwanese

pancake she said it look like Indonesian pancake sold in Indonesian night market. In the

cosmopolitan nostalgia tucked a cultural interconnectedness, showed by the Taiwanese

pancake vendor can interact with the Indonesian informant, because he knows the

existence of Indonesia style pancake and even the flavor being sold in Indonesia.

46
3.2.10 Self-Environment-Others.

Mise-en-scene.

The idea of mise-en-scene came from Rofel et. al (2007) refers to a miniature of

the real world. It also be seen from the existence of the international vendors. The

Mexican guy cooked the burritos and interacted with the Mexican customers, who

seemed to frequent the vendor. On the other hand, Taiwanese sold German pork knuckle

or takoyaki or roti prata. The sellers were a Taiwanese even they sell international

dishes. The night market gave a chance for the actors (the cosmopolitan) to express what

they like in the night market.

Expand to the Virtual World.

The relationship between self-environment-others are connected by the customer

involvement. The Asia cosmopolitan rely heavily on the usage of social media. Based

on the observation, when one of the cosmopolitan came to the Dadong night market, he

used the feature of live record and uploaded it. The responses were pretty fast. Outside

the three elements know that he was at that Dadong night market at that time. Besides

that, they help the role of marketer. When the cosmopolitans upload the picture, the

curiosity of the other will increase and asked whether where the picture taken and

sometimes what kind of food being uploaded.

3.3 Data Sampling.

3.3.1 Sampling Technique.

In this study, researcher will use purposive sampling technique permit the

researcher to use self-judgment selecting the participant that will best enable answer the

research objective. Researcher will employ the self-judgment to choose the participant

to explore the Asian cosmopolitanism in consumption area. The participants that

researcher select come from China, Taiwan, Philippine, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam,

47
Indonesia, Thailand, Japan, United States, and Netherland. Researcher choose China

because the original night market is in China.

Besides that, researcher choose from western contingent, because United States

and Netherland also have similar form of night market named as market square.

Researcher assumed that western cosmopolitans are passive engage. It means that they

not really want to try something new. Also researcher want to know how the westerner

reach the marginal place.

For the interview technique, research will employ a semi-structured interview

because the method is fit to explore the fact deeply (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill,

2009). First researcher will create some open questions based on the conceptual

development and screening the questions to be used in conducting the interview. Some

additional questions can be asked during the interview to gain novel idea or aspects that

look over from the conceptual development or the relevant literature mentioned in the

chapter two. Data from the participant will recorded by the audio recorder, camera, or

note taking.

3.4 Data Analysis.

3.4.1 Analysis Process.

In the analysis process, the collected data from audio files will be translated and

transcribed into the documents. Researchers will find the characteristic of Asian

cosmopolitanism in consumption area based on their psychology. The researcher

recounts the characteristic consumption pattern of participant case by case while

presenting the statements and pictures or video taken in the night market.

48
3.5 Preparation.

3.5.1 Language.

The researcher will interview using English because all of the participants come

from Asian country. Researcher will use simple words for the daily conversation. The

reason is to hinder misunderstanding problem between the researcher and the

participants, and also to gain the data as deep as possible.

3.5.2 Etiquette.

Researcher will wear decent cloth and aware of manner either action or words

while interviewing the informant because these two factors will affect the data obtained

(Saunders et al., 2009). Researcher will send consumer behavior form before doing the

interview. This form to guarantee to keep their right of privacy. Moreover, researcher

give right to all participants to reject responding any question asked, in order to avoid a

chance of achieving a deviate information.

3.5.3 Time and Location.

The interview will be conduct in Tainan night market, to represent the Taiwan

night market. The night market can be Dadong night market, Wusheng night market, or

Huayuan night market, depend on the day researcher will interview the participant. The

researcher will observe the consumption behavior of Asian cosmopolitan in a group in

the night market and later do the interview. Either observation or the interview will be

done in least pressure, so that the characteristic can be significant seen and not being

contrived

49
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