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2
VFR Met
Contents
Why Get Met?............................ 4
How This Booklet
Will Help You.............................. 6
Get some GUTS..............................6
Gather..............................................6
Understand .....................................6
Think ahead.....................................7
Self-review.......................................7
Before Flight............................... 8
What Do You Need to Gather?........8
Building the Picture.......................10
UTC Time Converter .....................12
Radar Imagery...............................15
Satellite Imagery ...........................18
Infrared Satellite Imagery..............19
Putting it all Together.....................20
Reports and Forecasts...................20
SIGMET.........................................21
ARFOR ..........................................22
The 17 ARFOR Areas....................23
Aerodrome Forecasts....................24
Aerodrome Reports.......................26
Interpreting Webcams............ 30
Understanding......................... 32
Understanding Weather................33
What is a GARFOR?......................34
Before You Go.......................... 36
Cloud Base and Visibility ...............36
Turbulence.....................................36
Escape Options.............................37
Reserve Fuel .................................37
Terrain Avoidance..........................37
Passenger Plan..............................38
Inflight Decision Making......... 39
Post Flight ............................... 40
CAA Web Site Practice Makes Perfect ........... 42
See the CAA web site for Civil Aviation Rules, Advisory Circulars, Rules of Thumb........................ 44
Airworthiness Directives, forms, and more safety publications. Quick Reference Met Info....... 46
Abbreviations.................................46
Every effort is made to ensure that the information in this booklet is accurate and up-to-date at the time
of publishing, but numerous changes can occur with time, especially in regard to airspace and legislation.
Readers are reminded to obtain appropriate up-to-date information.
Why Get Met?
A full Met briefing is essential, it keeps Weather is a significant contributing factor in
you safe and legally you must be familiar air accident statistics, and all too often these
with the current Met conditions before accidents could have been prevented by the
you go flying. pilot having all the Met information available
and understanding how it affects their flight.
A comprehensive Met briefing is one of the
most important tools in your planning and There are several practical steps you can
decision making kit. But beyond getting the take to ensure your understanding of the
briefing, its critical you understand it, and weather, and how it changes, is as good as
can build a mental picture of what effect it can be:
the weather will have on your flight. Become familiar with all the places
you can get weather information
4
Use charts, satellite pictures, and There are many sources of background
radar images to get an overall picture Met information, including AIP NewZealand,
of the weather the CAA and MetService web sites, and
many books on aviation weather and weather
Be clear about how the weather
in general.
affects aircraft and your intended flight
5
How This Booklet Will Help You
This booklet will help cement your Met knowledge, encourage your continued learning, and
help you to turn Met information into a usable picture you can take on your flight with you.
You may have been to an AvKiwi Safety Seminar where we have encouraged you to get
some GUTS and were going to do this again because great inflight decision making
will save your life, and bad inflight decision making can kill you.
Gather Gather
Understand
6 Think ahead
Are you flying the right procedure at the
correct altitude?
7
Before Flight
What Do You Need to Gather? The information available and the functions
Met information is all around you. Just as provided include: a situation statement,
important as getting the official information, satellite pictures, weather radar, analysis
is taking notice of the weather around you. and prognosis charts, low cloud and rain
forecasts, SIGMET, VAA, ARFOR, TAF,
General Met information is available
METAR, METAR AUTO, and SPECI reports.
on television and radio. The internet is a
rich source of Met information, both for Internet Flight Information Service (IFIS)
aviation Met and general Met, particularly
www.ifis.airways.co.nz
www.metservice.co.nz. Webcams are also
a popular source of weather information, IFIS is provided by Airways New Zealand.
but they can easily lead you astray if you This is the online location for obtaining
arent careful. NOTAMs, current ATIS reports for attended
aerodromes, and filing flight plans. There
So long as the information is current, all
is a link at the bottom of the IFIS to the
sources of Met information can be used
MetFlight GA site.
to help you build the big picture. Specific
aviation Met briefings are available from What to Get
the following sources:
As there are so many sources of weather
information available, the first challenge is
MetFlight GA
simply knowing where and how to look for
MetFlight GA is the best source of pre-flight
the weather information you need. Below is
Met information.
a list of the Met information you should use
metflight.metra.co.nz when preparing for and flying a VFR flight.
The MetServices MetFlight GA web site A guide to the abbreviations used in this
provides aviation Met for non-commercial booklet is on page 46.
use and is intended primarily for general
aviation and flight training organisations.
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Aviation Met Information
When to Type of Aviation Weather
Coverage and Content
Use Information Product
NZ Situation
NewZealand and Tasman Sea
Surface weather charts
Overview the big picture of the major
Satellite pictures and
weather elements
radar imagery
TAF
Departure, destination and
METAR/SPECI
Aerodrome alternate aerodromes
METAR AUTO
forecasts and reports
BWR*
SIGMET
Update of preflight
Warnings, Amended TAF
information, hazardous
In-flight and METAR/SPECI
weather, and destination and
Aerodromes METAR AUTO
alternate aerodrome updates.
BWR*, ATIS*, VAA
9
Building the Picture
Just like they do on the TV weather, start
with an overview of the whole country and
surrounding seas. You can get this from
assessing surface weather charts, satellite
pictures, and radar images. These will give
you the overall situation.
10
Air Masses The air masses reaching New Zealand are
A tropical air mass flows from the generally maritime polar or maritime tropical.
tropics, and is therefore warm and Temperature differences support the
generally moist. development of low pressure systems.
A polar air mass flows from the polar Surface low pressure systems usually have
regions, and is therefore cold. fronts associated with them. A front is the
zone between two air masses that contain
A maritime air mass flows over a large
different combinations of the three basic
sea area, and is therefore moist.
elements temperature, wind, and moisture.
A continental air mass flows over a
A front marks the boundary between two air
large land area, and is therefore dry.
masses and appears on the weather map as
a line with triangles or semicircles attached.
1008
30 H 30
1021
1016
H
1023
1000
L
997 1008
40
40 1008
1016
1000
1008
1000 991 L
1000
993
50
140 150 160 170 E 180 W 170 160 50
11
UTC Time Converter Surface Weather Charts
UTC Standard Time Daylight Time One of the primary ways of representing
(NZST) (NZDT) the weather is the use of surface weather
0000 1200 1300 charts. It should be the first thing you look
0100 1300 1400 at to build your mental picture of the current
0200 1400 1500 and expected weather conditions.
12
Reading Synoptic Charts
1024
30 1016 1020 30
1016
1012 40
40
1008
1000
1004
996
996 1000
50
140 150 160 170 E 180 W 170 160 50
Remember that the charts are showing the Cold fronts (lines with blue triangles)
nominal weather pattern at sea level. represent the encroachment of cold air
The isobars connect areas of equal pressure under a warmer moist air mass. This forces
with 4Hpa spacing, and the closer together the warmer air mass to rise, creating
the isobars, the windier it will be. The direction cumuliform clouds that can result in light
of the wind is generally parallel to the isobars: to heavy showers, as well as reduced
Anti-clockwise around a high pressure visibility and lower ceilings during showers.
area (a ridge or anticyclone), and clockwise The passage of the front itself will create
around a low pressure area (a trough). more intense, and possibly longer duration,
shower activity depending on the speed of
Important features to note are the
the front.
frontal systems. This is where different
air masses clash resulting in poor or After the passage of the cold front the air
hazardous weather conditions. is usually clearer; the wind direction having
13
backed to the southerly quarter. If there is ocean, especially to the south, then the area
sufficient instability along the frontal zone, of the country exposed to it will experience
a line of active cumuliform clouds and CB showery and, depending on the intensity of
(cumulonimbus/thunderstorms) can form the flow, windy conditions.
along the front.
Conversely in these conditions, leeward of
Warm fronts (lines with red semicircles) the mountain ranges will be dry and more
represent the encroachment of moist settled because all the moisture has been
warm air over a cold air mass. Generally removed from the air mass windward of
warm fronts move slower than cold fronts the mountains. But leeward areas can
because the warm air mass is less dense still be very windy. For example, a strong
than the cold air mass it has to rise over. southwesterly on the West Coast passing
Cloud ahead of the warm front is mostly
over the Southern Alps; it becomes an
stratiform, and rainfall gradually increases as
even stronger, turbulent, and very dry
the frontal zone approaches. There is often
northwesterly on the east coast of the
low cloud preceding the passage of a warm
South Island. This same affect can be
front and then clearing and rapid warming
experienced leeward of all of the mountain
usually follows. If the warm air mass is
ranges in New Zealand.
unstable, CBs may be embedded among
the stratiform clouds ahead of the front, How fast are the systems moving? Have a
and after the front passes showers may look at a series of prognostic charts to get
continue. Essentially warm fronts are much a feel for how fast any given weather
less well defined than cold fronts. system is moving. Because New Zealand
lies in the mid-latitudes surrounded by
Occluded fronts (lines with both blue
ocean, the speed of the systems can vary
triangles and red semicircles) represent
areas where a cold front overtakes a warm greatly. A frontal system may pass through
front. A variety of weather is associated in less than an hour or take the best
with an occluded front, with CBs possible. part of a day. Similarly, anticyclones can
Isolated occluded fronts often remain sometime lock onto the country and be
for a time after a low pressure system present for weeks, and low pressure areas,
has decayed. Cloudy conditions with lower especially remnants of tropical cyclones
visibility and patchy rain or showers are can pass quite quickly.
the result. It can be hard to imagine what a surface
Less obvious perhaps than frontal systems, chart looks like in reality, so we have
but equally important, are the overall developed an animation to help. You can
airflows shown on the charts. For example, view this on the WX Matters section of the
if there is a sustained airflow from the CAA web site www.caa.govt.nz/avkiwi.
14
Rain Intensity
Possible hail
Heavy
Moderate
Light
NZ radar image.
Radar Imagery
Met radar operates using the same energy to return to the radar, the distance
principle as any other radar. A beam of to the object (in the case of weather radar,
electromagnetic energy is emitted from a precipitation) can be determined. There is
focused antenna. If the beam encounters a mathematical relationship between the
any precipitation, either water or ice particles' characteristics and the power of
particles, some of the energy of the beam the returned beam, and this is used to plot a
is returned to the radar. The antenna also colour-coded image that shows precipitation
acts as a receiver, and by timing how long intensity. Generally, the stronger the echo,
it takes for the pulse of electromagnetic the heavier the precipitation.
continued over >>
15
Weather radars use a wavelength of about Attenuation
5.5 cm. This is much less than ATC radar,
which has a wavelength of about 23 cm,
because the size of objects being detected
by the weather radar is much smaller.
Orographic Screening
Like any other primary radar, the beam
cant go through mountains. It can be
raining heavily on the West Coast, but the
Christchurch radar wont pick this up.
This is known as orographic shadowing.
16
Virga is precipitation not reaching the ground. the algorithm can fail to detect that a signal
If you only looked at the image at the bottom is ground clutter.
of page 16 you might think its raining in If you only looked at the radar image to the
Wanganui. METAR AUTO reports during this left, you might think theres an area of heavy
time didnt report any rain. However, there precipitation off the North Canterbury coast
was a report of moderate icing in the area. (Pegasus Bay area) perhaps even
The radar is detecting ice in the cloud and/ a CB!
or virga below the cloud. Below the freezing
level, the ice will melt and any precipitation
(ice or rain) falling from the cloud must have
evaporated before reaching the ground.
Ducting
17
in sea state often associated with a wind the surface. For example, snow will appear
change. This is particularly pronounced brighter than grass and thicker clouds are
with southerly changes moving through brighter than thin clouds.
Cook Strait. Sea clutter is mostly removed On MetFlight GA, one image is available
automatically, so wont usually appear in the per hour. The major advantage of visible
image that gets displayed on MetFlight GA. imagery is that you can see where the
Meteorological radar can detect insects, clouds actually are. This should help when
particularly around sunset. Also, smoke you read an ARFOR. If the ARFOR says
from fires has been detected. Radar returns AREAS BKN CUSC 2000 TOPS 5000,
from these can be used by forecasters to track you dont really know where the AREAS
wind shifts, in the absence of precipitation. BKN are. Is there cloud on the pass I want
to fly through? By taking a look at the most
The key point is that you need to use radar
recent visible satellite image you will be able
in conjunction with other information, such
to answer this question. Of course, by the
as satellite imagery, reports and forecasts.
time you get there, the situation may have
changed! Using a loop of a series of visible
Satellite Imagery
satellite images will help determine if areas
Satellite images come from a geostationary
of cloud are dissipating or growing.
satellite orbiting the earth at approximately
You can also gather information about the
36,000 km. Geostationary means it stays in
type of cloud. Stratiform cloud appears
the same position relative to the earth, so is
smooth, while cumuliform appears lumpy.
always looking at the same area. The satellite
measures emitted or reflected radiation from Remember, these images tell you nothing
the earths surface, clouds, precipitation, about cloud bases or tops you need to look
water vapour and other components of the at other information, such as METAR AUTOs,
atmosphere. Modern satellites measure many TAFs and ARFORs.
different channels of the electromagnetic The major limitation of visible satellite
spectrum, but what we are interested in imagery is that it is only available during
here are the visible (shorter wavelength) daylight hours.
and infrared (longer wavelength) channels.
Example:
Visible Imagery In the image on page 19, dark areas are
Incoming solar radiation is reflected by the cloud free. There is a solid area of cloud in
earths surface or cloud and bounces back the western Bay of Plenty, you can see it
out to space where it is detected by the along the eastern side of the Kaimai Range.
satellite. The images produced show albedo There is also cloud around Taranaki, although
(how good a surface is at reflecting light) of there appear to be breaks in it. Cloud is
18
Infrared Satellite Imagery
Some of the incoming radiation from the
sun is absorbed by the earth, and re-radiated
at longer wavelengths. Much of this infrared
radiation is absorbed by clouds and water
vapour in the troposphere, and is then
re-radiated. Satellite radiometers measure
the radiance of the emitting surface.
Radiance is the rate of emission of
electromagnetic energy per unit area of a
surface, and it depends on the temperature
of the surface. A simple way of thinking
about this is the difference between white
hot and red hot the object that is white
hot has a higher temperature.
19
Example:
In the bottom image, we can see that there
is an area of colder cloud tops (around -40C)
over the south of the South Island, but
there is no information about the depth of
the cloud layer. We can also see an area
of relatively warm cloud tops along the
South Islands West Coast, and what
appears to be a cloud-free area off the
Canterbury coast. One of the major
limitations of infrared satellite imagery
is that if the cloud tops are a similar
temperature to the land or sea, they will
not be easy to distinguish. A particular
example of this to be aware of is when
there is fog or stratus. This will be a
relatively thin layer, with a temperature
very close to the surface below (sea or
land). At night, when fog and stratus are
more common, its presence cannot be
determined from infrared images alone.
However, once the first visible satellite image
is available, the areas will become obvious.
20
how to decode them. The CAA has produced SIGMET (Significant
a number of resources to help you do this: meteorological information)
the Met section on our web site SIGMETs provide information on observed
which is regularly updated: or forecast hazardous weather conditions,
www.caa.govt.nz/Meteorology particularly thunderstorms, severe
the WX Matters online course turbulence, volcanic ash, tropical cyclones,
at www.caa.govt.nz/avkiwi severe icing, and severe mountain waves.
the Met Decoder app available from the They are issued for an FIR region, are valid
Apple Store or Play Store (for Android) for four hours (or six hours for volcanic ash
this tool will decode the information you and tropical cyclones), and are reviewed
paste into it from MetFlight GA after three hours or when further information
is available, especially from PIREPs and
the Met Info poster which has
AIREPs. They are sequentially numbered so
abbreviations and ARFOR areas
it is easy to work out whether you have the
the New Zealand Cloud Types poster most current SIGMET or not.
which explains different cloud types
The height of SIGMET phenomena included
the Weather Card which contains in SIGMETs is given in feet above mean
abbreviations, UTC converter, and sea level.
aviation weather products, this will
fit in your AIP Vol 4
You can order any of these products free A guide to the abbreviations used in this booklet is on
by emailing info@caa.govt.nz. page 46.
NZZC:
NZZC SIGMET 3 VALID 170028/170428 NZKL-
NZZC NEW ZEALAND FIR SEV ICE FCST WI S4130 E17448 S3927 E17540 - S4329
E17200 - S4130 E17448
7000FT/FL180 MOV E 10KT WKN
To make the affected areas easy to understand, a graphical version of current SIGMETs,
called a Graphical SIGMET Monitor (GSM), is expected to be available in April 2015.
21
ARFOR (Area forecast)
Area forecasts are for a specific region. The ARFORs are the primary source for
They are intended for domestic VFR flights enroute weather conditions, particularly
below 10,000 feet, and are issued twice visibility and cloud. They also provide
daily between 0530 and 0610, and between forecast winds and temperatures at altitude
1130 and 1210 local time. Cloud base and to help you choose cruising levels, and cloud
freezing level are forecast in feet above base and tops to give you an indication of
mean sea level and wind direction is in the Met conditions for VFR flight. General
degrees true and wind speed in knots. weather conditions are set out and any
Temperatures are in degrees Celsius. expectation of ice and turbulence is stated.
Interpret this information with the local
There are 17 ARFOR areas, and they are
terrain in mind, considering its effect on
designated by a two letter code. A map
the forecast weather.
of the ARFOR areas is also included on
the MetFlight GA web site, and in
AIP New Zealand, Vol 1, GEN 3.5.
22
The 17 ARFOR Areas
FN Far North
FN
ED Edgecumbe
TA Tamaki TA
TK Te Kuiti ED
TK
CP Central Plateau MH
CP MH Mahia
SA Sanson
SA
DV Dannevirke
DV
TN Tasman
ST
TN ST Straits
WW Windward WW KA
KA Kaikouras
PL PL Plains
AL
FD Fjords
AL Alps
CY
FD
CY Clyde
GE
GE Gore
23
Aerodrome Forecasts and visibility information contained in the
There are two types of aerodrome forecast, forecast is only applicable to the aerodrome
a TAF and a TREND. and a small area around it. It should not
be used for assessing visibility in the
TAF wider geographical area or even between
for a specific aerodrome and presented in A TAF can have the terms TEMPO, BECMG,
code. Cloud base is forecast in feet above FM, TIL or PROBxx to indicate a change in
aerodrome level and wind direction is in conditions within the forecast time.
degrees true and speed in knots.
The TEMPO when used in a TAF is used to
An aerodrome forecast applies only to describe expected temporary fluctuations in
an area within 8 km of the centre of the the meteorological conditions, which reach or
aerodrome. Practically, this means the cloud pass specified threshold values and last for a
TAF Flowchart
CAVOK
TAF or
TAF AMD or Location Issue time Validity Wind
TAF COR
Visibility Wx
This flowchart shows the elements that make up a TAF, with an example.
24
period of less than one hour in each instance.
Such fluctuations take place sufficiently
infrequently for the prevailing conditions
to remain those originally forecast.
Aerodrome VC
TREND
8 km 8 16 km
A TREND is a forecast, valid for two
hours, attached to the end of the METAR
(NZWP and NZOH only) and in METAR
AUTO for NZAA, NZWN and NZCH only.
It states any significant changes from those
described in the METAR. While the TREND This diagram shows the horizontal
is valid it supersedes the aerodrome TAF. extent of Met forecasts and reports,
and the area covered when the term
VC (vicinity) is used (see page 26).
Significant Significant
changes to variations RMK QNH MAX
mean from mean and MIN
Cloud conditions conditions
FM or 2000FT QNH
FEW040 BECMG PROB30 PROB%
BECMG
(30 or 40%) WIND MNM 1009
20010KT MAX 1018
Wind
Visibility
6000 Visibility
Wx
CAVOK
SHRA Wx
Cloud
Cloud
25
Aerodrome Reports There are a number of aerodrome reports
An aerodrome report applies only to an area used for aviation. Generally, there are
within 8 km of the centre of the aerodrome, four types, METAR, METAR AUTO, ATIS
except when VC (in vicinity of aerodrome) is landing and takeoff reports issued by ATC,
used, when it refers to the area between 8 and basic weather reports (BWR).
METAR Flowchart
Message
Location Date / time AUTO Wind
Type
Visibility
6000
METAR NZAA 232200Z 03020G30KT
2000W
This flowchart shows the elements that make up a METAR, with an example.
METAR NZWP 232200Z 03020G30 6000 2000W SHRA SCT006 OVC010 19/17 Q1014
TEMPO 2000 RADZ BKN008
26
The only aerodromes that still issue manual and NZCH). This indicates that the visibility
METAR are Whenuapai (NZWP), Ohakea reported is the visibility at the measuring
(NZOH) and Milford Sound (NZMF). station, and it cannot be assumed to be the
same for the entire area.
METAR AUTO (Automatic meteorological
A METAR AUTO doesnt include cloud type.
aerodrome report)
They do include present weather at the
A METAR AUTO is a routine meteorological
aerodrome, but cannot report weather in
report provided by an automatic weather
the vicinity of the aerodrome (between 8
station for a specific aerodrome, also
and 16 km away). However, if lightning is
presented in code. A METAR AUTO is
detected in the vicinity of the aerodrome
issued every 30 minutes (on the hour
then VCTS (thunderstorm in the vicinity of
and half-hour) day and night.
the aerodrome) will be included.
The visibility figure in a METAR AUTO will
At aerodromes where METAR AUTO are
have NDV (no directional variation available)
issued, no SPECI reports are provided
added to it. However, NDV is not included
because METAR AUTO are issued every
in METAR AUTO from NZAA, NZWN,
30 minutes.
CAVOK
Temp /
QNH Trend RMKS
Dew point
Wx Cloud
27
SPECI (Aerodrome special routine ATIS (Automatic Terminal
meteorological report) Information Service)
The only remaining aerodromes that issue The ATIS is a continuous plain language
manual METAR, and consequently SPECI, broadcast of the current conditions at
are Whenuapai, Ohakea, and Milford Sound. an aerodrome, on a discrete frequency.
ATIS reports are the New Zealand version
A SPECI is a METAR issued outside
of a routine landing and takeoff report.
the routine issue time of a METAR.
The presence of a SPECI should alert ATIS are issued by ATS at controlled
you to changing conditions generally aerodromes. Cloud base is reported in
worsening. But dont rely on worsening feet above aerodrome level and wind
conditions automatically leading to a SPECI direction in degrees magnetic.
if the change coincides with a routine
METAR issue time, then there will just be
a new METAR and no SPECI.
28
BWR (Basic Weather Report) A BWR doesn't, and isn't intended, to meet
A Basic Weather Report is a verbal international standard reporting formats.
weather report, or comment, on present Examples of a BWR are:
weather conditions intended for aviation
an aircraft operators ground staff
use. The person providing a BWR is
passing a landing report to their
required to have been trained to provide
incoming aircraft at an aerodrome
them. The holder of any pilot licence,
unattended by air traffic services
or similar qualification, is considered
appropriately trained for this. an individual, normally working outside
aviation, conveying current information
about local weather to an aircraft
operator or aircrew
29
Interpreting Webcams
Webcam photographs at Taupo Airport taken over the course of a day. (www.taupoairport.co.nz)
There is a large number of public webcams Webcam image quality and usability varies
available on the internet that, when used considerably depending on type of camera
carefully and in conjunction with aviation and lens used.
weather forecasts and METARs and METAR
AUTOs, can help VFR pilots form an overall Tips and hints:
weather picture. Some of these cameras Always check imagery times to make
are at airports (eg, Taupo) while others sure they are current. Some sites may
such as the Desert Road cameras at update infrequently and some may
www.centralwaikato.co.nz can provide display old images for long periods when
useful enroute information. either the cameras or the communication
links have failed.
MetService is progressively installing
webcams at aerodromes to assist with Where there are webcams on the routes
its aviation forecasting, and provides or aerodromes you use regularly, look
images from some of these on MetFlight at the imagery frequently (even on days
Commercial and MetJet only at this stage. youre not flying) so that you become
30
familiar with the hills and other landmarks Be wary of cameras that only point
you might want to use to assess visibility in one direction. It may look like a
and cloud base. If youre unfamiliar with beautiful day, but there could be
the aerodrome, or route, the images a front approaching from right behind
may also help you build a picture of local the camera. Web sites with cameras
terrain and aerodrome layout. pointing in several directions, or with
cameras that you can manipulate
Learn to recognise when some cameras
yourself, are the best. For example,
switch to infrared mode at night and
www.tekapotourism.com has multiple
note the different appearance of these
cameras showing views in multiple
images. Although infrared images
directions and an interactive live video
provide useful night-time imagery it can
camera, that allows you to select from
be more difficult to assess visibility and
20 preset views and watch while the
the state of the sky.
camera moves to that view.
Be conscious of the effect of different
Depth of field characteristics sometimes
lens types (wide and narrow angle)
mean that mist, light rain, or low visibility
on your assessment of terrain, cloud
dont show up in the picture.
amounts, bases, and visibility.
Personally assess each web site on
When using airport webcams, always
its merits dont just rely on the
verify cloud bases with those reported
recommendations of others.
in METAR and METAR AUTO reports
(where available).
31
Understanding
The previous sections have been about It takes continual practice and experience to
gathering the data. Now we want to develop your skill in evaluating and applying
enhance your understanding and help weather information. We encourage you to
you to think ahead. take every opportunity to learn about how
the weather affects your local area and the
Were getting into the GUTS of it now!
areas you fly in.
To understand your weather you need:
Lets look at what creates weather and how
some basic understanding about
it affects your flight, then look at collating
national, regional and local weather
the data using tables, and then creating a
patterns, which you now have from
picture with that data.
the previous sections and your
own research,
32
Understanding Weather There are example weather briefings for you
to use to fill in the tables, or alternatively you
When you have gathered all the Met
can enter the data for your flight. We also
information you need, and spent time
have a blank version if you would like to
understanding the weather, then its a
print it off and fill it in by hand.
good idea to spend a little more time to
build a picture of what you can expect You can use this tool to prepare for any of
on your flight. your flights, then print out your tables and
take them with you.
Initially transferring the information from the
reports and forecasts into a table can help to Once you have done that, you can then
show you patterns and trends. We are going move on to building the picture.
to show you how to take it a step further Now we are going to show you how to create
and turn this into a picture. a picture of the expected weather over time,
Firstly we have developed a tool to help you or for a flight. Weve called it a GARFOR.
collate your Met information into tables
Met Planning Tables, available on the
WX Matters section of the CAA web site at
www.caa.govt.nz/avkiwi, or at the back of
this booklet.
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What is a GARFOR?
A GARFOR (a term we've made up) is a
graphical representation that you draw
yourself from the information in an ARFOR.
It will show what conditions you can expect
on your flight. Its a way of turning the coded
weather reports and forecasts into a picture to
help visualise what the weather will be like for
your flight.
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35
Before You Go
Cloud Base and Visibility Given the speed of the aircraft, expected
You should be thinking about visible light conditions, terrain, cloud base and
moisture all the time. Ask yourself the alternates available, are the reported and
following questions about cloud base forecast visibility conditions sufficient for
and visibility: this trip?
Do I have reliable cloud base Are there conditions that could reduce
information? visibility during the planned flight?
Look for a small and/or decreasing
If I have to fly lower to remain clear
temperature/dew point spread.
of clouds, will terrain be a factor?
Are cloud base and visibility values
If I do, how much ground clearance
above my personal or club minimums?
will I have?
WIND
ROTOR
CLOUD
ROTOR ZONE
36
Consider the wind direction and the effect significantly limit your options. More fuel
terrain will have on the winds behaviour. means access to more alternatives.
A small angular change in the direction the Having plenty of fuel also spares you
wind is striking terrain can make a significant the worry (and distraction) of fearing fuel
difference to turbulence, making it greater exhaustion when weather has already
or lesser. Are the winds at departure and increased your cockpit workload.
destination likely to be affected by a sea or
The GAP booklet, Fuel Management,
land breeze?
has a lot of good information about fuel
Also take into account surface heating planning and management, and a Time in
leading to convective turbulence. This will Your Tanks planning card is also available.
be particularly noticeable on warmer days. Email info@caa.govt.nz for a copy of these.
Some important questions about turbulence:
Escape Options
Always have some escape options.
Know where you can find good weather
that is within your aircrafts range and
endurance capability. Where is it?
Which way do you turn to get there?
Terrain Avoidance
How long will it take to get there?
Know how low you can go without
Reserve Fuel encountering terrain and/or obstacles.
Knowing where to find good VFR weather Consider a terrain avoidance plan for any
have enough fuel to get there. Taking weather at or below the mountain
only minimum legal reserve fuel could tops or ridge lines
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a temperature-dew point spread of Passenger Plan
4 degrees C or less There is a real danger in focusing on the
any expected precipitation gain of reaching your destination compared
with the losses associated with not going,
operating at night.
or turning back. For example, extra costs,
All visual navigation charts have maximum
missed appointments, disappointed
elevation figures (MEFs) in each quadrangle
passengers. Dont fall into this trap look
(see picture below). The MEF is determined
for the gains from the alternative action
by locating the highest obstacle (natural
being alive and safe with an intact aircraft
or man-made) in each quadrangle, and
(with probably very relieved passengers),
rounding up to the nearest 100 feet.
having avoided the potential major loss
Ensure your training has included terrain (and cost) of bent metal, injuries, or worse.
awareness or mountain flying if considering
For this reason, your weather planning
operating in the mountains. See the
should include briefing your passengers
Mountain Flying GAP booklet.
(and anyone waiting at your destination).
In addition, many GPSs include a feature
If you jointly plan for weather contingencies,
showing the minimum safe altitude, enroute
and brief your passengers before you board
safe altitude, or minimum enroute altitude,
the aircraft, you will be less vulnerable to
relative to the aircrafts position. If you have
the pressure to continue in deteriorating
access to such equipment, be sure you
weather conditions.
understand how to access and interpret
Discuss the vagaries of light aircraft trips
the information about safe altitudes.
with your passengers, in particular:
Most importantly, make sure any database
Departure and arrival times cannot be
that your GPS uses to convey safe altitudes
guaranteed the weather may have
is clearly maintained and certificated or
other plans.
approved by an aviation regulatory authority.
The weight of baggage they can bring is
limited anything over the limit will be
left behind.
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Inflight Decision Making
Remember its all about getting some GUTS In these situations, pilots need to be wary
which we explained on page 6. of complacency because it can negatively
influence the decision making process of
There are many variables that can influence
even the most capable aviators. A common
the successful outcome of any flight and
action that often leads to an accident is
hinder sound decision making. For example:
the determination to continue with a bad
the compressed time-frame when
landing approach, rather than going around
travelling at speed
and setting up again.
the changeable nature of the weather
In any stage of flight, you need to:
the challenges of a pilots own currency
Gather, Understand, Think Ahead and then
a homing pigeon-like instinct to Self-Review.
return home.
As pilots, we gather information by
These can and do undermine the decision- scanning the environment, we understand
making process. Their combined pressure information by comparing the information
can grow with each passing minute and with our mental models, and we use those
every drop of fuel consumed, all the while models to make decisions, take action and
taxing the human mind. then importantly, review.
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Post Flight
After a challenging flight, you may want Pilots sometimes fly into bad weather simply
nothing more than to go home and unwind, because they lack relevant experience and
but immediately after the flight is the best do not recognise weather cues that identify
time to evaluate how good your weather a flight safety hazard. Make it a point to learn
decision making was. This sort of evaluation something from every weather encounter.
can increase your weather knowledge At the end of a challenging flight, take a few
and understanding. minutes to mentally review the flight and reflect
on what you learned from this experience.
What weather conditions/hazards existed, and how did they affect the flight?
Turbulence / Winds
Aircraft Performance
40
How did the conditions compare Which source(s) of enroute weather
with the information you got in the information proved most useful,
preflight briefing? most accurate, or most relevant
41
Practice Makes Perfect
Another way to develop your weather As your cloud-reading skill develops, start
experience and judgment is simply to trying to correlate the temperature, dew
observe and analyse the weather every day. point, humidity, and time of day to the types
Constant practice will help improve your of clouds that have formed. Take note of
judgement and interpretation skills. the wind and try to visualise how it wraps
around the tree or whips around the corner
When you look out the window or go
of a building. This exercise will help you
outside, watch the clouds. What are they
become more aware of wind at critical
doing? Why are they shaped as they are?
points in your flight.
Why is their altitude changing? This simple
habit will help you develop the ability to Weather is a fact of life for pilots.
read clouds, and understand how shape, Developing your weather knowledge and
colour, thickness, and altitude can be expertise is well worth the time and effort
valuable weather indicators, and help you you put into it, because weather wisdom
anticipate and predict likely flying conditions. will help keep you and your passengers
comfortable and safe in the skies.
The NewZealand Cloud Types poster is an
excellent resource. This is available at most We have developed an app, the Weather
aero clubs or training organisations, Diary, to help you focus on the weather for
or order your own copy from the CAA, up to 10 days before you go flying. You can
email: info@caa.govt.nz. get this for free from the Apple Store or the
Play Store (for Android).
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43
Rules of Thumb
Local Winds
New Zealand meteorology is strongly dominated by local
wind effects, for example, anabatic winds (uphill), katabatic
winds (downhill), sea and lake breezes, and venturi effects.
Try and understand any effect that enhances a katabatic
or anabatic wind, for example a sea or land breeze.
Monitor the surface wind you never know when you
might need to know it!
1008
Forecast Accuracy
1021
H A forecast is just that it is NOT a guarantee. Apply some
30
1016
common sense and a margin to the forecast. The conditions
1000
L
H
1023 could be better or worse than forecast.
997 1008
50
140 150 160 170 E 180 W 170 160 50
Pilot Reports
Pilot reports are a very useful, but underutilised, report.
If you come across weather that is different from forecast,
and that can be better or worse, give an AIREP over the
FISCOM frequency. You could be someone who benefits
from anothers AIREP. Typically they include information
on hazardous conditions like windshear or turbulence.
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QNH Changes
Rapid decreases in QNH, either actual or forecast, normally
mean strong winds and bad weather is on the way. A rapid
increase can indicate an imminent improvement.
2000 ft Wind
The 2000 foot wind is a good indicator of the gradient flow.
A significant difference between the surface wind and the
2000 foot wind can indicate local wind effects, possible
turbulence, and possible windshear.
True or Magnetic
Make sure you know which reports and forecasts use
degrees true, and which use magnetic to report wind
direction. As a general rule, anything provided directly
by an air traffic controller will be in magnetic.
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Quick Reference Met Info
Abbreviations
//* Weather not detected due sensor COR Corrected
temporarily inoperative CU Cumulus
///* Cloud is detected D Downward tendency (RVR)
(unable to determine TCU/CB) DP Dew point temperature
////* Visibility not reported DR Low drifting
Light DS Dust storm
Moderate DU Dust
(blank (when included before
DZ Drizzle
space) a weather phenomenon)
EMBD Embedded
+ Heavy
END Stop-end (RVR)
9999 Visibility 10 km or more
FC Funnel cloud
ABT About
FCST Forecast
AC Altocumulus
FEW Few (12 oktas)
AGL Above ground level
FG Fog (visibility less than 1000 m)
AIP Aeronautical Information Publication
FIR Flight information region
AIREP Routine air report from
aircraft in flight FISB Flight information service broadcast
AIREP Special (non-routine) FL Flight level
SPECIAL air report from aircraft in flight FM From
AMD Amended FRQ Frequent
AMSL Above mean sea level FU Smoke
ARFOR Area forecast FZ Freezing
AS Altostratus FZL Freezing level
ATIS Automatic terminal information G Gusts
service GR Hail (5 mm or more)
ATS Air traffic services GS Small hail (smaller than 5 mm)
AWS Automatic weather station HVY Heavy
BC Patches HZ Haze (visibility less than 5000 m)
BECMG Becoming IC Ice crystals
BKN Broken (57 oktas) ICAO International Civil Aviation
BL Blowing Organisation
BLW Below ICE Icing
BR Mist (10005000 m visibility) IFR Instrument flight rules
BTN Between IMC Instrument meteorological
BWR Basic weather report conditions
CAT Clear air turbulence INTSF Intensifying
CAVOK Cloud and visibility OK ISOL Isolated
CB Cumulonimbus KM Kilometres
CLD Cloud KT Knots
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LYR Layer SIG Significant
M Metres SIGMET Significant meteorological
METAR Aerodrome routine meteorological information
report (issued for NZWP, NZOH, SKC*** Sky clear
and NZMF only) SN Snow
METAR Automatic aerodrome routine SPECI Aerodrome speci meteorological
AUTO meteorological report report (issued for NZWP, NZOH,
MI Shallow and NZMF only)
MID Mid-point (RVR) SQ Squall
MOD Moderate SS Sandstorm
MOV Moving ST Stratus
MS Minus STNR Stationary
MTW Mountain waves T Temperature, in degrees Celcius
N No distinct tendency (RVR) TAF Aerodrome forecast
NC No change TC Tropical cyclone
NCD* No cloud detected TCU Towering cumulus
NDV**** No directional variation available TDZ Touchdown zone (RVR)
NM Nautical miles TEMPO Temporarily
NOSIG No significant change TIL Until
NOTAM Notice to airmen TL Till
NS Nimbostratus TREND Trend forecast
NSC No significant cloud TS Thunderstorm
NSW Nil significant weather TURB Turbulence
NZZC New Zealand FIR U Upward tendency (RVR)
NZZO NZ Oceanic FIR UTC Coordinated universal time
OBSC Obscured V Variations from mean
OCNL Occasional wind direction
OVC Overcast (8 oktas) VA Volcanic ash
PIREP Pilot report (AIREP) VAA Volcanic Ash Advisory
PL Ice pellets VAG Volcanic Ash Graphic
PO Dust/sand whirls VC Vicinity of the aerodrome
PR Partial (between 8 and 16 km from
aerodrome reference point)
PROB Probability
VFR Visual flight rules
PS Plus
VIS Visibility
QNH Altimeter sub-scale setting
VMC Visual meteorological conditions
RA Rain
VRB Variable
RE Recent
VV Vertical visibility
RMK Remark
WKN Weakening
RVR Runway visual range
WDSPR Widespread
SA Sand
WS Windshear
SC Stratocumulus
WX Weather
SCT Scattered (34 oktas)
Z Coordinated universal time
SEV Severe
SFC Surface *used in METAR AUTO only.
**used only in METAR/TAF for NZAA, NZWN, NZCH
SG Snow grains
***not used in METAR/TAF for NZAA, NZWN, NZCH
SH Shower
**** used in METAR AUTO except at NZAA, NZWN, NZCH
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Met Code
Terminology Meaning/Description
BECMG Used to describe changes where the conditions are expected to reach, or
(when used pass through, specified values at a regular or irregular rate, within a period.
in a TAF) Example: BECMG 0104/0109
The changes will occur on the 1st between the 0400 and 0900 UTC.
BECMG Used to describe changes where the meteorological conditions are expected
(when used to reach, or pass through, specified threshold values at a regular or irregular
in a TREND) rate, with such changes expected to occur throughout the 2-hour validity of
the TREND.
Example 1: BECMG FM0500
The changes are expected to occur from 0500 UTC.
Example 2: BECMG TL1800
The changes already occurring are expected to be complete by 1800 UTC.
Example 3: BECMG AT2130
The change in conditions is expected to occur at 2130 UTC.
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Terminology Meaning/Description
49
Key Information
SIGMET
Issued as required, valid for four hours and reviewed after three hours
Issue times or when further information is available
Volcanic ash and tropical cyclone SIGMET are valid for 6 hours
Feet above mean sea level up to 10,000 feet and flight levels
Heights
at and above FL 100
Area of applicability New Zealand (NZZC) and Auckland Oceanic (NZZO) FIRs
ARFOR
Issue times 0530 and 1130 local time
Degrees true
Direction
VRB indicates variable, eg VRB02KT
Cumulonimbus cloud (CB) included in meteorological information implies there may be associated thunderstorms and the
occurrence of severe icing, turbulence, and hail.
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TAF and TREND
Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch: 2300, 0500, 1100,
and 1700 UTC
Issue times All other aerodromes: 0230, 0930, and 1400 local time
Degrees true
Direction
VRB indicates variable, eg VRB02KT
Cumulonimbus cloud (CB) included in meteorological information implies there may be associated thunderstorms and the
occurrence of severe icing, turbulence, and hail.
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METAR, METAR AUTO, and SPECI
METAR* issued hourly, on the hour
SPECI* issued when required and will
Issue times have issue time other than on the hour
METAR AUTO issued every half hour, 24 hours a day
*NZWP, NZOH, NZMF only
Heights 100s of feet above aerodrome level
Within 8 km of the aerodrome reference point
Area of applicability When the term VC is used this applies to the area between
8 and 16 km from the aerodrome reference point
Knots, with gusts indicated where they exceed
the mean wind speed by 10 knots or more
Speed Gust information follows the mean wind speed
separated by the letter G, eg 24015G30KT
Calm is indicated by 00000KT
Wind
Degrees true
Direction
VRB indicates variable, eg VRB02KT
When the direction varies by 60 degrees or more the
Direction
extreme directions are given, separated by the letter V,
variability
eg 260V330
Up to 800 metres, rounded down to the nearest 50m; between 800
and 5000 metres, rounded down to the nearest 100 metres; between
5000 and 9999 metres, rounded down to the nearest 1000 metres,
eg 9999 metres reported as 9000. Above 9999 metres, visibility is
reported in kilometres (except at NZAA, NZWN & NZCH), eg 20KM
Where there is a marked variation in the visibility, the direction of the
minimum visibility is added, eg 2000SW. A second group may
be added in very poor visibility conditions, eg 1200SW 7000E.
Visibility
Variation in visibility is not reported in METAR AUTO.
9999 (visibility 10km or greater) is used at NZAA, NZWN & NZCH only
METAR AUTO visibility reports are limited by the upper limit of the
measuring equipment, and they vary between aerodromes.
A table listing the AWS capabilities is included in the help section
of the MetFlight GA web site.
Runway visual range (RVR) is reported in metres at NZAA and NZCH
during fog events.
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METAR and SPECI
Type CB, TCU
Cloud
Amount NSC, SKC, FEW, SCT, BKN, OVC
Temperature Degrees Celsius
Cumulonimbus cloud (CB) included in meteorological information implies there may be associated thunderstorms and the
occurrence of severe icing, turbulence, and hail.
ATIS
Issue times ATIS issued when conditions change
Cumulonimbus cloud (CB) included in meteorological information implies there may be associated thunderstorms and the
occurrence of severe icing, turbulence, and hail.
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Planning Tables
Area Forecasts
ARFOR Freezing
Altitude Wind T Temp Visibility Cloud (amsl) / Weather
area Level
54
Aerodrome Forecasts
Place UTC Time local Wind T Visibility Weather Cloud (agl) Forecast QNH
55
METAR/SPECI Conditions
Place Type Time Wind T Visibility Weather Cloud (agl) Temp-DP QNH