Underground

WATER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING Angelakis

Chiotis
Underground Aqueducts Handbook

Aqueducts
Eslamian
Underground Aqueducts Handbook offers the first synthesis on aqueducts,
including those conveying water and those tapping groundwater. This is the most Weingartner
comprehensive review of aqueduct technology as it concerns most continents and
most periods, from prehistory to the present day, thanks to a multidisciplinary

Handbook
approach. It underlines the necessity to preserve and reuse, or redevelop, such
sustainable technologies in the global context of aridification and increasing need
for water supply.
Julien Charbonnier, Laboratory ArScAn, Nanterre, France

the material is well documented and convincing. Any specialist and many

Underground Aqueducts
common readers should be interested to have this book on their bookshelf.
T.P. Tassios, National Technical University of Athens, Greece

In ancient times, urban development required that water be transported from distant
springs to centralized locations, and this practice over time further advanced the
evolution of increasingly complex aqueducts. Their design and construction required
knowledge of mathematics, tunneling, geomechanics, hydraulic principles, and

Handbook
more. These technologies are the underpinning of modern achievements in water
supply engineering and water management practices.

Written by leading experts from around the world, Underground Aqueducts Hand- Edited by
book presents the major engineering achievements in underground aqueducts
throughout history. It examines the technological developments, hydraulic fea- Andreas N. Angelakis Eustathios Chiotis
tures, and management practices related to the underground aqueduct technolo-
gies worldwide, and presents case studies of aqueducts from nearly 30 different Saeid Eslamian Herbert Weingartner
countries. This interdisciplinary work includes insight into the relevant engineering,
hydrology, environmental sciences, and geosciences, as well as the archaeology
and history of each example. It provides valuable insights into water technologies
and management with respect to durability, adaptability to the environment, and
sustainability, and compares the technological developments from several regions
over several periods in time.

Paradigms of these technologies and practices (not widely known among engineers)
have practical application to modern-day water engineering, and help address
the issues of sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and decentralization. The book
emphasizes that the future trends of underground aqueducts should consider
the possibility and practicality of integrating older, proven technologies into
todays infrastructure.

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Library of Congress CataloginginPublication Data

Names: Angelakis, Andreas N. (Andreas Nikolaos)

Title: Underground aqueducts handbook / Andreas N. Angelakis [and three
others], editors.
Other titles: Aqueducts handbook
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and indexes.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016020940 | ISBN 9781498748308 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Aqueducts. | Hydraulic structures. | Watersupply
engineering. | Irrigation canals and flumes. | Groundwater.
Classification: LCC TD398 .U43 2017 | DDC 628.1/5dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020940

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 27 Puquios and Aqueducts
in the Central Andes
of South America
Kevin Lane

CONTENTS
27.1 Dating the Puquios..............................................................................................................465
27.2 Function and Construction..................................................................................................468
27.3 Concluding Remarks ..........................................................................................................471
Acknowledgments.......................................................................................................................... 472
References ...................................................................................................................................... 472

Complex hydraulic systems are a mainstay of South America, and especially the Andean region
(Denevan 2001). In fact, the Central Andes were considered a key area in the development of
hydraulic society theory (sensu Wittfogel 1957; see Steward 1955; see also, Mitchell 1973; Stanish
1994; Lane 2009 for reappraisals of this theorys applicability to the Andes). As such ancient hydrau-
lic technology in the Andes was varied, geographically diverse, and extensive. That said, the use
of underground aqueducts otherwise known as filtration galleries or puquios (the local indigenous
name for these structures) was only present in a few select places across the Andes.
Little studied subterranean irrigation canals linked to cultivation fields have been documented
from the site of Northwest Argentina (Tarrag 1977; Pez and Giovannetti 2014). Nevertheless,
filtration galleries of the type most reminiscent of the Old World qants (Denevan 2001:161) occur
along some valleys of Central and the South-central Andes of Peru and Northern Chile, which we
have divided into three groupsCentral Andean, Nasca, and South Andean (see Figure 27.1). Apart
from these large areas, there is documentary or physical evidence to support their existence in four
other discreet places, namely, the Santa Valley, Huancavelica, Paucartambo, and in Potos (Barnes
and Fleming 1991:51). Like the qants the South American puquios tap into the underlying aquifer
mother source either through the means of an open trench, or a lateral tunneled gallery that con-
nected directly with the aquifer (see Figure 27.2).
In this chapter, in assessing the function, historicity, and use of puquios in the Andes we first
consider their antiquity and cultural ascription, before describing the systems themselves. Finally,
we reflect on their present use and their possible future.

27.1 DATING THE PUQUIOS

Although the existence of the puquios has been known for a long time (Barnes and Fleming
1991:54), it has been notoriously difficult to date them precisely. These difficulties are further
compounded for pre-industrial and pre-literate societies, given that records of their original
construction are nonexistent. In the case of the subterranean aqueducts of the Andes, it is pos-
sible that we are dealing with at least two distinct sets of these type of technologies. These two
sets share commonalities in design and function but seem to have been constructed at different

465
466 Underground Aqueducts Handbook

SANTA

CENTRAL
ANDEAN HUANCAVELICA

PAUCARTAMBO

NAZCA

SOUTH
ANDEAN POTOS

FIGURE 27.1 Map of Central Andes showing areas with puquios.

Mother source

Reservior Open trench

Aquifer
(cocha)

Open trench tapping

mother source
Trench puquio
Mother source
Tunneled gallery
or socavn
Filled-trench gallery
Reservior Open trench
(cocha) Aquifer

Lateral gallery
to mother source
ojo
Gallery puquio

FIGURE 27.2 Schematic of trench and gallery puquios. (Modified from Schreiber, K. and Lancho Rojas, J.,
Latin Am. Antiquity, 6, 229254, 1995. With Permission.)
Puquios and Aqueducts in the Central Andes of South America 467

moments in time. As mentioned previously, the puquios of the Andes separate themselves into
three main groupsCentral Andean, Nasca, and South Andeanwith four isolated outliers. Of
these all, excepting the Nasca group would seem to have been built by the Spanish (Barnes and
Fleming 1991:5155, 56), to supply water to various settlements and for agricultureSanta Valley,
Paucartambo, Central Andean group, and South Andean group (part)or for use in the mining
industrySouth Andean group (part), Huancavelica, and Potos. The only exception to this group
are the Nasca group puquios, which probably included the one recorded by Uhle (1914:5) in the
adjacent Ica Valley.
Since being recorded in Spanish chronicles and traveler journals from the sixteenth through
to the nineteenth century (Barnes and Fleming 1991), the Nasca group of puquios have also been
studied and researched by archaeologists and geographers (e.g., Meja Xesspe 1939; Regal Matienzo
1943, 1964; Rossel Castro 1942). While a considerable amount of information is known of the func-
tions, construction, and uses of these, precise dating for the puquios has been harder to ascertain
leading to a certain degree of controversy.
Perhaps the first serious attempt to define a date for their construction was in the 1930s (Gonzlez
Garca 1978[1934]). Gonzlez Garcas article attributes their creation to the Incas (AD 14801532),
specifically the sixth sapa incaInca Rocawho reigned during the mid-fourteenth century. Given
that the Incas had not yet started their expansion into this region, it would seem that the author was
in fact stating that these constructions dated to the Late Intermediate Period (AD 10001480) and
were therefore pre-Inca. Nevertheless, at the time Gonzlez Garca and others labored under the
limitations of relative chronologies making their estimates at best, informed guesses.
Nevertheless, while later studies were not limited by imprecise chronologies they were still con-
strained by the inability to directly date the features themselves, a problem common to the dating of
most types of hydraulic technology worldwide. Attempts to circumvent these limitations by dating
rock varnish (Dorn, etal. 1992; Clarkson and Dorn 1995) were later proven to be flawed (Schreiber
and Lancho Rojas 2006:281).
While direct radiocarbon dating of the wooden lintels used within the Nasca region filtration
galleries have revealed that these were placed there during the nineteenth century, this would seem
to agree with what the local informers were saying (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 2006:67, 280281).
Nevertheless, this is not to say that the new roofs of the nineteenth century were not the last in
a long sequence of repairs and replacements stretching back in time. Even so, what remains is that
even with radiometric dating we would seem to be at an impasse for dating the initial construction
of these features.
Monica Barnes and David Fleming (Barnes and Fleming 1991; Barnes 1992; Fleming 1993) have
made a very strong case for a Spanish-period construction for the Nasca group of puquios, while
Katherina Schreiber and Josu Lancho Rojas make an equally strong one for a Nasca period (AD
1750) construction of these features. Schreiber and Lancho Rojas (1995, 2003, 2006) make a par-
ticular bid for a Nasca 6Phase (AD 400500) of construction citing adverse arid conditions during
the fifth and sixth centuries as the primer for puquio construction.
Barnes and Fleming (1991) posit that the lack of historical records to support a pre-Hispanic
origin for all South American puquios proves that they were built by the Spanish. Meanwhile,
Schreiber and Lancho Rojas (1995, 2003, 2006) defend a pre-Hispanic origin for the Nasca puquios
using three different strands of evidence. First, they cast doubt on the veracity of the sixteenth
and seventeenth century sources noting that a significant number of the historical writers cited by
Barnes and Fleming (1991) in their arguments never actually visited the region. Second, they inter-
pret Nasca 56iconography as showing wells and anthrozoological representations of orca whales
as representing water flow and puquios (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 2006:278280). In lieu of his-
torical documents, water representations in Nasca iconography allude directly to the important role
water held in pre-Hispanic rituals and belief systems (Carrin Cachot 1955; Proulx 2006).
Finally, they date the puquios through settlement site association. Given that direct dating of
these features is currently not possible, the next best method is dating of features through settlement
468 Underground Aqueducts Handbook

site association. The principle behind this is that these sites would have benefited from the close
location of the puquios. It is on this basis that they suggest a Middle Nasca date for their construc-
tion. This form of dating has been used in the past with some success.
Currently then, the general consensusechoed by Schreiber and Lancho Rojas (2006:284
286)is that of a pre-Hispanic, Middle Nasca, origin for the puquios with subsequent Spanish
and Republican modifications (see also Proulx 1999; Denevan 2001:162; Ortloff 2010:201202).
Yet, the truth remains that even given the relative robustness of the case as set out by Schreiber
and Lancho Rojas (2006), the fact that doubts persist should alert us to the need for further
research in this topic.

27.2 FUNCTION AND CONSTRUCTION

Although interest in the Nasca puquios has a long pedigree it was only with Gonzlez Garca
(1978[1934]) that the first detailed measurements and plans of these structures was undertaken.
This seminal study was only superseded by the detailed and literally groundbreaking research
undertaken by Schreiber and Lancho Rojass team (1995, 2003, 2006) in the 1980s and 1990s.
These comprehensive studies have completed our understanding of these structures to date.
In essence, the Nasca puquios are a tool to regulate water supply in the arid Nasca Basin and
adjacent regions. The South-central Andean region, where Nasca is located, is one of the driest
areas in Peru and South America, precipitation averages 4mm a year, the water that accumulates
there come from the adjacent highlands down onto seasonal rivers and streams (Silverman and
Proulx 2002). It should be noted though that present aridity is not necessarily a true reflection of
past environmental conditions (see Beresford-Jones etal. 2009; Beresford-Jones 2011 on research
supporting a more wooded and productive pre-Hispanic landscape).
Nevertheless, above ground water availability is constant only during the months of January
through April when rains originating in the area above 2000msweep downhill from the high-
lands feeding the lowlands, thereby replenishing seasonal rivers, streams, and aquifers. This water
is then siphoned off by more traditional above ground irrigation canals. Water supply becomes an
increasing problem between April and December as its easy accessibility decreases through use,
transvaporation, and the lack of replenishing highland rains during the dry season (May to August).
Humid sea fog, known as garua, forms between late May and mid-October along the coast and a
few kilometers inland. Yet, while this moisture provides the wherewithal to make the usually dry
lomaslowland hill fog-meadows bloomit is patently insufficient to compensate for the loss of
riverine irrigation water.
As agriculture became a mainstay of coastal Peruvian society, hydraulic technology was increas-
ingly harnessed to alleviate the naturally existent water paucity occurring during these dry months.
Given that natural subsurface aquifers exist in all Southern valleys, local hydraulic technology
developed to exploit these underground water horizons through a combination of wells and filtration
galleries (puquios). The depth at which these aquifers exist vary considerably within a given valley,
for instance, in the Ica Valley the depth of these aquifers varies from 120m in the middle valley to
as little as 2m in the lower valley (Beresford-Jones 2011).
While wells tap into the deeper sections of the aquifers it is filtration galleries or puquios
that provide the best means by which to provide water across long stretches of the existing river
courses. Puquios come in two typesopen or closedand are essentially shafts that dig side-
ways into the underground aquifer allowing it to flow onto purpose-built reservoirs (cochas) or
directly into connecting irrigation canals (see Figure 27.2). They are a critical resource for suc-
cessful agriculture in these dry valleys, for instance, in the Nasca Valley, they provide all the
water in the area located between 450and 675m above sea level (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas
1995:233). The closer a puquio is to the riverbed the longer it is, and the greater the amount of
water it captures and distributes.
Puquios and Aqueducts in the Central Andes of South America 469

FIGURE 27.3 Cantalloq puquiotrench puquio. (Courtesy of D. Proulx.)

Two types of puquios have been identifiedtrench and gallery (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas
1995, 2003, 2006), although these are not mutually exclusive. In the open trench-type puquios,
an open slot (zanja) is dug across the whole of the puquios (Figure 27.3). While the base chan-
nel itself is rarely wider than a meter, the open nature of this feature means that it can be over
10m wide at the top. The walls of the trench are stone-lined and stepped back creating short step
terraces. The water thus harnessed is then siphoned directly to irrigation canals or into small
reservoirs (cochas) before subsequently feeding onto irrigation canals. When found on their own
trench puquios tend to be shorter, they do however combine with the more elaborate gallery
puquios.
Gallery puquios are the hydraulic-type technology most analogous to the Old World qants
or filtration galleries. They can comprise up to four separate elements. Depending on the subsoil
hardness these galleries are either tunneled directly into the earth creating a tunneled gallery or
socavn, or they are created as open trenches that then have a roof built into them with compacted
earth layered above the trench, thereby creating a tunneled gallery section known as a filled-trench
gallery (Figure 27.4), this last section has the added advantage of maximizing total cultivation
area. In many cases, this cut and cover type of construction had a wooden roof over which the earth
was then piled upon. With the deterioration of these wooden roofs either the wood is replaced or the
470 Underground Aqueducts Handbook

FIGURE 27.4 Cantalloq puquiofilled-trench gallery. (Courtesy of D. Proulx.)

filled-trench gallery is converted into a trench-type puquio. Given the scarcity of good wood in
the area this is increasingly what is occurring with filtration galleries that need their roof replaced
(Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 2006:67). Schreiber and Lancho Rojas (2006:284286) tentatively
suggest that the filled-trench gallery might have been a Spanish innovation. From here, the water
would normally flow onto a stretch of open, trench puquio, before either ending at an irrigation
canal or reservoir (cocha).
An important feature of gallery puquios are the ojo, these are vertical shafts that allow light and
access into the gallery itself for periodic cleaning and maintenance (Figure 27.5). Given the depth
at which some of these galleries run, the entrance to the ojo can be up to 15m in diameter providing
a conical funnel-like, terraced entrance to the gallery puquio. The width of the ojo is determined
by the underlying geology, the ojo that is dug into hard sediments or strate tend to be narrow while
those in softer geology are wider and have to be shored-up, hence the terraced funnel-like openings.
In the filled-trench gallery section of gallery puquios the ojo tend to be narrower and vertical.
Likewise, galleries in laterally tunneled sections are rarely above a meter in height, while they can
be up to 2m in height along filled-trench gallery sections. Cement was introduced into some of
the puqios sometime in the twentieth century. In this manner, certain segments of tunnel and some
of the vertical ojo slots have cement piping or are re-rendered with cement (Schreiber and Lancho
Rojas 1995:235). In general though, puquio construction has remained remarkably conservative.
Puquios and Aqueducts in the Central Andes of South America 471

FIGURE 27.5 Cantalloq puquioojo opening. (Courtesy of D. Proulx.)

27.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS

Not every puquio has been preserved; in fact only 43puquios were still in use in the wider Nasca
Valley at the beginning of the new millennium (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 2006:8485). Within
the existing ones, there is great variety in length, varying between 300 and 1500m, and depth, at
between 4 and 10 m. Furthermore, the existing number of puquios in the Ro Grande de Nasca
Basin is a paltry reflection of the total that must have been active in the past. It is probable that their
use extended to the adjacent valleys located immediately to the NorthIcaand SouthAcar
of the Nasca Basin (Schreiber and Lancho Rojas 2003:16).
Decline in use of this technology seems to have become a social fact. Indeed the long-term
survival of this artisan mode of water collection and distribution is under increasing threat from
industrial agro-production on coastal Peru. The rapid development of monocultivar, agro-industries
such as asparagus, most of it destined for First World markets (Lawrence 2010), coupled with a con-
comitant increase in coastal populations is placing scarce water resources under extreme pressure.
Indeed, deep-ground, well digging to tap subterranean water sources is reaping a significant toll on
an already fragile environment and water regime, rendering it increasingly unsustainable (Whaley
etal. 2010:623).
472 Underground Aqueducts Handbook

Nor is this situation likely to be easily reversed. In their hunger for cheap labor this same agro-
industry provides work for the smallholder, traditional farmer and their families. It is exactly this
group of people that would have used the artisan puquios. This job migration therefore directly
removes from the land the people with the expertise and need to maintain these systems. This
process is not confined to the coast either, highland to coast migration is leading directly to the
wholesale abandonment of cultivation fields and terrace systems across the Andean region, thereby
creating anew, ghost towns and widowed landscapes (sensu Jennings 1975), 525years after the first
Europeans set sight on the Americas.
In end effect, in the face of rampant modernity there seems to be little interest or desire to main-
tain, or even less propagate, what are seen as antique methods of water management. We should
therefore be thankful that what has remained has at the very least been recorded for posterity.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks go to Eustathios D. Chiotis for his invitation to contribute to this volume, I am grateful also
for his patience and insightful comments on earlier versions of the same. I thank Donald Proulx
for kindly offering his photos of the Cantalloq puquio, Tierras Blancas, and Nasca. As always, all
errors and omissions remain the authors.

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