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Why men rape

Sandra Newman

Thereisasimpleandsurprisinglydurablemythaboutwhatcauses
mentorapewomen.Itgoeslikethis:ifamanistoohorny,from
sexualdeprivationorfrombeingconstitutionallyoversexed,hewill
losecontrolinthepresenceofanunguardedwoman.Throughthe
earlydaysofpsychologyasascience,thisbasicassumptionremained
thesame.WhenRichardvonKrafftEbingwrotePsychopathia
Sexualis(1886),heassumedthatrapistssufferedfromeitherpriapism
andconditionsapproachingsatyriasisoramentalweaknessthat
allowedlustfulurgestoescapetheircontrol.Itwasasimplematterof
hydraulics.Ifthepressurewastoogreat,orthevesseltooweak,a
horrifyingcrimewouldburstforth.
Intheearlydecadesofthe20thcentury,ashumansexualitybecame
thefocusofintensescientificinterest,thisnaivemodelofsexual
assaultwentunquestionedbyresearchers.HavelockEllisbelievedthat
allmalesexualitywasviolentandpredatory,andthereforesawno
reasontodoubtthatrapewasanormalmanifestationofmasculine
desire.AlfredKinseypreferredtoignoretheissuealtogether,
dismissingmostrapesasfalseaccusations,anddoubtingtheydidreal
harmanyway.Thusthehydraulicmodelofrapepersisteduntilthe
latterhalfofthe20thcentury,whenitwasabruptlyshatteredbya
deadlycombinationoffeministtheoryandempiricalresearch.That
researchhasbroughtusmuchclosertoanunderstandingofwhymen
rape.Butitsalsotaughtussomethingfarmoreuseful,andalmost
universallyoverlooked:howrapecanbeprevented.
Letsreturntothehydraulictheory,whichmighthavepersistedeven
longerwereitnotforoneparticularlytreacherousfeature:itopened
thedoortovictimblaming.Ifsexualdesiretriggeredrape,thena
reallyprovocativewomanmightinspiresomuchlustthatevenagood
manwouldbeoverwhelmed.Thevictimbecametherealperpetrator:
themanwaseffectivelyhelplessashepunchedher,wrestledhertothe
ground,andforcedhispenisintoher.
ThisideawasseizeduponbyFreudiansinthemid20thcentury.Not
onlydidtheyfinditplausiblethatvictimsinstigatedrape,they
speculatedthatallwomensecretlylongedforit.Femalesexualitywas
heldtobeinherentlymasochistic,since,asthepsychoanalystKaren
HorneyputitinTheProblemofFeminineMasochism(1935):the
contentoftheearlysexualwishesandfantasiesconcerningthefather
isthedesiretobemutilated,thatiscastratedbyhim.Onthisreading,
femalevictimsunconsciouslydesire,ifnotengineer,theirsexual
assaults.Theblamesometimesspreadsbeyondthevictimtoinfect
everywomaninsight,aswhentheforensicpsychiatristDavid
AbrahamsenarguedinThePsychologyofCrime(1960)thatarapist
wasformedbyamotherwhowasseductivebutrejecting,goadedby
hiswifesmasculineandcompetitiveinclinations,andfinally
somehowseducedintocommittingthecrime.
Suchwasthelamentablestateofaffairswhenthefeministactivist
SusanBrownmillerintroducedhergroundbreakingfeministworkon
rapeAgainstOurWill(1975)withthedictum:[Rape]isnothingmore
orlessthanaconsciousprocessofintimidationbywhichallmenkeep
allwomeninastateoffear.Brownmillerdispensedwithanytraceof
victimblaming,anddismissedtheideathatrapewastheresultof
sexualdesire.Rapewasinsteadapoliticalcrime,committedfor
manyofthesamereasonsthatblackswerelynchedbygangsof
whites.Itwasacrimenotofpassion,butofcoldpremeditation,often
coordinatedamongagroup.Howeverandwhereveritoccurred,the
motivewasnotsex,butpower.
Thistheorygainedinstantcurrencywithsympatheticreaders,and
dividedpublicopinionintowarringcamps.Toantifeminists,itwas
patentlyabsurd,akintosayingburglarsarentmotivatedbymoney,
butbyatwisteddesiretooppresshomeowners.Forfeminists,itwas
intuitivelytrue,andincidentallyusefulinsupportingbroader
argumentsaboutgenderinequality.
In1975,researchmoneywasplentiful,andthefieldofpsychology
wasenjoyinganewrespectability,sothestagewassetforafloodof
studiesintothemotivesofrapists.
Theearliestandperhapsmostinfluentialofthesewasundertakenby
theclinicalpsychologistNicholasGroth,whostudiedseveralhundred
rapistsatprisonsandhighsecuritymentalwardsthroughoutthe
Massachusettspenalsystem,publishinghisconclusionsinMenWho
Rape(1979).ForGroth,allrapistshadoneofthreepossiblemotives:
sadism,angerorthedesireforpower.Hedescribedthepsychologyof
thesethreetypes,assertingthatrapewasnevertheactofamentally
healthyperson,butalwaysasymptomofsomepsychological
dysfunction,eithertemporaryandtransientorchronic.Healsostated
categoricallythatrapeisapseudosexualact,thatitusessexualityto
expressissuesofpowerandanger,andthatItissexualbehaviourin
theprimaryserviceofnonsexualneeds.
Unfortunately,Grothoffersnoevidenceforthesebeliefs.Hedoesnt
explainhowheconductedhisresearch,orgiveanyhintofwhat
questionsheaskedhissubjects.Hedoesntsayhowhearrivedathis
motivationalcategories,orhowhecametobelievethatallrapists
werementallyill.Hisworkisworthmentioningonlybecausehes
stillcommonlycitedashavingprovenrapeisntmotivatedbysex.If
hefoundanysuchproof,heleftnotraceofitinhiswritings.
Meanwhile,otherresearcherswereattemptingtoprovethetraditional,
hydraulicmodelandspectacularlyfailing.Variousstudiesfound
thattestosteronelevelswerenothigherinrapists.Nordidsexual
deprivationcorrelatewithrape:thesurveysconductedfoundthat,if
anything,rapistshadmoreconsensualsexualpartnersthanothermen.
And,asthelatePaulGebhardandcolleaguesattheInstituteforSex
Research(nowtheKinseyInstitute)showedinSexOffenders:An
AnalysisofTypes(1965),marriedrapistswerejustaslikelytohave
activesexliveswiththeirwives.Theseresultsweresoconsistent,
regardlessofthepoliticalorientationoftheresearchers,thatthebelief
thatraperesultedfrompriapismorfrustrationwasabandonedbyall
sides.

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A tthesametime,thepureversionofthenonsexualtheoryalso
felloutoffashion.Thiswasanindirectresultofachangeinthe
orientationofresearch.Psychologistshadinitiallystudiedincarcerated
rapistsbecausetheywereavailable.Butonlyatinyfractionofsex
offendersareeverincarcerated,andtheyareatypicalofallmenwho
engageinsexualviolence.Convictedsexoffendersaremuchmore
likelytohaveassaultedstrangers,usedaweapon,deployed
unnecessaryviolence,andholdpreviouscriminalrecords.Thesemen
arealmostnevercollegeeducatedprofessionalsorwellregarded
membersoftheircommunitiescharacteristicsthatwenowknowdo
notprecludemenfromraping.
Sointhemid1980s,anewwaveofstudiesfocusedonsocalled
undetectedrapistsmenwhohadneverbeenarrestedoreven
reportedfortheircrimes.Thesemenweremuchlesslikelytohave
usedviolenceorevenphysicalforce.Instead,themajorityhad
assaultedwomenwhowereincapacitatedbyalcohol.Whentheydid
useforce,itwasalmostalwaysafteranattemptatconsensualsexhad
failed,thesocalleddaterape.Itseemedunquestionablethatthese
menwereatleastpartiallymotivatedbysex.
Butperhapsthemoststartlingfactthatemergedfromthisnew
researchwasthatitwaspossibletofindunincarceratedmenwho
wouldadmittobeingrapists.Mostofthesubjectswerecollege
students,anditseemsincrediblethatthisgroupwouldconfesssex
crimestototalstrangers.However,aslongasthewordrapistdidnt
appearinthequestionnaire,menwerecomfortableansweringyesto
questionssuchas:Haveyoueverhadsexualintercoursewithanadult
whentheydidntwanttobecauseyouusedorthreatenedtouse
physicalforce?IninterviewsconductedbythepsychologistsDavid
LisakandSusanRothatDukeUniversityinNorthCarolina,
andlaterbyLisakandPaulMilleratBrownUniversityinRhode
Island,itturnedoutthatrespondentssomehowdidntrealisethatthis
wasadescriptionofrape.
Ifrelativelycommonlevelsofcallousness,selfishnessandsexismcanturnamanintoarapist,
theproblemseemsinsoluble

Theotherstartlingresultwashowmanysuchmentherewere.In10
differentstudiesundertakenbetween1985and1998,between6per
centand14.9percentofmalecollegestudents(whomadeupthe
majorityofrespondents)admittedtorapeorattemptedrape,and
roughlyhalfofthisnumberhaddonesorepeatedly.Thesestudies
reliedonastandardquestionnaire,theSexualExperiencesSurvey,
wherethephrasewithouttheirconsent(oritsequivalent)appeared
ineveryquestionusedtodeterminewhetheramanwasarapist.All
suchquestionsreferredtovaginal,analororalsex.Furthermore,in
personalinterviews,menwhoadmittedtononconsensualsexmade
noattempttoclaimthattherehadbeenamisunderstanding.They
knewtheirvictimswereunwilling.Theywerejustterrifyinglybadat
makingtheconnectionbetweennonconsensualsexandrape.
Whatsuchstudiesdiscoveredaboutthecharacterofthesemenwas
lessstartling.Wererapistslessempatheticthanothermen?
Unsurprisingly,yes.Wererapistsmoreselfcentredandmanipulative?
Tonoonesamazement,yes.Didrapistshavenegative
attitudestowardswomen?Unastonishingly,alsoyes.Onallthese
parameters,thedifferencebetweenrapistsandnonrapistswassmall
butsignificant.Theconclusionseemedtobethatrapistswerent
monsters,totallydistinctfromnormalmen,butdidtendtobe(touse
laymansterms)misogynistarseholes.Again,thiswasnotearth
shatteringnews.
Itsalsonotgoodnews.Ifrelativelycommonlevelsofcallousness,
selfishnessandsexismcanturnamanintoarapist,theproblemseems
insoluble.Wemightconceivablyendsexism,butpeoplehavebeen
tryingtorootoutcallousnessandselfishnessforthousandsofyears
withnonoticeablesuccess.

T hestudyUnderstandingSexualViolence(1990)conductedby
DianaScullyfortheUSNationalInstituteofMentalHealthhelpsto
pointawayoutofthismorass.Scullycomparedincarceratedrapists
withacontrolgroupofotherfelons,usingan89pageinterviewto
measurethemenontraitssuchashostilitytowardwomen,
interpersonalviolenceandcompulsivemasculinity.Onallofthese
measures,rapistsandotherfelonswereindistinguishable.Therewas
alsonodifferenceintheirsexlifebeforeprison,theirattitudestoward
women,ortheirhistoryofchildhoodsexualabuse.
WhatstruckScullymostpowerfullywerethelengthstowhichthe
rapistswenttojustifytheircrimestoher.Theytalkedabouttheir
victimsmoralfailings.Theyconsistentlyliedaboutdetailsoftheir
crimestomakethemselvesseemlessviolent.Theytriedtorepresent
rapeasnormal;asonesubjectputit:Whenyoutakeawomanout,
wooher,thenshesays:No,Imanicegirl,youhavetouseforce.
Allmendothis.Othersmaintainedthateveryoneconsideredit
acceptabletorapeawomanifshewasknowntobepromiscuous,if
shedbeenpickeduphitchhiking,orifshedhadsexwiththeman
before.Someoftheintervieweesadmittedthattheyknewwhattheyd
donewaswrong;inthesecases,theytypicallymadeagreatdealof
theirselfloathing,andinsistedthatthecrimewascompletelyunlike
them.Theywere,inshort,remarkablyconcernedwithwhatother
peoplethoughtofthem.ItseemedcleartoScullythatthese
considerationsplayedacrucialroleintheirdecisionsdecisionsshe
consideredbothconsciousandrationaltoforcewomenintosex.
Moresignificantstill,theoverwhelmingmajorityofthemenassumed
thattheywouldneverbepunished.Asonerapistsaid:IknewIwas
doingwrong.ButIalsoknewmostwomendontreportrape,andI
didntthinkshewouldeither.AsScullyputit,hersubjectssawrape
asarewarding,lowriskact.
Itsworthpausingheretounderscorejustwhatthisimplies.Foraman
tocommitsexualassault,hemustbearelatively,butnotstrikingly,
antisocialpersonenoughthatheisnttooconstrainedbyempathy
forhisvictims.Theseseemlikepreconditionsforanycrimethathasa
victim;andindeed,themeasuredcharactertraitsofconvictedrapists
areidenticaltothoseofmuggersandburglars.Butamanwhois
capableofrapegenerallycommitsthecrimeonlyifhebelievesitwill
beexcusedbyhispeers,andthatpunishmentcanbeevaded.There
seemtobearemarkablenumberofmenwhomeetthesecriteria;most
ofthecollegeagerapistsstudiedwerenotonlyunafraidof
punishment,butblissfullyunawarethatwhattheydidwascriminal.
Lookingatthisgeneralpicture,Scullyconcludedthatmostrapesare
theresultofarapeculturethattellsmenthat,inmanysituations,
rapingwomenisnotonlynormalbehaviour,butcompletelysafe.
Iftherereallyissuchathingasrapeculture,itfollowsthatweshould
seelargevariationsinratesofsexualviolencefromcountryto
country,dependingonthedegreetowhichitiscondonedorpunished.
Tocuttothechase,wedo.Wemightrememberthat6to14.9percent
ofmalecollegestudentsintheUSconfessedtorape.Thisstatistic
seemsterribleuntilyoulearnthat,accordingtoastudypublished
inTheLancet,thepercentageofmenwhoselfidentifyasrapistsin
Chinaisjustunder23percent,andinPapuaNewGuinea,itsa
brutallydepressing60.7percent.
Sexualassaultbysoldiersinwartimealsodiffersdramaticallyfrom
armytoarmy,andoffersaninterestingtestcase,becausethe
disciplinaryenvironmentinwhichitoccursrunsthegamutfrom
deliberateencouragementofsexualviolencetoharshandsummary
punishmentofsexualviolence.
Apparently,eveninthemidstofwar,menarecapableofrefrainingfromsexualassaultifthey
knowtherewillbeconsequences

Theresultingpictureisveryclear.Atoneextreme,wehavetheRape
ofNanjingaheadoftheSecondWorldWar,whereJapanese
commandersactivelyincitedsoldierstoassaultcivilians,and20,000
womenwererapedwithinthefirstmonthoftheoccupation.
Meanwhile,incidentsofsexualviolencearehistoricallylowamong
Leftwingguerrillagroups;forinstance,afterthe12yearcivilwarin
ElSalvador,aUNTruthCommissionreportin1981
foundnoreportedcasesofrapesbeingcommittedbyinsurgents,
althoughsexualviolencebygovernmentforceswascommoninthe
firstyearsofthewar.Thisisprobablyduebothtothefreedomofsuch
groupstoenactextralegalpunishments,andtotheirexistentialneed
towintheheartsandmindsofthepopulation.
Wartimerapealsoappearstochangerapidlyinresponsetodirectives
fromabove.Forinstance,thenotoriouslyhighrateofsexualviolence
bytheRedArmyattheendoftheSecondWorldWardecreased
dramaticallywhentheSovietleadershipdecideditwasapolitical
problem,andinstitutedrulestodiscourageit.IntheSalvadorancivil
war,rapesbygovernmentsoldierssteeplydecreasedoncetheUS
threatenedtowithdrawmilitaryaidifthegovernmentshumanrights
recorddidntimprove.Apparently,eveninthemidstoftheviolence
ofwar,menarecapableofrefrainingfromsexualassaultiftheyknow
therewillbeconsequences.
Thecommonsensicalconclusionisthatrape,likeothercrimes,can
mosteffectivelybepreventedbydeterrence.Thisseemsobvious;
whichmakesitonlymoresurprisingthatsomuchenergyhasbeen
devotedtoavoidingpreventativethinking.

T hehistoryofresearchintorapescausesisahistoryoftryingto
redefinerapeassomethingthatneedsamedicalsolution,orapolitical
solution,orastheinevitableresultofmalesexuality,whichcannot
haveanyrealsolution:asanythingbutacrimethatmustbepunished.
Thisbiasalmostcertainlyspringsfromanunwillingnessto
acknowledgethatthesufferingoffemalevictimsisimportantenough
tomeritthepunishmentofmaleperpetrators.Victimsadvocateshave
alsooftenfailedtoemphasisepenalsolutions,fearingthatthecriminal
justicesystemisincorrigiblyhostiletotheirconcerns.Evenwhen
punishmentdoesenterthediscussion,itisusuallyframedasameans
ofobtainingjusticeforindividualvictims,ratherthanasameansof
preventingfuturecrimes.Alltheresearchdonetodateshowsthatthis
isamistake.Evenifthecriminaljusticesystemisresistanttochange,
thatiswhereoureffortsmustbedirectedifwewanttoeradicaterape.
Wemustnotactasifthesolutionforrapeisaprofoundandunfathomablemystery

TheWestisclearlydoingbetterthanPapuaNewGuineaonthisscore,
buttheresstillampleroomforimprovement.According
toresearchfortheBritishHomeOffice,whileonaverageanestimated
69,000rapes(includingattempts)arecommittedintheUKeveryyear,
oftheseonly16,000arereported,andaround1,000perpetrators(male
andfemale)arebroughttojustice.Itisworthnotingthatthese
statisticsincludeoffencescommittedbymenandwomen,andagainst
maleandfemalevictims,howevertheoverwhelmingmajorityofrapes
arecommittedbymen,theoverwhelmingmajorityofvictimsare
women,and99percentofthoseconvictedofrape(andassaultsby
penetration)intheUKaremen.IntheUS,onlyanestimated2.2per
centofreportedrapeseverresultinaconviction.
Yetwecanboostconvictionrateswithoutabandoningour
commitmenttotherightsoftheaccused(anothercommonexcusefor
inaction).Wecangivepoliceandprosecutorsmorefundingfor
sexualassaultinvestigations,whicharestillwoefullylikelytobe
droppedintheearlystages.Wecanmonitortheireffortstoensure
theyfollowbestpractices.Wecanfundthetestingofforensic
evidence,whichiscurrentlysubjecttolongbacklogs,andoften
simplylostorabandoned.Mostofall,wecanmakeiteasierfor
victimstoapproachpolice;ofallviolentcrimes,rapeistheleastlikely
tobereported.Whatwemustnotdoispretenditsadifferent,easier
problem,oractasifthesolutionforrapeisaprofoundand
unfathomablemystery.
Withrobbery,arsonorfraud,weallknowthatpunishmentservesnot
onlyasretribution,butasdeterrent.Wegraspthat,ifmurdersgo
unpunished,itsnotjustamatterofprivateconsciencebutapublic
safetyissue.Weunderstandthatwhenwedecidenottoaggressively
prosecutepossessionofmarijuana,useofmarijuanawillincrease
amongotherwiselawabidingpeople.Weknowthatifwewantto
reduceidentitytheft,wemustdirectpoliceandprosecutorstomake
thatcrimeapriority,andgivethemsufficientfundsandtrainingto
successfullyconvictthepeopleinvolved.Itstimeweappliedthe
samecommonsensetorape.

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